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110-569: Washington Highlands or variant may refer to: Washington Highlands, Washington, D.C. Geography of Washington (state) , for the highlands of Washington state, USA Geography of Washington, D.C. , for the highlands of the District of Columbia, USA Highland, Washington , CDP in Washington state Washington Township, Highland County, Ohio Highland Park, Seattle, Washington Topics referred to by

220-626: A deflationary spiral started in 1931. Farmers faced a worse outlook; declining crop prices and a Great Plains drought crippled their economic outlook. At its peak, the Great Depression saw nearly 10% of all Great Plains farms change hands despite federal assistance. At first, the decline in the U.S. economy was the factor that triggered economic downturns in most other countries due to a decline in trade, capital movement, and global business confidence. Then, internal weaknesses or strengths in each country made conditions worse or better. For example,

330-418: A silver standard , almost avoided the depression entirely. The connection between leaving the gold standard as a strong predictor of that country's severity of its depression and the length of time of its recovery has been shown to be consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries . This partly explains why the experience and length of the depression differed between regions and states around

440-744: A $ 3 million loan from the city in May 2006 to make repairs at the property. PSNC's administration of the Park Southern Apartments has been strongly criticized. Several tenant lawsuits have alleged a broken HVAC system, cockroach and rodent infestations, a badly leaking plumbing system which has caused ceilings and walls to collapse, extensive mold and mildew throughout the complex, a security system which does not work, and damaged exterior access doors left hanging open. The Washington Post reported in July 2014 that PSNC failed to make $ 628,262 in loan repayments to

550-541: A January 17, 2014, Democratic Party " straw vote " held in city Ward 8 (where the apartment complex is located). Gray subsequently lost the straw vote, and Bowser was catapulted to front-runner status in the Democratic mayoral primary. Bowser then won the D.C. mayoral primary. Scott subsequently accused Gray of targeting her and her nonprofit corporation in retaliation for the political activity. The Washington Post reported on July 13, 2014 that Bowser had attempted to set up

660-588: A former privately run bank, bearing no relation to the U.S. government (not to be confused with the Federal Reserve ). Unable to pay out to all of its creditors, the bank failed. Among the 608 American banks that closed in November and December 1930, the Bank of United States accounted for a third of the total $ 550 million deposits lost and, with its closure, bank failures reached a critical mass. In an initial response to

770-459: A greater reduction in credit. On 5 April 1933, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6102 making the private ownership of gold certificates , coins and bullion illegal, reducing the pressure on Federal Reserve gold. British economist John Maynard Keynes argued in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money that lower aggregate expenditures in the economy contributed to

880-441: A long-time supporter of D.C. Mayor Vincent C. Gray , is a notable power-broker in local D.C. Democratic Party politics. Scott secretly withdrew her support for Gray in early 2014 after the city began investigating tenant complaints at Park Southern Apartments, and switched her support to D.C. City Council member Muriel Bowser . Scott then allegedly declined to mobilize residents of the Park Southern Apartments to vote for Gray at

990-481: A metal-and-plastic "kiosk library" opened at Alabama Avenue and Stanton Road SE in 1977. It was replaced by the 1,500-square-foot (140 m ) Parklands-Turner Library (built across the street) in 1984. In 2003, as work began on construction of the Henson Ridge Hope VI housing development, city officials announced they would close the kiosk library and build a new $ 1.5 million Parklands-Turner Library as part of

1100-596: A modern industrial city handled shortages of money and resources. Often they updated strategies their mothers used when they were growing up in poor families. Cheap foods were used, such as soups, beans and noodles. They purchased the cheapest cuts of meat—sometimes even horse meat—and recycled the Sunday roast into sandwiches and soups. They sewed and patched clothing, traded with their neighbors for outgrown items, and made do with colder homes. New furniture and appliances were postponed until better days. Many women also worked outside

1210-402: A monetary contraction first-hand were forced to join the deflationary policy since higher interest rates in countries that performed a deflationary policy led to a gold outflow in countries with lower interest rates. Under the gold standard's price–specie flow mechanism , countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and

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1320-465: A nearby athletic field already bore his name). Washington Highlands is among the most violent neighborhoods in the District of Columbia. Approximately one-third of the city's 181 homicides in 2007 occurred there. The neighborhood became the focus of media attention in January 2008 when city officials discovered that Washington Highlands resident Banita Jacks had been living for months in her rowhouse with

1430-404: A portion of the facade. The building reopened in 2009 as The Overlook. The building's lower seven floors (with 181 units) were set aside for low-income senior citizens. The building's top five floors (with 135 one- and two-bedroom units) were set aside for low- and moderate-income families. The Overlook features separate entrances and elevators for the senior citizen and family section, and each unit

1540-430: A private meeting between D.C. housing officials and PSNC (Gray ordered his officials to decline attendance); twice demanded to know under what legal authority city officials acted against PSNC; and challenged the city's right to seize PSNC's property under the terms of the loan default. Michael Kelly, director of the District of Columbia Housing Authority, asked Bowser to schedule council hearings on PSNC's administration of

