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132-566: The bookstore was accused several times of being communist-leaning; however, it was not operated under the auspices of the Communist Party and did not profess to be, although the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin and publications like Soviet Russia Today were sold there. The store handled popular works as well as an extensive selection of books and periodicals on political topics; these latter were not limited to works by communist-approved authors. The store's customers, many of whom joined just to get

264-418: A secular holiday. His parents raised their children to be "high-minded idealists" rather than depending solely on religion for their purpose and inspiration. In later years, his mother, Frederika, wrote of this period: I believe that only goodness and truth and conduct that is humane and self-sacrificing toward those who need us can bring God nearer to us ... I wanted to give my children the purest spirit and

396-638: A 1,000% increase in antisemitic incidents in the two months following the outbreak of the Israel-Hamas War , compared with similar periods in previous years. In the wake of these staggering statistics, the International Movement for Peace and Coexistence (IMPAC) raised concerns about issues of bias regarding how the Palestinian-Israel conflict is presented in Belgian schools. Antisemitism became

528-513: A 1934 graduate of Yale and later one of the founders of Hill & Wang , was the bookstore manager until he left in 1942 to join the sales force at Knopf. The chair of the bookstore's board, David Wahl, a Library of Congress employee (later with the Bureau of Economic Warfare and the OSS), was accused of being a Soviet spy, and a number of books have repeated this allegation. He was never formally charged, and

660-567: A 2004 poll by the " Pew Global Attitudes Project " noted, "Despite concerns about rising antisemitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany, and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia." According to 2005 survey results by

792-513: A candidate. In his books, articles and speeches, including Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It , and The Curse of Bigness , he criticized the power of large banks, money trusts, powerful corporations, monopolies, public corruption, and mass consumerism, all of which he felt were detrimental to American values and culture. He later became active in the Zionist movement , seeing it as

924-731: A consultant and advisor to businesses, but also as a litigator who enjoyed courtroom challenges. In a letter to his brother, he writes, "There is a certain joy in the exhaustion and backache of a long trial which shorter skirmishes cannot afford." On November 6, 1889, he argued for the first time before the U.S. Supreme Court as the Eastern counsel of the Wisconsin Central Railroad in Wisconsin Central Railroad Company v. Price County , 133 US 496 (1889), and won. Soon after, Chief Justice Melville Fuller recommended him to

1056-761: A few months in the Midwest and was impressed by the nation's institutions and by the tolerance among the people he met. He wrote home to his wife, "America's progress is the triumph of the rights of man." The Brandeis family chose to settle in Louisville partly because it was a prosperous river port. His earliest childhood was shaped by the American Civil War , which forced the family to seek safety temporarily in Indiana. The Brandeis family held abolitionist beliefs that angered their Louisville neighbors. Louis's father developed

1188-589: A friend as the best attorney he knew of in the Eastern U.S. Before taking on business clients, he insisted they agree to two major conditions: that he would only deal with the person in charge, never intermediaries, and he could be allowed to advise on any relevant aspects of the firm's affairs. He preferred being an adviser and counselor, rather than simply a strategist in lawsuits, which would allow him to advise his clients on how to avoid problems, such as lawsuits, strikes, or other crises. Brandeis explained: "I would rather have clients than be somebody's lawyer." In

1320-537: A government employee. 38°54′08″N 77°02′23″W  /  38.9021°N 77.0396°W  / 38.9021; -77.0396 Louis Brandeis Louis Dembitz Brandeis ( / ˈ b r æ n d aɪ s / ; November 13, 1856 – October 5, 1941) was an American lawyer who served as an associate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939. Starting in 1890, he helped develop

1452-404: A grain-merchandising business. Worries about the U.S. economy took the family back to Europe in 1872, but they returned in 1875. The Brandeis family were considered a "cultured family", trying not to discuss business or money during dinner, preferring subjects related to history, politics, and culture, or their daily lives. Having been raised partly on German culture , Louis read and appreciated

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1584-651: A negative effect on a free society. Brandeis was becoming increasingly conscious of and hostile to powerful corporations and the trend toward bigness in American industry and finance. He argued that great size conflicted with efficiency and added a new dimension to the Efficiency Movement of the Progressive Era. As early as 1895, he had pointed out the harm that giant corporations could do to competitors, customers, and their own workers. The growth of industrialization

1716-626: A neo-Nazi stabbed nine people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009. In 2008, the radical Svoboda (Freedom) party of Ukraine captured more than 10% of the popular vote, giving electoral support to a party well known for its antisemitic rhetoric. They joined

1848-424: A new precedent in evidence presentation. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson nominated Brandeis to a seat on the Supreme Court of the United States . His nomination was bitterly contested, partly because, as Justice William O. Douglas later wrote, "Brandeis was a militant crusader for social justice whoever his opponent might be. He was dangerous not only because of his brilliance, his arithmetic, his courage. He

