80-881: The Waterloo Helmet (also known as the Waterloo Bridge Helmet ) is a pre-Roman Celtic bronze ceremonial horned helmet with repoussé decoration in the La Tène style , dating to circa 150–50 BC, that was found in 1868 in the River Thames by Waterloo Bridge in London , England . It is now on display at the British Museum in London. The helmet was dredged from the bed of the River Thames close to Waterloo Bridge in 1868, and in March of
160-464: A beaker alongside the body. Later in the period, cremation was adopted as a burial practice with cemeteries of urns containing cremated individuals appearing in the archaeological record, with deposition of metal objects such as daggers. People of this period were also largely responsible for building many famous prehistoric sites such as the later phases of Stonehenge along with Seahenge . The Bronze Age people lived in round houses and divided up
240-648: A "plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain". There was much less migration into Britain during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then. The study also found that lactose tolerance rose swiftly in early Iron Age Britain, a thousand years before it became widespread in mainland Europe; suggesting milk became a very important foodstuff in Britain at this time. (around 750 BC – 43 AD) In around 750 BC iron working techniques reached Britain from southern Europe. Iron
320-477: A European rather than African introduction. The more advanced flint technology permitted more efficient hunting and therefore made Britain a more worthwhile place to remain until the following period of cooling known as the Wolstonian Stage , 352,000–130,000 years ago. Britain first became an island about 350,000 years ago. 230,000 years BP the landscape was reachable and Early Neanderthal remains discovered at
400-694: A dwelling. A further example has also been identified at Deepcar in Sheffield , and a building dating to c. 8500 BC was discovered at the Star Carr site. A group of 25 pits, aligned with a watercourse, laid out in straight lines, up to 500 metres long, has been found at Linmere, Bedfordshire. The older view of Mesolithic Britons as nomadic is now being replaced with a more complex picture of seasonal occupation or, in some cases, permanent occupation. Travel distances seem to have become shorter, typically with movement between high and low ground. In 1997, DNA analysis
480-408: A few actual settlement sites are known in Britain, unlike the continent. Cave occupation was common at this time. The construction of the earliest earthwork sites in Britain began during the early Neolithic (c. 4400 BC – 3300 BC) in the form of long barrows used for communal burial and the first causewayed enclosures , sites which have parallels on the continent. The former may be derived from
560-739: A gradually warmer climate, perhaps reaching 17 degrees Celsius (62.6 Fahrenheit ) in summer, encouraging the expansion of birch trees as well as shrub and grasses. The first distinct culture of the Upper Palaeolithic in Britain is what archaeologists call the Creswellian industry, with leaf-shaped points probably used as arrowheads. It produced more refined flint tools but also made use of bone, antler, shell, amber , animal teeth, and mammoth ivory. These were fashioned into tools but also jewellery and rods of uncertain purpose. Flint seems to have been brought into areas with limited local resources;
640-524: A lining. The helmet was decorated with six bronze studs, one of which is now missing, three on the front and three on the back. These have cross scores on them that suggest they were designed to hold red glass enamel studs, but these are no longer present. There is also a repoussé decoration in the La Tène style on the front and back of the helmet. The design is similar to that on the Snettisham Great Torc . Being made from thin bronze sheets,
720-497: A tribe in Gaul. However, place names and tribal names from the later part of the period suggest that a Celtic language was spoken. Meyrick Helmet The Meyrick Helmet is an Iron Age bronze peaked helmet, with La Tène style decoration, that is held at the British Museum in London. It is one of only four Iron Age helmets to have been discovered in Britain , the other three being
800-824: A wooden statue of a Celtic deity. It is thought that the reason why the Waterloo Helmet and ceremonial bronze shields such as the Battersea Shield and Witham Shield were all found in rivers is that they were thrown into the river as votive offerings to the gods. The Waterloo Helmet is one of only three Iron Age helmets found in England and also the only horned helmet dating to the Iron Age to have been found anywhere in Europe. However, there are several Iron Age depictions of people wearing horned helmets from elsewhere in Europe. There are some carvings of Gauls wearing horned helmets on