1650-505: A safe, well-landscaped, well-maintained apartment building which won national praise. The Park Southern attained what The Washington Post called an "iconic" status for both helping very low-income people but maintaining a high standard of living. Crawford left his post in March 1973 to take a position at HUD. The Park Southern Apartments declined after Crawford's departure, and suffered heavily from crime, vandalism, and other problems during

1760-563: A serious issue in the 1930s. Support for increasing welfare programs during the depression included a focus on women in the family. The Conseil Supérieur de la Natalité campaigned for provisions enacted in the Code de la Famille (1939) that increased state assistance to families with children and required employers to protect the jobs of fathers, even if they were immigrants. In rural and small-town areas, women expanded their operation of vegetable gardens to include as much food production as possible. In

1870-474: A small cadre of Labour, but the vast majority of Labour leaders denounced MacDonald as a traitor for leading the new government. Britain went off the gold standard , and suffered relatively less than other major countries in the Great Depression. In the 1931 British election, the Labour Party was virtually destroyed, leaving MacDonald as prime minister for a largely Conservative coalition. In most countries of

1980-652: A standstill agreement froze Germany's foreign liabilities for six months. Germany received emergency funding from private banks in New York as well as the Bank of International Settlements and the Bank of England. The funding only slowed the process. Industrial failures began in Germany, a major bank closed in July and a two-day holiday for all German banks was declared. Business failures were more frequent in July, and spread to Romania and Hungary. The crisis continued to get worse in Germany, bringing political upheaval that finally led to

2090-474: A strong backlash from whites in Washington Highlands, which at that time had almost no African American residents. As of 2007, Washington Highlands had a population of 8,829, including 3,242 households and a median household income of $ 28,885. Just over 81 percent of residents in Washington Highlands are renters, and 18.7 percent are home owners. Roughly 71 percent of households are families. Most of

2200-642: Is a consensus that the Federal Reserve System should have cut short the process of monetary deflation and banking collapse, by expanding the money supply and acting as lender of last resort . If they had done this, the economic downturn would have been far less severe and much shorter. Modern mainstream economists see the reasons in Insufficient spending, the money supply reduction, and debt on margin led to falling prices and further bankruptcies ( Irving Fisher 's debt deflation). The monetarist explanation

2310-428: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Washington Highlands, Washington, D.C. Washington Highlands is bounded by 13th Street SE on the northeast, Oxon Run Park on the northwest and southwest, and Southern Avenue on the southeast. The neighborhood is situated on a series of high hills overlooking the creek known as Oxon Run . It draws its name from

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2420-480: Is dominated by Oxon Run Parkway, and the surrounding parkland. The southern border of this park, which is owned and maintained by the National Park Service, is 13th Street SE. City-owned undeveloped parkland, also known as Oxon Run Park, runs parallel to Valley Road SE and Livingston Road SE. Two athletic facilities occupy the segment of city-owned Oxon Run Park between 13th Street SE and Mississippi Avenue SE:

2530-493: Is supported by the contrast in how the crisis progressed in, e.g., Britain, Argentina and Brazil, all of which devalued their currencies early and returned to normal patterns of growth relatively rapidly and countries which stuck to the gold standard , such as France or Belgium. Frantic attempts by individual countries to shore up their economies through protectionist policies – such as the 1930 U.S. Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act and retaliatory tariffs in other countries – exacerbated

2640-536: Is under construction at 501 Mississippi Avenue SE. Washington Highlands lacks a branch of the District of Columbia Public Library . The two closest libraries are Parklands-Turner Neighborhood Library at 1547 Alabama Avenue SE (near Alabama Avenue and Stanton Road SE) and the William O. Lockridge/Bellevue Neighborhood Library at 115 Atlantic Street SW (near Atlantic Avenue and South Capitol Street ). The Parklands Library Kiosk,

2750-523: The 1932 election , Hoover was defeated by Franklin D. Roosevelt , who from 1933 pursued a series of " New Deal " policies and programs to provide relief and create jobs, including the Civilian Conservation Corps , Federal Emergency Relief Administration , Tennessee Valley Authority , and Works Progress Administration . Historians disagree on the effects of the New Deal, with some claiming that

2860-658: The John Philip Sousa Bridge ) began construction in November 1887, and by June 1890 was nearing completion. Randle understood that this new bridge would bring rapid development east of the Anacostia River, and he intended to take advantage of it. The development was immediately successful. To ensure that his investment continued to pay off, Randle invested heavily in the Belt Railway, a local streetcar company founded in March 1875. On March 2, 1895, Randle founded

2970-565: The New York Bank of United States – which produced panic and widespread runs on local banks, and the Federal Reserve sat idly by while banks collapsed. Friedman and Schwartz argued that, if the Fed had provided emergency lending to these key banks, or simply bought government bonds on the open market to provide liquidity and increase the quantity of money after the key banks fell, all the rest of