1980-477: A note found among his papers, he reminded himself to "advise client on what he should have, not what he wants." Brandeis describes how he saw himself as an advisor: Of course there is an immense amount of litigation going on and a great deal of the time of many lawyers is devoted to litigation. But by far the greater part of the work done by lawyers is not done in court at all, but in advising men in important matters, and mainly in business affairs. ... So, some of

2112-622: A political force in Bulgaria in the late 19th century. In World War II the community of about 50,000 was largely protected when King Boris III refused to hand over the Jews to the Nazis. After the war most went to Israel. There are about 2,000 Jews still living in Bulgaria today. In early 2019, an incident occurred in Bulgaria where rocks were thrown at a synagogue in Sofia , Bulgaria's capital city. Though no one

2244-603: A poll conducted by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) in 2012, antisemitic attitudes in ten European countries remain at "disturbingly high levels", peaking in Eastern Europe and Spain, with large swaths of the population subscribing to classical antisemitic notions such as Jews having too much power in business, being more loyal to Israel than their own country, or "talking too much" about the Holocaust. In comparison with

2376-564: A potential rise in antisemitism following the victory of the far right Freedom Party - founded by Nazis - in the September 2024 elections. Two days before the elections, the party caused controversy when party officials sung and SS song at the funeral of former member. Over a hundred antisemitic attacks were recorded in Belgium in 2009, a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant Muslim backgrounds from

2508-483: A press conference: "Do you know who you are defending? You are defending kikes! Go over their [company headquarters] and find out who is behind this company and if we should let them come here!" After Rimma Varzhapetian's protests, Aivazian claimed he did not mean to offend Jews, and that such criticism was intended strictly for the Global Gold company. On 23 December 2007, The Jewish Holocaust Memorial in central Yerevan

2640-693: A prime time talk show, the leader of the People's Party and the owner of ALM television channel, Tigran Karapetyan , accused Jews of assisting Ottoman authorities in the 1915 Armenian Genocide. His interviewee, Armen Avetissian stated that "the Armenian Aryans intend to fight against the Jewish- Masonic aggression and will do what it takes to repress evil in its own nest." Speaking about Armenia's Jewish community Avetissian said that it consists of "700 of those who identify themselves as Jews and 50,000 of those whom

2772-545: A public advocate was later explained in his 1911 book, The Opportunity in the Law : The public is often inadequately represented or wholly unrepresented. That presents a condition of great unfairness to the public. As a result, many bills pass in our legislatures which would not have become law if the public interest had been fairly represented.... Those of you who feel drawn to that profession may rest assured that you will find in it an opportunity for usefulness probably unequaled. There

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2904-405: A record of good and bad political deeds, which would be open to all Boston voters. In one of his public addresses in 1903, he stated his goal: We want a government that will represent the laboring man, the professional man, the businessman, and the man of leisure. We want a good government, not because it is good business but because it is dishonorable to submit to a bad government. The great name,

3036-474: A similar poll conducted in 2009, several of the countries showed high levels in the overall level of antisemitism, while other countries experienced more modest increases: In January 2019 the European Commission published a survey of 28 countries which showed a wide gap in perceptions between Jews and non-Jews in Europe. 89% of the Jews surveyed thought that antisemitism had "significantly increased" over

3168-526: A solution to antisemitism in Europe and Russia , while at the same time being a way to "revive sense of the Jewish spirit." When his family's finances became secure, he began devoting most of his time to public causes, and he was later dubbed the "People's Lawyer." He insisted on taking cases without pay so that he would be free to address the wider issues involved. The Economist magazine called him "A Robin Hood of

3300-562: A wave of violence between 1348 and 1350. For example, some two thousand Jews were massacred by burning in Strasbourg, in February 1349 , upon a decision by the city council, before the plague had reached the city. In the German states a total of approximately 300 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period, because of Jews being killed or driven out. Another aspect of medieval antisemitism

3432-693: Is Israel's strong relations with and arms sales to Azerbaijan . During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War , Nagorno-Karabakh president Arayik Harutyunyan accused Israel of complicity in a 'genocide' against Armenians. Armenians in Lebanon burned the Israeli flag, along with the Turkish and Azerbaijani flags at a protest during that war. In April 1998, Igor Muradyan , a famous Armenian political analyst and economist, published an antisemitic article in one of Armenia's leading newspapers Voice of Armenia . Muradyan claimed that

3564-441: Is a call upon the legal profession to do a great work for this country. In one of his first such cases, in 1894, he represented Alice N. Lincoln, a Boston philanthropist and noted crusader for the poor. He appeared at public hearings to promote investigations into conditions in the public poorhouses. Lincoln, who had visited the poorhouses for years, saw inmates dwelling in misery and the temporarily unemployed thrown in together with