880-684: Is "unfortunate that it has found such a firm place in many popular reconstructions of British warriors". Pre-Roman England Several species of humans have intermittently occupied Great Britain for almost a million years. The earliest evidence of human occupation around 900,000 years ago is at Happisburgh on the Norfolk coast, with stone tools and footprints probably made by Homo antecessor . The oldest human fossils, around 500,000 years old, are of Homo heidelbergensis at Boxgrove in Sussex . Until this time Britain had been permanently connected to
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#1733084924054960-611: Is after the Sarsen Circle and trilithons were erected at Stonehenge . Several regions of origin have been postulated for the Beaker culture , notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. Beaker techniques brought to Britain the skill of refining metal . At first the users made items from copper , but from around 2150 BCE smiths had discovered how to smelt bronze (which
1040-554: Is available from before then. Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) Britain is the period of the earliest known occupation of Britain by humans. This huge period saw many changes in the environment, encompassing several glacial and interglacial episodes greatly affecting human settlement in the region. Providing dating for this distant period is difficult and contentious. The inhabitants of the region at this time were bands of hunter-gatherers who roamed Northern Europe following herds of animals, or who supported themselves by fishing. There
1120-416: Is changing very fast and a clear picture across the whole of human occupation of Britain has yet to emerge. (Around 2200 to 750 BC) This period can be sub-divided into an earlier phase (2300 to 1200 BC) and a later one (1200 – 700 BC). Beaker pottery appears in England around 2475–2315 cal. BC along with flat axes and burial practices of inhumation . With the revised Stonehenge chronology, this
1200-454: Is different with the paternal Y-chromosome DNA, varying from 10 to 100% across the country, being higher in the east. This was considered to show a large degree of population replacement during the Anglo-Saxon invasion and a nearly complete masking over of whatever population movement (or lack of it) went before in these two countries. However, more widespread studies have suggested that there
1280-535: Is evidence from animal bones and flint tools found in coastal deposits near Happisburgh in Norfolk that early humans were present in Britain over 800,000 years ago. The archaeological site at Happisburgh lies underneath glacial sediments from the Anglian glaciation of 450,000 years ago. Paleo magnetic analysis shows that the sediments in which the stone tools were found have a reversed polarity- which means they are at least 780,000 years old. Plant remains as well as
1360-456: Is increasingly giving way to a more complex view of the changes and continuities in practices that can be observed from the Mesolithic period onwards. For example, the development of Neolithic monumental architecture, apparently venerating the dead, may represent more comprehensive social and ideological changes involving new interpretations of time, ancestry, community and identity. In any case,
1440-684: Is likely that these environmental changes were accompanied by social changes. Humans spread and reached the far north of Scotland during this period. Sites from the British Mesolithic include the Mendips , Star Carr in Yorkshire and Oronsay in the Inner Hebrides . Excavations at Howick in Northumberland uncovered evidence of a large circular building dating to c. 7600 BC which is interpreted as
1520-468: Is much harder than copper) by mixing copper with a small amount of tin . With this discovery, the Bronze Age arrived in Britain. Over the next thousand years, bronze gradually replaced stone as the main material for tool and weapon making. Britain had large, easily accessible reserves of tin in the modern areas of Cornwall and Devon and thus tin mining began. By around 1600 BC the southwest of Britain
1600-591: Is no evidence of human occupation in Britain, probably due to inhospitable cold in some periods, Britain being cut off as an island in others, and the neighbouring areas of north-west Europe being unoccupied by hominins at times when Britain was both accessible and hospitable. This period is often divided into three subperiods: the Early Upper Palaeolithic (before the main glacial period), the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic (the main glacial period) and