3080-486: The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) sold its interest in the building. It was purchased by two nonprofit organizations—Community Preservation and Development, and Crawford Edgewood Management (a housing management company founded by H. R. Crawford , an African American former HUD official). The structure was gutted in 2005, leaving behind only the interior columns, foundation, and

3190-475: The coming to power of Hitler's Nazi regime in January 1933. The world financial crisis now began to overwhelm Britain; investors around the world started withdrawing their gold from London at the rate of £2.5 million per day. Credits of £25 million each from the Bank of France and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and an issue of £15 million fiduciary note slowed, but did not reverse,

3300-562: The crack cocaine epidemic in the city in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1995, two nonprofits, Jubilee Enterprise of Greater Washington and the Park Southern Neighborhood Corporation, purchased the Park Southern from its original investors and began to renovate and refurbish the complex. Jubilee Enterprise sold its interest in the complex to the Park Southern Neighborhood Corporation (PSNC) in 2001. PSNC sought and won

3410-482: The 12-story, 291-unit Parkside Terrace Apartments at 3700 9th Street SE was constructed. The apartment building for moderate- and low-income families was financed with federal money, and built by a group of private investors led by Polinger Construction and Judge Marjorie Lawson (a civil rights advisor to President John F. Kennedy ). By the early 2000s, however, the building was in serious disrepair and plagued by drug dealers, thieves, gangs, and numerous assaults. In 2003,

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3520-447: The 1937 recession that interrupted it). The common view among most economists is that Roosevelt's New Deal policies either caused or accelerated the recovery, although his policies were never aggressive enough to bring the economy completely out of recession. Some economists have also called attention to the positive effects from expectations of reflation and rising nominal interest rates that Roosevelt's words and actions portended. It

3630-795: The British crisis. The financial crisis now caused a major political crisis in Britain in August 1931. With deficits mounting, the bankers demanded a balanced budget; the divided cabinet of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government agreed; it proposed to raise taxes, cut spending, and most controversially, to cut unemployment benefits 20%. The attack on welfare was unacceptable to the Labour movement. MacDonald wanted to resign, but King George V insisted he remain and form an all-party coalition " National Government ". The Conservative and Liberals parties signed on, along with

3740-552: The Capital Railway Company to construct streetcar lines over the Navy Yard Bridge and down Nichols Avenue to Congress Heights. Developers began laying out Washington Highlands in 1904, and by August 1905 most of the subdivision's roads and tracts had been laid out. Hungerford's addition was added to the neighborhood in 1906. Fourth Street SE was opened in 1910 after a three-year effort, although growth slowed for

3850-517: The Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting national debt and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts. During World War I many countries suspended their gold standard in varying ways. There was high inflation from WWI, and in the 1920s in the Weimar Republic , Austria , and throughout Europe. In the late 1920s there

3960-514: The Dow returning to 294 (pre-depression levels) in April 1930, before steadily declining for years, to a low of 41 in 1932. At the beginning, governments and businesses spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the corresponding period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom suffered severe losses in the stock market the previous year, cut expenditures by 10%. In addition, beginning in

4070-480: The Federal Reserve did not act to limit the decline of the money supply was the gold standard . At that time, the amount of credit the Federal Reserve could issue was limited by the Federal Reserve Act , which required 40% gold backing of Federal Reserve Notes issued. By the late 1920s, the Federal Reserve had almost hit the limit of allowable credit that could be backed by the gold in its possession. This credit

4180-442: The Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the primary explanation for the onset of the Great Depression. Today there is also significant academic support for the debt deflation theory and the expectations hypothesis that – building on the monetary explanation of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz – add non-monetary explanations. There

4290-639: The Great Depression. According to the U.S. Senate website, the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act is among the most catastrophic acts in congressional history. Many economists have argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression, especially for countries significantly dependent on foreign trade. Most historians and economists blame the Act for worsening the depression by seriously reducing international trade and causing retaliatory tariffs in other countries. While foreign trade

4400-662: The Livingston and Atlantic park facility (at Livingston Road SE and Atlantic Street SE). The new ARC cultural arts center, and the Tennis and Learning Center, are located on Mississippi Avenue. The Washington Highlands neighborhood has a single city-owned playground within its borders. This is the Oxon Run Park Playground #2, located at 4368 Livingston Road SE. A second city playground, the Ferebee-Hope Playground on

4510-473: The New Deal prolonged the Great Depression, as they argue that National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 and National Labor Relations Act of 1935 restricted competition and established price fixing. John Maynard Keynes did not think that the New Deal under Roosevelt single-handedly ended the Great Depression: "It is, it seems, politically impossible for a capitalistic democracy to organize expenditure on

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4620-455: The Park Southern Apartments, but Bowser (as of July 15) had declined to do so. Instead, Bowser asked the city's inspector general to open an investigation. D.C. City Council member David Catania , an Independent candidate for mayor, accused Bowser of improperly intervening in the situation and engaging in ethically questionable conduct. Bowser dismissed Catania's criticism, and has alleged that problems at Park Southern Apartments are not as bad as