3696-528: Is the myth of Holocaust.... no one was killed in gas chambers. There were no gas chambers." Similar accusations were voiced by Armen Avetissian, the leader of the small ultra-nationalist party, Armenian Aryan Order (AAO), on 11 February 2002, when he also called for the Israeli ambassador Rivka Kohen to be declared persona non-grata in Armenia for Israel's refusal to give the Armenian massacres of 1915 equal status with

3828-696: The Iravunq newspaper, where he stated: "Any country that has a Jewish minority is under big threat in terms of stability." Later while meeting with the Chairman of the National Assembly of Armenia Artur Baghdasarian , head of the Jewish Council of Armenia Rima Varzhapetian insisted that the government took steps to prevent further acts of antisemitism. Avetissian was arrested on 24 January 2005. Several prominent academic figures, such as Levon Ananyan (the head of

3960-713: The Fourth Lateran Council , in 1215, Jews were also ordered to wear distinctive clothing, in some instances a circular badge. Some Jews managed to evade the humiliating requirement of wearing a badge by bribing the local authorities. In the later Middle Ages, Jews were expelled from smaller and larger regions across western Europe as well as the German lands, including monarchy-wide expulsions from England, in 1290 , and France, in 1306 and 1394 . The greatest expulsions of Jews were in Spain (1492) and Portugal (1496), where Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity, or to leave

4092-481: The Harvard Law Review of December 15, 1890, on "The Right to Privacy." Stimulated by anger at offensive publicity concerning the social activities of Warren's family, it suggested a new legal concept that has had lasting influence. Building on diverse analogies in the law of defamation, of literary property, and of eavesdropping, Brandeis argued that the central, if unarticulated, interest protected in these fields

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4224-469: The Harvard Law Review . The third, "The Right to Privacy," was the most important, with legal scholar Roscoe Pound saying it accomplished "nothing less than adding a chapter to our law." Brandeis and Warren discussed "snapshot photography," a recent innovation in journalism, that allowed newspapers to publish photographs and statements of individuals without obtaining their consent. They argued that private individuals were being continually injured and that

4356-811: The Louisville Male High School at age 14 with the highest honors. When he was 16, the Louisville University of the Public Schools awarded him a gold medal for "excellence in all his studies." Anticipating an economic downturn, Adolph Brandeis relocated the family to Europe in 1872. After a period spent traveling, Louis spent two years studying at the Annenschule  [ de ] in Dresden , Germany, where he excelled. He later credited his capacity for critical thinking and his desire to study law in

4488-546: The Middle East . In 2009, the Belgian city of Antwerp , often referred to as Europe's last shtetl , experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. Bloeme Evers-Emden , an Amsterdam resident and Auschwitz survivor, was quoted in the newspaper Aftenposten in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the Holocaust. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us." The behavior prompted by

4620-500: The Pale of Settlement was established in 1772 by the empress of Russia Catherine II , restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire with the exception of a number of Jews who received permission to live in major cities, such as Kiev and Moscow. By the end of the 19th century a new type of antisemitism had begun to develop in Europe, racial antisemitism . It started as a part of a broader racist world view and belief of superiority of

4752-531: The Rothschild family played in the European banking system. The pogroms in 1881 and after the first Russian Revolution of 1905 cost thousands of Jewish lives and more than a million migrated to America. The second Russian revolution and the civil war that came afterwards sparked a new wave of pogroms against the Jews as nationalist militias and regular armies fought over the control of the country. The casualties from

4884-612: The United Kingdom . In those countries, physical assaults against Jews including beatings, stabbings, and other violence, increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death. Moreover, the Netherlands and Sweden have also had consistently high rates of antisemitic attacks since 2000. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed

5016-555: The Writers union of Armenia ) and composer Ruben Hakhverdian supported Avetissian and called upon the authorities to release him. In their demands to release him they were joined by opposition deputies and ombudsman Larisa Alaverdyan as the authorities had arrested him for political speech. In September 2006, while criticizing the American Global Gold corporation, Armenian Minister of Environment Vardan Ayvazyan said during

5148-495: The Zionist movement later in his life. Louis grew up in "a family enamored with books, music, and politics, perhaps best typified by his revered uncle, Lewis Dembitz, a refined, educated man who served as a delegate to the Republican convention in 1860 that nominated Abraham Lincoln for president." In school, Louis was a serious student in languages and other basic courses and usually achieved top scores. Brandeis graduated from

5280-632: The destruction of the ancient Jewish cultural center in Jerusalem caused two millennia of segregation , expulsions , persecutions , pogroms , genocides of Jews, which culminated in the 20th-century Holocaust in Nazi German-occupied European states , where 67% European Jews were murdered. Antisemitism in Europe in the Middle Ages was largely influenced by the Christian belief that