1680-527: Is not established how early humans at Happisburgh would have been able to deal with the cold winters. It is possible that they migrated southwards during the winter but the distances are large. No evidence has been found for the use of fire during that period. At this time, Britain was a peninsula of Europe , connected by a chalk ridge running across to northern France and the English Channel did not yet exist. There were two main rivers in eastern Britain:
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#17330849240541760-660: Is possible that the helmet came from the Stanwick Hoard of about 140 bronze objects that was found some time between 1843 and 1845 near Stanwick Camp in North Yorkshire , which may have been the oppidum of the Brigantes . After Meyrick's death the helmet and other items of Iron Age armour, such as the Witham Shield , were left to his cousin, Lt. Colonel Augustus Meyrick, who disposed of them between 1869 and 1872. The helmet
1840-608: Is the image of a leaping figure wearing a horned helmet and holding a wheel on the Gundestrup cauldron from Denmark, dating to the 1st century BC. This helmet is of a different shape from the Waterloo Helmet, and the horns are curved like those at Orange, but like the Waterloo Helmet the horns of the helmet are not sharply pointed, but are fitted with terminal knobs. An Iron Age bas-relief at Brague , near Antibes in France, also shows representations of people wearing horned helmets. Despite
1920-554: Is the only site in the British Isles to have produced late Neanderthal fossils. The earliest evidence for modern humans in North West Europe is a jawbone discovered in England at Kents Cavern in 1927, which was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years old. The most famous example from this period is the burial of the " Red Lady of Paviland " (actually now known to be a man) in modern-day coastal South Wales , which
2000-727: The Bytham River , flowing east from the English Midlands and then across the north of East Anglia, and the River Thames , which then flowed further north than today. Early humans may have followed the Rhine and thence around the huge north-facing bay into which the Thames and Bytham also flowed. Humans in Happisburgh were in a great valley downstream from the joining of the two great rivers. Reconstructing this ancient environment has provided clues to
2080-745: The Maeshowe types. The earliest stone circles and individual burials also appear. Different pottery types, such as grooved ware , appear during the later Neolithic (c. 2900 BC – c. 2200 BC). In addition, new enclosures called henges were built, along with stone rows and the famous sites of Stonehenge , Avebury and Silbury Hill , which building reached its peak at this time. Industrial flint mining begins, such as that at Cissbury and Grimes Graves , along with evidence of long-distance trade. Wooden tools and bowls were common, and bows were also constructed. Changes in Neolithic culture could have been due to
2160-503: The Neolithic Revolution , as it is called, introduced a more settled way of life and ultimately led to societies becoming divided into differing groups of farmers, artisans and leaders. Forest clearances were undertaken to provide room for cereal cultivation and animal herds. Native cattle and pigs were reared whilst sheep and goats were later introduced from the continent, as were the wheats and barleys grown in Britain. However, only
2240-619: The Pontnewydd Cave in Wales have been dated to 230,000 BP , and are the most north westerly Neanderthal remains found anywhere in the world. The next glaciation closed in and by about 180,000 years ago Britain no longer had humans. About 130,000 years ago there was an interglacial period even warmer than today, which lasted 15,000 years. There were lions, elephants hyenas and hippos as well as deer. There were no humans. Possibly humans were too sparse at that time. Until c.60,000 years ago there
2320-823: The Sea Peoples harried the entire Mediterranean basin around this time. Some scholars consider that the Celtic languages arrived in Britain at this time, but other elements of the Celtic cultural package derive from the Hallstatt culture . In an archaeogenetics study, Patterson et al. (2021) uncovered a migration into southern Britain during the 500-year period 1,300–800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul , and had higher levels of EEF ancestry. During 1,000–875 BC, their genetic marker swiftly spread through southern Britain, making up around half
2400-681: The Younger Dryas , and may have been unoccupied for periods. (c. 9,000 to 4,300 BC) The Younger Dryas was followed by the Holocene , which began around 9,700 BC, and continues to the present. There was then limited occupation by Ahrensburgian hunter gatherers, but this came to an end when there was a final downturn in temperature which lasted from around 9,400 to 9,200 BC. Mesolithic people occupied Britain by around 9,000 BC, and it has been occupied ever since. By 8000 BC temperatures were higher than today, and birch woodlands spread rapidly, but there