4730-540: The U.K. economy, which experienced an economic downturn throughout most of the late 1920s, was less severely impacted by the shock of the depression than the U.S. By contrast, the German economy saw a similar decline in industrial output as that observed in the U.S. Some economic historians attribute the differences in the rates of recovery and relative severity of the economic decline to whether particular countries had been able to effectively devaluate their currencies or not. This

4840-485: The U.S. unemployment rate down below 10%. World War II had a dramatic effect on many parts of the American economy. Government-financed capital spending accounted for only 5% of the annual U.S. investment in industrial capital in 1940; by 1943, the government accounted for 67% of U.S. capital investment. The massive war spending doubled economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending

4950-678: The United States, agricultural organizations sponsored programs to teach housewives how to optimize their gardens and to raise poultry for meat and eggs. Rural women made feed sack dresses and other items for themselves and their families and homes from feed sacks. In American cities, African American women quiltmakers enlarged their activities, promoted collaboration, and trained neophytes. Quilts were created for practical use from various inexpensive materials and increased social interaction for women and promoted camaraderie and personal fulfillment. Oral history provides evidence for how housewives in

5060-543: The United States, remained on the gold standard into 1932 or 1933, while a few countries in the so-called "gold bloc", led by France and including Poland, Belgium and Switzerland, stayed on the standard until 1935–36. According to later analysis, the earliness with which a country left the gold standard reliably predicted its economic recovery. For example, The UK and Scandinavia, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had

5170-632: The Wall Street crash, after which the slide continued for three years, which was accompanied by a loss of confidence in the financial system. By 1933, the U.S. unemployment rate had risen to 25 percent, about one-third of farmers had lost their land, and about half of the country's 25,000 banks had gone out of business. Many people, unable to pay mortgages or rent, became homeless and relied on begging or charities to feed themselves. The U.S. federal government initially did little to help. President Herbert Hoover , like many of his fellow Republicans , believed in

5280-901: The Wheeler and Mississippi park facility (benches and tables located at Wheeler Street SE and Mississippi Avenue SE) and the Oxon Run Park Outdoor Basketball Court 3 (at Valley Avenue SE and 13th Street SE). On the northern side of Oxon Run, just outside and adjacent to the Washington Highlands neighborhood, are the Oxon Run Park Amphitheater (opposite the Wheeler and Mississippi park facility) and Oxon Run Park Athletic Field 2 (also known as William O. Lockridge Field, opposite Oxon Run Park Outdoor Basketball Court 3 ). The next segment of city-owned Oxon Run Park, between Wheeler Road SE and 4th Street SE, contains three athletic facilities just north of Oxon Run (and technically outside

5390-455: The banks would not have fallen after the large ones did, and the money supply would not have fallen as far and as fast as it did. With significantly less money to go around, businesses could not get new loans and could not even get their old loans renewed, forcing many to stop investing. This interpretation blames the Federal Reserve for inaction, especially the New York branch . One reason why

5500-573: The beginning of the Depression. The Depression was preceded by a period of industrial growth and social development known as the " Roaring Twenties ". Much of the profit generated by the boom was invested in speculation , such as on the stock market , which resulted in growing wealth inequality . Banks were subject to minimal regulation under laissez-faire economic policies, resulting in loose lending and widespread debt. By 1929, declining spending had led to reductions in manufacturing output and rising unemployment . Share values continued to rise until

5610-465: The behavior of housewives. The common view among economic historians is that the Great Depression ended with the advent of World War II . Many economists believe that government spending on the war caused or at least accelerated recovery from the Great Depression, though some consider that it did not play a very large role in the recovery, though it did help in reducing unemployment. The rearmament policies leading up to World War II helped stimulate

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5720-470: The block-long, hilltop development was to provide housing to individuals and families whose incomes were too high to qualify for federal housing subsidies but too low to afford market-rate rents in the city. The Park Southern was considered one of the best-run apartment complexes in the city until 1973. The Polinger company installed H. R. Crawford as resident manager. Strict in his enforcement of housing rules and selective in who he rented to, Crawford created

5830-657: The bodies of her four murdered children in advanced states of decomposition upstairs. Former notable residents of Washington Highlands include the late Calvin and Wilhelmina Rolark , co-founders of the United Black Fund. Wilhelmina Rolark was a D.C. City Council member for 16 years. Country music singer and performer Roy Clark (who moved to the District of Columbia at the age of 11) grew up on 1st Street SE. 38°49′55.4″N 76°59′40.9″W  /  38.832056°N 76.994694°W  / 38.832056; -76.994694 Great Depression The Great Depression

5940-602: The boundaries of but adjacent to Washington Highlands): the 4th and Mississippi park facility (4th Street SE and Mississippi Avenue SE), Oxon Run Park Athletic Field 1 (located at Simon Elementary School at 601 Mississippi Avenue SE), and the 4th and Wayne park facility (at 4th Street SE and Wayne Street SE). The lower segment of city-owned Oxon Run Park, between Atlantic Street SE and South Capitol Street, contains Oxon Run Park Outdoor Basketball Court 2 (at Atlantic Street SE and Livingston Road SE), Oxon Run Park Outdoor Basketball Court 1 (at Atlantic Street SE and Livingston Road SE), and