2480-653: The long house , although no long house villages have been found in Britain ;— only individual examples. The stone-built houses on Orkney — such as those at Skara Brae — are, however, indicators of some nucleated settlement in Britain. Evidence of growing mastery over the environment is embodied in the Sweet Track , a wooden trackway built to cross the marshes of the Somerset Levels and dated to 3807 BC. Leaf-shaped arrowheads, round-based pottery types and
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2560-518: The mass migrations that occurred in that time. A 2017 study showed that British Neolithic farmers had formerly been genetically similar to contemporary populations in the Iberian peninsula, but from the Beaker culture period onwards, all British individuals had high proportions of Steppe ancestry and were genetically more similar to Beaker-associated people from the Lower Rhine area. The study argues that more than 90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool
2640-423: The triumphal arch at Orange, France , dating to c.55 BC, but these are very different from the Waterloo Helmet. Whereas the Waterloo Helmet has straight, conical horns with a broad base that are stylised representations of animal horns, the helmets depicted on the carvings at Orange show realistic, curved bull's horns between which is placed an upright wheel. Similar to the depictions on the triumphal arch of Orange
2720-494: The Beaker people of the lower-Rhine area. There is evidence of a relatively large scale disruption of cultural patterns (see Late Bronze Age collapse ) which some scholars think may indicate an invasion (or at least a migration) into Southern Great Britain c. the 12th century BC. This disruption was felt far beyond Britain, even beyond Europe, as most of the great Near Eastern empires collapsed (or experienced severe difficulties) and
2800-529: The British language differed little from that of the Gauls. Among these people were skilled craftsmen who had begun producing intricately patterned gold jewellery, in addition to tools and weapons of both bronze and iron. It is disputed whether Iron Age Britons were "Celts", with some academics such as John Collis and Simon James actively opposing the idea of 'Celtic Britain', since the term was only applied at this time to
2880-736: The Continent by a chalk ridge between South East England and northern France called the Weald-Artois Anticline , but during the Anglian Glaciation around 425,000 years ago a megaflood broke through the ridge, and Britain became an island when sea levels rose during the following Hoxnian interglacial . Fossils of very early Neanderthals dating to around 400,000 years ago have been found at Swanscombe in Kent , and of classic Neanderthals about 225,000 years old at Pontnewydd in Wales. Britain
2960-514: The La Tène style, similar to that found on the Waterloo Helmet , on the neck guard and on the fragmentary side pieces. On the neck guard are two flat domed bosses with criss-cross grooves which would originally have held red glass enamel studs. There are holes on either side for attachment to a chin-strap or cheekpiece, and a hole at the top of the helmet for the attachment of a plumed top-knot. On
3040-618: The Late Upper Palaeolithic (after the main glacial period). There was limited Neanderthal occupation of Britain in marine isotope stage 3 between about 60,000 and 42,000 years BP. Britain had its own unique variety of late Neanderthal handaxe, the bout-coupé , so seasonal migration between Britain and the continent is unlikely, but the main occupation may have been in the now submerged area of Doggerland , with summer migrations to Britain in warmer periods. La Cotte de St Brelade in Jersey
3120-632: The Mediterranean region did during prehistory. By around 4000 BC, the island was populated by people with a Neolithic culture. This neolithic population had significant ancestry from the earliest farming communities in Anatolia , indicating that a major migration accompanied farming. The beginning of the Bronze Age and the Bell Beaker culture was marked by an even greater population turnover, this time displacing more than 90% of Britain's neolithic ancestry in
3200-567: The Mesolithic environment was bounteous, the rising population and the ancient Britons' success in exploiting it eventually led to local exhaustion of many natural resources. The remains of a Mesolithic elk found caught in a bog at Poulton-le-Fylde in Lancashire show that it had been wounded by hunters and escaped on three occasions, indicating hunting during the Mesolithic. A few Neolithic monuments overlie Mesolithic sites but little continuity can be demonstrated. Farming of crops and domestic animals
3280-552: The Roman army during the campaigns against the Brigantes in AD 71–74. The provenance of the helmet is unknown, but on stylistic grounds it is thought likely that it comes from the north of England, in the area of Britain controlled by the Brigantes tribe. The helmet is first recorded as part of the collection of arms and armour accumulated by Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick (1783–1848), and so must have been discovered some time before 1848. It
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3360-433: The ancestry of subsequent Iron Age people in this area, but not in northern Britain. The "evidence suggests that, rather than a violent invasion or a single migratory event, the genetic structure of the population changed through sustained contacts between Britain and mainland Europe over several centuries, such as the movement of traders, intermarriage, and small scale movements of family groups". The authors describe this as
3440-615: The archaeological record, although some flint blade types remained similar to their Palaeolithic predecessors. The dog was domesticated because of its benefits during hunting, and the wetland environments created by the warmer weather would have been a rich source of fish and game. Wheat of a variety grown in the Middle East was present on the Isle of Wight at the Bouldnor Cliff Mesolithic Village dating from about 6,000 BC. It
3520-666: The beach at Happisburgh in 2013 of a mixed group of adult males, females and children. However there are no human fossils found. Homo antecessor is the most likely candidate species of ancient human as there are remains of roughly the same age at Gran Dolina at Atapuerca. Homo antecessor lived before the ancestors of Neanderthals split from the ancestors of Homo sapiens 600,000 years ago. Summer temperatures at Happisburgh were an average of 16-17 degrees C and average winter temperatures were slightly colder than present day temperatures, around freezing point or just below. Conditions were comparable to present-day southern Scandinavia. It
3600-453: The beginnings of polished axe production are common indicators of the period. Evidence of the use of cow's milk comes from analysis of pottery contents found beside the Sweet Track. According to archaeological evidence from North Yorkshire , salt was being produced by evaporation of seawater around this time, enabling more effective preservation of meat. Pollen analysis shows that woodland
3680-447: The bottom of the front sheet, and two conical bronze horns with terminal knobs are riveted to the top of the helmet. A decorative strip with a row of rivets overlays the join between the front and back sheets, and goes around the base of the horns. At the end of the strip, on both sides of the helmet, is a ring fitting for a chin-strap or cheekpiece. There are a number of small holes around the bottom edge, which may have been used to attach
3760-422: The continent, or whether a Beaker cultural "package" of goods and behaviour (which eventually spread across most of Western Europe) diffused to Britain's existing inhabitants through trade across tribal boundaries. A 2017 study suggests a major genetic shift in late Neolithic/early Bronze Age Britain, so that more than 90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool was replaced with the coming of a people genetically related to
3840-700: The depictions of horned helmets on the triumphal arch of Orange and elsewhere, the Waterloo Helmet remains the only known example of an actual horned helmet from this period, and other Iron Age helmets that have been found, such as the Canterbury helmet and the Meyrick Helmet from northern Britain, are hornless. Nevertheless, influenced by the iconic features of the Waterloo Helmet, modern artistic interpretations of Iron Age people tend to show them wearing horned helmets, which has led Miranda Aldhouse-Green , professor of archaeology at Cardiff University , to comment that it
3920-571: The end of this ice age during a warm period from 14,700 to 12,900 years ago (the Bølling-Allerød interstadial known as the Windermere Interstadial in Britain), although further extremes of cold right before the final thaw may have caused them to leave again and then return repeatedly. The environment during this ice age period would have been largely treeless tundra , eventually replaced by
4000-523: The first people to resettle Northern Europe , following the retreat of ice sheets from the Last Glacial Maximum , about 10,000 years ago. It has also been found in other Mesolithic remains in Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, France and Spain. Members of U5 may have been one of the most common haplogroups in Europe, before the spread of agriculture from the Middle East . Though