6050-463: The building had an extensive security system, and security guards patrolled the interior. The largest apartment complex in the neighborhood is the 360-unit, 700-resident Park Southern Apartments at 800 Southern Avenue SE. The Park Southern Apartments were built in 1965 as a public-private partnership, with funding coming from the city, the federal government, and a group of private investors led by Polinger Construction and Judge Lawson. The goal of

6160-569: The city of Washington, D.C., and the hills on which it was built. At the time of European colonization of North America, the area known as Washington Highlands was occupied by Nacotchtank tribe of Native Americans , a non-migratory band whose villages lined the northern and southern banks of the Anacostia River . The Nacochtanks were decimated by disease brought to the New World by European explorers, and disappeared by 1700 AD. The flat area below

6270-672: The city to take over the United States Navy 's Bald Eagle storage facility and turn it into a recreational center. Washington Highlands was one of the first areas of the District of Columbia where housing was desegregated. Until the 1950s, law as well as housing covenants created by developers excluded African Americans from many neighborhoods in the city. But in 1951, the NCHA announced it would not longer segregate its housing complexes in Washington Highlands, and opened them to black residents. It began implementing its policy in 1953. This sparked

6380-617: The city, creating a severe housing shortage. Congress created the National Capital Housing Authority (NCHA) to build extensive low-income housing throughout the region to alleviate the shortage. In 1942, the NCHA built the 256-unit Highland Dwellings. In the fall of 1943, the NCHA approved a plan to build more than 300 low-income homes in Washington Heights, and private developers agreed to build another 150. Washington Highland residents were angry that their neighborhood

6490-634: The city, owed more than $ 400,000 in unpaid utility and other bills, and that tens of thousands of dollars in tenant security deposits were missing. In April 2014, D.C. housing officials seized the complex after PSNC defaulted on its loan. City officials allege that PSNC has refused to turn over $ 300,000 in rent payments made in March 2014. They further alleged that Rowena Joyce Scott, president of PSNC; Scott's daughter; and several PSNC board members illegally lived rent-free at Park Southern Apartments. The city began eviction proceedings against Scott, accusing her of owing more than $ 57,000 in back rent. (She contested

6600-458: The collapse in global trade, contributing to the depression. By 1933, the economic decline pushed world trade to one third of its level compared to four years earlier. While the precise causes for the occurrence of the Great depression are disputed and can be traced to both global and national phenomena, its immediate origins are most conveniently examined in the context of the U.S. economy, from which

6710-443: The complex, Phinis Jones, in an attempt to pay back the city's loan. The newspaper said that this would "potentially [limit] further city oversight of the complex". The D.C. housing authority, which had review authority over the transaction, vetoed the sale on July 11, 2014, although it did not rule out a sale to Jones at a future date. The troubles at the Park Southern Apartments roiled the November 2014 D.C. mayoral election. Scott,

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6820-475: The crash was a mere symptom of more general economic trends of the time, which had already been underway in the late 1920s. A contrasting set of views, which rose to prominence in the later part of the 20th century, ascribes a more prominent role to failures of monetary policy . According to those authors, while general economic trends can explain the emergence of the downturn, they fail to account for its severity and longevity; they argue that these were caused by

6930-620: The crisis, the U.S. Congress passed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act on 17 June 1930. The Act was ostensibly aimed at protecting the American economy from foreign competition by imposing high tariffs on foreign imports. The consensus view among economists and economic historians (including Keynesians , Monetarists and Austrian economists ) is that the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff had, in fact, achieved an opposite effect to what

7040-633: The decade. The Depression had devastating economic effects on both wealthy and poor countries: all experienced drops in personal income , prices ( deflation ), tax revenues, and profits. International trade fell by more than 50%, and unemployment in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities around the world , especially those dependent on heavy industry , were heavily affected. Construction virtually halted in many countries, and farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by up to 60%. Faced with plummeting demand and few job alternatives, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered

7150-408: The depression. Not all governments enforced the same measures of protectionism. Some countries raised tariffs drastically and enforced severe restrictions on foreign exchange transactions, while other countries reduced "trade and exchange restrictions only marginally": The gold standard was the primary transmission mechanism of the Great Depression. Even countries that did not face bank failures and

7260-435: The domestic price level to decline ( deflation ). There is also consensus that protectionist policies, and primarily the passage of the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act , helped to exacerbate, or even cause the Great Depression. Some economic studies have indicated that the rigidities of the gold standard not only spread the downturn worldwide, but also suspended gold convertibility (devaluing the currency in gold terms) that did

7370-402: The drop in demand. Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but the shrinking of the money supply greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression. Economists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of

7480-427: The economies of Europe in 1937–1939. By 1937, unemployment in Britain had fallen to 1.5 million. The mobilization of manpower following the outbreak of war in 1939 ended unemployment. The American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941 moved approximately ten million people out of the civilian labor force and into the war. This finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought

7590-576: The end of the month. A large sell-off of stocks began in mid-October. Finally, on 24 October, Black Thursday , the American stock market crashed 11% at the opening bell. Actions to stabilize the market failed, and on 28 October, Black Monday, the market crashed another 12%. The panic peaked the next day on Black Tuesday, when the market saw another 11% drop. Thousands of investors were ruined, and billions of dollars had been lost; many stocks could not be sold at any price. The market recovered 12% on Wednesday but by then significant damage had been done. Though

7700-408: The eviction.) A subsequent investigation of the property showed such extensive problems that the city accused PSNC of "gross mismanagement". D.C. housing officials say the Park Southern Apartments now need more than $ 20 million in repairs, which is almost as much as the building is worth. The Washington Post reported that PSNC attempted to sell the Park Southern Apartments to the former manager of

7810-494: The explanations of the Keynesians and monetarists. The consensus among demand-driven theories is that a large-scale loss of confidence led to a sudden reduction in consumption and investment spending. Once panic and deflation set in, many people believed they could avoid further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating

7920-503: The few women in the labor force, layoffs were less common in the white-collar jobs and they were typically found in light manufacturing work. However, there was a widespread demand to limit families to one paid job, so that wives might lose employment if their husband was employed. Across Britain, there was a tendency for married women to join the labor force, competing for part-time jobs especially. In France, very slow population growth, especially in comparison to Germany continued to be

8030-501: The first week of June, 540 million in the second, and 150 million in two days, 19–20 June. Collapse was at hand. U.S. President Herbert Hoover called for a moratorium on payment of war reparations . This angered Paris, which depended on a steady flow of German payments, but it slowed the crisis down, and the moratorium was agreed to in July 1931. An International conference in London later in July produced no agreements but on 19 August

8140-599: The government tried to reshape private household consumption under the Four-Year Plan of 1936 to achieve German economic self-sufficiency. The Nazi women's organizations, other propaganda agencies and the authorities all attempted to shape such consumption as economic self-sufficiency was needed to prepare for and to sustain the coming war. The organizations, propaganda agencies and authorities employed slogans that called up traditional values of thrift and healthy living. However, these efforts were only partly successful in changing

8250-602: The grounds of the Ferebee-Hope Recreation Center, is due to begin construction in the summer of 2015. New fences, handicapped-accessibility ramps, landscaping, lighting, and outdoor furniture are also scheduled for the recreation center. Two other playgrounds exist within city-owned Oxon Run Park just north or west of Oxon Run itself. These include Oxon Run Park Playground #1 (Mississippi Avenue SE and 10th Place SE), and Oxon Run Park Playground #3 (4509 1st Street SE). A fourth playground, Oxon Run Playground-Play DC,

8360-428: The highlands became farms owned by white settlers, with large numbers of African American slaves working the fields. The development of Washington Highlands closely parallels that of the adjacent neighborhood of Congress Heights . In 1890, Colonel Arthur E. Randle, a successful newspaper publisher, decided to found a settlement east of the river which he called Congress Heights. The Pennsylvania Avenue Bridge (now

8470-519: The home, or took boarders, did laundry for trade or cash, and did sewing for neighbors in exchange for something they could offer. Extended families used mutual aid—extra food, spare rooms, repair-work, cash loans—to help cousins and in-laws. In Japan, official government policy was deflationary and the opposite of Keynesian spending. Consequently, the government launched a campaign across the country to induce households to reduce their consumption, focusing attention on spending by housewives. In Germany,

8580-514: The initial crisis spread to the rest of the world. In the aftermath of World War I , the Roaring Twenties brought considerable wealth to the United States and Western Europe. Initially, the year 1929 dawned with good economic prospects: despite a minor crash on 25 March 1929, the market seemed to gradually improve through September. Stock prices began to slump in September, and were volatile at

8690-543: The lack of an adequate response to the crises of liquidity that followed the initial economic shock of 1929 and the subsequent bank failures accompanied by a general collapse of the financial markets. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , when the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped from 381 to 198 over the course of two months, optimism persisted for some time. The stock market rose in early 1930, with

8800-570: The majority of public healthcare needs in the District of Columbia. Washington Highlands is home to the Ferebee-Hope Recreation Center at 3999 8th Street SE. The center, which is surrounded by city-owned and maintained parkland, include an indoor, year-round gymnasium; outdoor basketball courts; and an aquatic center which provides year-round indoor swimming and aquatic activities. The Southeast Tennis and Learning Center at 701 Mississippi Avenue SE lies adjacent to Washington Highlands, just across Oxon Run Parkway. The northeast end of Washington Highlands

8910-512: The market entered a period of recovery from 14 November until 17 April 1930, the general situation had been a prolonged slump. From 17 April 1930 until 8 July 1932, the market continued to lose 89% of its value. Despite the crash, the worst of the crisis did not reverberate around the world until after 1929. The crisis hit panic levels again in December 1930, with a bank run on the Bank of United States ,