4080-641: The following Anglian Stage is likely to have driven humans out of Britain altogether and the region does not appear to have been occupied again until the ice receded during the Hoxnian Stage . This warmer time period lasted from around 424,000 until 374,000 years ago and saw the Clactonian flint tool industry develop at sites such as Swanscombe in Kent. The period has produced a rich and widespread distribution of sites by Palaeolithic standards, although uncertainty over
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#17330849240544160-647: The giant Channel River . The climatic deterioration which culminated in the Last Glacial Maximum , between about 26,500 and 19,000–20,000 years ago, drove humans out of Britain, and there is no evidence of occupation for around 18,000 years after c.33,000 years BP. Sites such as Cathole Cave in Swansea County dated at 14,500BP, Creswell Crags on the border between Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire at 12,800BP and Gough's Cave in Somerset 12,000 years BP, provide evidence suggesting that humans returned to Britain towards
4240-458: The helmet would have been too fragile for use in battle, and so it was probably intended to be used for ceremonial or parade purposes. In this respect it is similar to Iron Age bronze shields that have been found, which would not have been effective against contemporary weapons and could only have been used for display purposes. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the helmet is in any case too small for most adult males, and may have been worn by
4320-452: The landscape. Stone rows are to be seen on, for example, Dartmoor . They ate cattle, sheep, pigs and deer as well as shellfish and birds. They carried out salt manufacture. The wetlands were a source of wildfowl and reeds. There was ritual deposition of offerings in the wetlands and in holes in the ground. There has been debate amongst archaeologists as to whether the "Beaker people" were a race of people who migrated to Britain en masse from
4400-417: The later arrival in the archaeological record of an archaic Homo species called Homo heidelbergensis around 500,000 years ago. These early peoples made Acheulean flint tools (hand axes) and hunted the large native mammals of the period. One hypothesis is that they drove elephants , rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses over the tops of cliffs or into bogs to more easily kill them. The extreme cold of
4480-484: The limited evidence available, burial seemed to involve skinning and dismembering a corpse with the bones placed in caves. This suggests a practice of excarnation and secondary burial, and possibly some form of ritual cannibalism . Artistic expression seems to have been mostly limited to engraved bone, although the cave art at Creswell Crags and Mendip caves are notable exceptions. Between about 12,890 and 11,650 years ago Britain returned to glacial conditions during
4560-401: The lower Bytham river, and not the Thames which had now moved further south. Pakefield had mild winters and warm summers with average July temperatures of between 18 and 23 degrees C. There were wet winters and drier summers. Animal bones found in the area include rhinos, hippos, extinct elephants,giant deer, hyaenas, lions and sabre-toothed cats. Sites such as Boxgrove in Sussex illustrate
4640-408: The more famous Waterloo Helmet , the Canterbury Helmet and the North Bersted Warrior helmet. Unlike the Waterloo Helmet , which bears two cone-shaped horns, the Meyrick Helmet is hornless and appears to be based on a Roman model. Vincent Megaw , emeritus professor of archaeology at the University of Leicester , has conjectured that the helmet may have belonged to a British auxiliary fighting in
4720-443: The presence of extinct species of vole, mammoth, red deer, horse and elk indicate a date between 780,000 and 990,000 years old. The evidence is that the early humans were there towards the end of an interglacial during that date range. There are two candidate interglacials - one between 970,000 and 935,000 years ago and the second from 865,000 and 815,000 years ago. Numerous footprints dating to more than 800,000 years ago were found on
4800-561: The process. This is documented by recent ancient DNA studies which demonstrate that the immigrants had large amounts of Bronze-Age Eurasian Steppe ancestry , associated with the spread of Indo-European languages and the Yamnaya culture . No written language of the pre- Roman inhabitants of Britain is known; therefore, the history, culture and way of life of pre-Roman Britain are known mainly through archaeological finds. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that ancient Britons were involved in extensive maritime trade and cultural links with
4880-512: The relationship between the Clactonian and Acheulean industries is still unresolved. Britain was populated only intermittently, and even during periods of occupation may have reproduced below replacement level and needed immigration from elsewhere to maintain numbers. According to Paul Pettitt and Mark White: This period also saw Levallois flint tools introduced, possibly by humans arriving from Africa . However, finds from Swanscombe and Botany Pit in Purfleet support Levallois technology being
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#17330849240544960-411: The rest of Europe from the Neolithic onwards, especially by exporting tin that was in abundant supply. Although the main evidence for the period is archaeological, available genetic evidence is increasing, and views of British prehistory are evolving accordingly. Julius Caesar's first invasion of Britain in 55 BC is regarded as the start of recorded protohistory although some historical information
5040-468: The route first visitors took to arrive at what was then a peninsula of the Eurasian continent. Archaeologists have found a string of early sites located close to the route of a now lost watercourse named the Bytham River which indicate that it was exploited as the earliest route west into Britain. Chronologically, the next evidence of human occupation is at Pakefield on the outskirts of Lowestoft in Suffolk 48 kilometres south of Happisburgh. They were in
5120-411: The same year it was given on loan to the British Museum by Thames Conservancy . In 1988 its successor body, the Port of London Authority , donated the helmet to the British Museum. The main part of the helmet is constructed from two sheets of bronze, one forming the front and one the back of the helmet, that are riveted together at the sides and top. A separate crescent-shaped bronze piece is riveted to
5200-753: The stone tools found in the caves of Devon , such as Kent's Cavern , seem to have been sourced from Salisbury Plain , 100 miles (161 km) east. This is interpreted as meaning that the early inhabitants of Britain were highly mobile, roaming over wide distances and carrying 'toolkits' of flint blades with them rather than heavy, unworked flint nodules, or else improvising tools extemporaneously. The possibility that groups also travelled to meet and exchange goods or sent out dedicated expeditions to source flint has also been suggested. The dominant food species were equines ( Equus ferus ) and red deer ( Cervus elaphus ), although other mammals ranging from hares to mammoth were also hunted, including rhino and hyena. From
5280-411: Was adopted in Britain around 4500 BC, at least partly because of the need for reliable food sources. The climate had been warming since the later Mesolithic and continued to improve, replacing the earlier pine forests with woodland . (c. 4,300 to 2,000 BC) The Neolithic was the period of domestication of plants and animals, but the arrival of a Neolithic package of farming and a sedentary lifestyle
5360-411: Was a cold spell around 6,200 BC which lasted about 150 years. The plains of Doggerland were thought to have finally been submerged around 6500 to 6000 BC, but recent evidence suggests that the bridge may have lasted until between 5800 and 5400 BC, and possibly as late as 3800 BC. The warmer climate changed the arctic environment to one of pine , birch and alder forest; this less open landscape
5440-417: Was at this time still joined to the Continent by a land bridge known as Doggerland , but due to rising sea levels this causeway of dry land would have become a series of estuaries, inlets and islands by 7000 BC, and by 6200 BC, it would have become completely submerged. Located at the fringes of Europe, Britain received European technological and cultural developments much later than Southern Europe and
5520-429: Was carried out on a tooth of Cheddar Man , human remains dated to c. 7150 BC found in Gough's Cave at Cheddar Gorge . His mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) belonged to Haplogroup U5 . Within modern European populations, U5 is now concentrated in North-East Europe , among members of the Sami people , Finns , and Estonians . This distribution and the age of the haplogroup indicate that individuals belonging to U5 were among
5600-476: Was claimed by academics that a post-glacial land bridge existed between Britain and Ireland, however this conjecture began to be refuted by a consensus within the academic community starting in 1983, and since 2006 the idea of a land bridge has been disproven based upon conclusive marine geological evidence. It is now concluded that an ice bridge existed between Britain and Ireland up until 16,000 years ago, but this had melted by around 14,000 years ago. Britain