9020-414: The mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U.S. Interest rates dropped to low levels by mid-1930, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment remained low. By May 1930, automobile sales declined to below the levels of 1928. Prices, in general, began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930. Then

9130-423: The monetary base and by not injecting liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling, the Federal Reserve passively watched the transformation of a normal recession into the Great Depression. Friedman and Schwartz argued that the downward turn in the economy, starting with the stock market crash, would merely have been an ordinary recession if the Federal Reserve had taken aggressive action. This view

9240-496: The most to make recovery possible. Every major currency left the gold standard during the Great Depression. The UK was the first to do so. Facing speculative attacks on the pound and depleting gold reserves , in September 1931 the Bank of England ceased exchanging pound notes for gold and the pound was floated on foreign exchange markets. Japan and the Scandinavian countries followed in 1931. Other countries, such as Italy and

9350-427: The most. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 ended the Depression, as it stimulated factory production, providing jobs for women as militaries absorbed large numbers of young, unemployed men. The precise causes for the Great Depression are disputed. One set of historians, for example, focuses on non-monetary economic causes. Among these, some regard the Wall Street crash itself as the main cause; others consider that

9460-568: The need to balance the national budget and was unwilling to implement expensive welfare spending . In 1930, Hoover signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act , which taxed imports with the intention of encouraging buyers to purchase American products, which worsened the Depression because foreign governments retaliated with tariffs on American exports. In 1932, Hoover established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation , which offered loans to businesses and support to local governments. In

9570-623: The neighborhood it is low-income and public housing apartment complexes, including the 204-unit Highland Dwellings public housing complex. The District of Columbia Housing Authority received 2009 stimulus funding, and allocated $ 11 million towards rehabilitation of Highland Dwellings. Wheeler Creek is a 314-unit community developed with a 1997 HOPE VI grant which replaced two earlier housing complexes, Valley Green and Skytower. Wheeler Creek includes 48 low-income rental units, 100 senior apartments, 32 market-rate rental units, and 30 lease/purchase units. The remaining units are for purchase. In 1967,

9680-547: The neighborhood, and in 1938 the city connected the area to the sewer system via the large Oxon Run sewer main. The sewer system brought even more substantial growth. Another 250 homes were built in the neighborhood in 1938, and 100 more were planned. Even so, large parts of Washington Highlands remained undeveloped: Many streets existed only on paper, and the southern end of the area was primarily still farmland. World War II brought significant changes Washington Highlands. The war brought hundreds of thousands of defense workers into

9790-529: The next few years. By 1925, however, there were enough residents in the neighborhood to form a Washington Highlands Citizen Association. The city denied a 1927 request of citizens in the area for sewer lines to be built in their neighborhood. There were too few residents in the area to justify the expense. But despite the effects of the Great Depression , development in the Washington Highlands area continued. In 1936 and 1937, more than 200 homes were built in

9900-483: The physical volume of exports fall, but also the prices fell by about 1 ⁄ 3 as written. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber. Governments around the world took various steps into spending less money on foreign goods such as: "imposing tariffs, import quotas, and exchange controls". These restrictions triggered much tension among countries that had large amounts of bilateral trade, causing major export-import reductions during

10010-477: The policies prolonged the Depression instead of shortening it. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15%; in the U.S., the Depression resulted in a 30% contraction in GDP. Recovery varied greatly around the world. Some economies, such as the U.S., Germany and Japan started to recover by the mid-1930s; others, like France, did not return to pre-shock growth rates until later in

10120-455: The political situation in Europe. In their book, A Monetary History of the United States , Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz also attributed the recovery to monetary factors, and contended that it was much slowed by poor management of money by the Federal Reserve System . Chairman of the Federal Reserve (2006–2014) Ben Bernanke agreed that monetary factors played important roles both in

10230-627: The redevelopment of nearby Turner Elementary School. But this plan fell through. In September 2009, Parklands-Turner Library closed for four weeks, and the old building demolished. A new Parklands-Turner Library opened in The Shops at Parklands on Alabama Avenue in October 2009. The Lockridge/Bellevue Neighborhood Library was formerly called the Washington Highlands Branch Library, but was never located in Washington Highlands. The library

10340-436: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Washington Highlands . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Washington_Highlands&oldid=538827314 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

10450-434: The scale necessary to make the grand experiments which would prove my case—except in war conditions." According to Christina Romer , the money supply growth caused by huge international gold inflows was a crucial source of the recovery of the United States economy, and that the economy showed little sign of self-correction. The gold inflows were partly due to devaluation of the U.S. dollar and partly due to deterioration of

10560-404: The tenants and D.C. Housing Authority allege. On July 16, 2014, both the D.C. city's attorney general and the United States attorney for the District of Columbia announced civil and criminal investigations into PSNC's administration of the Park Southern Apartments. The most prominent landmark in Washington Highlands is Greater Southeast Community Hospital , the city-owned hospital that serves