5680-503: Was dated in 2009 to be 33,000 years old. The distribution of finds shows that humans in this period preferred the uplands of Wales and northern and western England to the flatter areas of eastern England. Their stone tools are similar to those of the same age found in Belgium and far north-east France, and very different from those in north-west France. At a time when Britain was not an island, hunter gatherers may have followed migrating herds of reindeer from Belgium and north-east France across
5760-412: Was decreasing and grassland increasing, with a major decline of elms. The winters were typically 3 degrees colder than at present but the summers some 2.5 degrees warmer. The Middle Neolithic (c. 3300 BC – c. 2900 BC) saw the development of cursus monuments close to earlier barrows and the growth and abandonment of causewayed enclosures, as well as the building of impressive chamber tombs such as
5840-669: Was experiencing a trade boom as British tin was exported across Europe, evidence of ports being found in Southern Devon at Bantham and Mount Batten . Copper was mined at the Great Orme in North Wales. The Beaker people were also skilled at making ornaments from gold , silver and copper , and examples of these have been found in graves of the wealthy Wessex culture of central southern Britain. Early Bronze Age Britons buried their dead beneath earth mounds known as barrows , often with
5920-422: Was important. It is generally thought that by 500 BC most people inhabiting the British Isles were speaking Common Brythonic , on the limited evidence of place-names recorded by Pytheas of Massalia and transmitted to us second-hand, largely through Strabo . Certainly by the Roman period there is substantial place and personal name evidence which suggests that this was so; Tacitus also states in his Agricola that
6000-553: Was less conducive to the large herds of reindeer and wild horse that had previously sustained humans. Those animals were replaced in people's diets by pig and less social animals such as elk , red deer , roe deer , wild boar and aurochs (wild cattle), which would have required different hunting techniques. Tools changed to incorporate barbs which could snag the flesh of an animal, making it harder for it to escape alive. Tiny microliths were developed for hafting onto harpoons and spears. Woodworking tools such as adzes appear in
6080-535: Was less of a division between Western and Eastern parts of Britain with less Anglo-Saxon migration. Looking from a more Europe-wide standpoint, researchers at Stanford University have found overlapping cultural and genetic evidence that supports the theory that migration was at least partially responsible for the Neolithic Revolution in Northern Europe (including Britain). The science of genetic anthropology
6160-524: Was purchased by Augustus Franks , an independently wealthy antiquarian who worked for the British Museum. Franks donated the helmet to the British Museum in 1872. The helmet is considered to be a Celtic version of a Roman auxiliary helmet, combining a Roman shape with La Tène style decoration. It is in the shape of a conical cap with a peaked neck guard. It is made from a single sheet of bronze, possibly spun finished, and has repoussé decoration in
6240-426: Was replaced with the coming of the Beaker people. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of modern European populations shows that over 80% are descended in the female line from European hunter-gatherers . Less than 20% are descended in the female line from Neolithic farmers from Anatolia and from subsequent migrations. The percentage in Britain is smaller at around 11%. Initial studies suggested that this situation
6320-527: Was stronger and more plentiful than bronze , and its introduction marks the beginning of the Iron Age . Iron working revolutionised many aspects of life, most importantly agriculture . Iron tipped ploughs could turn soil more quickly and deeply than older wooden or bronze ones, and iron axes could clear forest land more efficiently for agriculture. There was a landscape of arable, pasture and managed woodland. There were many enclosed settlements and land ownership
6400-520: Was unoccupied by humans between 180,000 and 60,000 years ago, when Neanderthals returned. By 40,000 years ago they had become extinct and modern humans had reached Britain. But even their occupations were brief and intermittent due to a climate which swung between low temperatures with a tundra habitat and severe ice ages which made Britain uninhabitable for long periods. The last of these, the Younger Dryas , ended around 11,700 years ago, and since then Britain has been continuously occupied. Traditionally it
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