10670-471: The world, recovery from the Great Depression began in 1933. In the U.S., recovery began in early 1933, but the U.S. did not return to 1929 GNP for over a decade and still had an unemployment rate of about 15% in 1940, albeit down from the high of 25% in 1933. There is no consensus among economists regarding the motive force for the U.S. economic expansion that continued through most of the Roosevelt years (and

10780-613: The world. The financial crisis escalated out of control in mid-1931, starting with the collapse of the Credit Anstalt in Vienna in May. This put heavy pressure on Germany, which was already in political turmoil. With the rise in violence of National Socialist ('Nazi') and Communist movements, as well as investor nervousness at harsh government financial policies, investors withdrew their short-term money from Germany as confidence spiraled downward. The Reichsbank lost 150 million marks in

10890-778: The worldwide economic decline and eventual recovery. Bernanke also saw a strong role for institutional factors, particularly the rebuilding and restructuring of the financial system, and pointed out that the Depression should be examined in an international perspective. Women's primary role was as housewives; without a steady flow of family income, their work became much harder in dealing with food and clothing and medical care. Birthrates fell everywhere, as children were postponed until families could financially support them. The average birthrate for 14 major countries fell 12% from 19.3 births per thousand population in 1930, to 17.0 in 1935. In Canada, half of Roman Catholic women defied Church teachings and used contraception to postpone births. Among

11000-639: Was a scramble to deflate prices to get the gold standard's conversation rates back on track to pre-WWI levels, by causing deflation and high unemployment through monetary policy. In 1933 FDR signed Executive Order 6102 and in 1934 signed the Gold Reserve Act . The two classic competing economic theories of the Great Depression are the Keynesian (demand-driven) and the Monetarist explanation. There are also various heterodox theories that downplay or reject

11110-498: Was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty; drastic reductions in liquidity , industrial production, and trade; and widespread bank and business failures around the world. The economic contagion began in 1929 in the United States , the largest economy in the world, with the devastating Wall Street stock market crash of October 1929 often considered

11220-478: Was a small part of overall economic activity in the U.S. and was concentrated in a few businesses like farming, it was a much larger factor in many other countries. The average ad valorem (value based) rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921–1925 was 25.9% but under the new tariff it jumped to 50% during 1931–1935. In dollar terms, American exports declined over the next four years from about $ 5.2 billion in 1929 to $ 1.7 billion in 1933; so, not only did

11330-502: Was being turned into a low-income area, but the NCHA pushed the plan through. The low-income housing boom continued in the area in the post-war period, with hundreds more homes being built. The post-war baby boom led to a significant increase in children in the area. After years of city inaction on recreational facilities in the neighborhood, the Washington Highlands Citizens Association successfully petitioned

11440-432: Was demolished in 2009 and a new $ 15 million structure, designed by noted international architect David Adjaye , opened in September 2012. The branch was renamed Bellevue to better reflect the neighborhood in which the library exists. Although D.C. Board of Education member William O. Lockridge opposed the library's reconstruction, D.C. Mayor Vincent C. Gray successfully pushed to have the library renamed for him (even though

11550-474: Was endorsed in 2002 by Federal Reserve Governor Ben Bernanke in a speech honoring Friedman and Schwartz with this statement: Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again. The Federal Reserve allowed some large public bank failures – particularly that of

11660-426: Was given by American economists Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz . They argued that the Great Depression was caused by the banking crisis that caused one-third of all banks to vanish, a reduction of bank shareholder wealth and more importantly monetary contraction of 35%, which they called "The Great Contraction ". This caused a price drop of 33% ( deflation ). By not lowering interest rates, by not increasing

11770-491: Was in the form of Federal Reserve demand notes. A "promise of gold" is not as good as "gold in the hand", particularly when they only had enough gold to cover 40% of the Federal Reserve Notes outstanding. During the bank panics, a portion of those demand notes was redeemed for Federal Reserve gold. Since the Federal Reserve had hit its limit on allowable credit, any reduction in gold in its vaults had to be accompanied by

11880-446: Was intended. It exacerbated the Great Depression by preventing economic recovery after domestic production recovered, hampering the volume of trade; still there is disagreement as to the precise extent of the Act's influence. In the popular view, the Smoot–Hawley Tariff was one of the leading causes of the depression. In a 1995 survey of American economic historians, two-thirds agreed that the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act at least worsened

11990-464: Was the rollback of those same reflationary policies that led to the interruption of a recession beginning in late 1937. One contributing policy that reversed reflation was the Banking Act of 1935 , which effectively raised reserve requirements, causing a monetary contraction that helped to thwart the recovery. GDP returned to its upward trend in 1938. A revisionist view among some economists holds that

12100-425: Was wired for broadband Internet. The renovated building also featured several community rooms, a computer room, playground, controlled-access parking garage, and 3 acres (12,000 m ) of parkland. Retail space in the complex was occupied by a bank, convenience store, hair salon, and geriatric care center. Security at the building was very strong. Applicants for empty units could not have a criminal record of any kind,

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