5412-468: The " right to privacy " concept by writing a Harvard Law Review article of that title , and was thereby credited by legal scholar Roscoe Pound as having accomplished "nothing less than adding a chapter to our law." He was a leading figure in the antitrust movement at the turn of the century, particularly in his resistance to the monopolization of the New England railroad and advice to Woodrow Wilson as

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5544-521: The "white race" over other "races", while existing prejudice was supported by pseudo-scientific theories such as Social Darwinism . The main idea of racial antisemitism, as presented by racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau , is that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to the European nations. The emphasis was on the non-European origin and culture of the Jews, meaning they were beyond redemption even if they converted to Christianity . This modern antisemitism emphasized hatred of

5676-542: The 1935 Nuremberg Laws which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition that was based on descent, rather than a definition which was based on religion . Sporadic violence against Jews became widespread during the Kristallnacht riots in 1938, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses, and places of worship, killing 91 across Germany and Austria . With the Nazi invasion of Poland in 1939 and

5808-555: The 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, a number of pogroms occurred in Russia, sparked by various variables such as antisemitic political movements, the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 and blood libels about Jews killing Christian children. The most famous blood libel was the Beilis Trial that took place in Kiev in 1903 when a local Jew was found innocent from

5940-589: The 19th century was the Dreyfus affair , when a French officer of Jewish origin, Alfred Dreyfus , was accused of high treason in 1894. The trial sparked a wave of antisemitism in France: eventually Dreyfus was found innocent of the charges in 1906. The affair greatly inspired Theodor Herzl . In eastern Europe, religious antisemitism remained influential as the Industrial Revolution affected those areas less. During

6072-723: The 2012 local elections in the municipality of Schaarbeek impelled the president of the Coordination Committee of Jewish Organizations in Belgium, Maurice Sosnowski, to observe that "'candidates who belonged to the Jewish community were attacked for their affiliation' and the municipality saw a 'hate campaign under the pretext of anti-Zionism.'" Several other incidents occurred in 2012- in November Demonstrators at an anti-Israel rally in Antwerp rally chanted "Hamas, Hamas, all Jews to

6204-689: The Anti-Defamation League, antisemitic attitudes remain common in Europe. Over 30% of those surveyed believed that Jews have too much power in business , with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary , and over 40% in Poland and Spain . The results of religious antisemitism also persist and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for

6336-607: The Aryans will soon reveal while cleansing the country of Jewish evil." The Jewish Council of Armenia addressed its concerns to the government and various human rights organizations demanding to stop promoting ethnic hatred and to ban ALM. However, these demands were mostly disregarded. On 23 October 2004, the head of the Department for Ethnic and Religious Minority Issues, Hranoush Kharatyan, publicly commented on so-called "Judaist" xenophobia in Armenia. She said: "Why are we not responding to

6468-575: The Commonwealth. Nevertheless, the Cossack uprising of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in Polish-controlled Ukraine (1648) devastated many Jewish communities and tens of thousands of Jews were massacred, expelled, or sold as slaves by Khmelnytsky's Tartar allies. Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by

6600-400: The Holocaust or expose assistance given by elements of the local population in previously Nazi-occupied territories. An example was the Kielce pogrom , which occurred in 1946 in Poland when citizens violently attacked Jews based on a false accusation of the kidnapping of a Christian child. The postwar period also witnessed a rise in antisemitic persecution in the USSR. In 1948, Stalin launched

6732-464: The Holocaust. In addition, he asserted that the number of victims of the Holocaust has been overstated. In 2004, Armen Avetissian expressed extremist remarks against Jews in several issues of the AAO run The Armeno-Aryan newspaper, as well as during a number of meetings and press conferences, leading to his party's exclusion from the Armenian Nationalist Front. He was arrested in January 2005 on charges of inciting ethnic hatred. Shortly after, during

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6864-405: The IDF purposely targets children or poisons the Palestinian water supplies . The study found that "people who believed the anti-Israel mythologies also tended to believe that Jews are not honest in business, have dual loyalties, control government and the economy, and the like." The study found anti-Israel respondents were 56% more likely to be antisemitic than the average European. According to

6996-463: The Jewish people were collectively responsible for the death of Jesus through the so-called blood curse of Pontius Pilate in the Gospels. Persecutions against Jews were widespread during the Crusades , beginning in 1095, when a number of communities, especially in France and the Rhineland , were massacred. On many occasions, Jews were accused of the ritual murder of Christian children in what were called blood libels . The first known blood libel

7128-458: The Jewish population grew from 6,000 in 1860 to almost 185,000 in 1938. In March 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany and thousands of Austrian Jews were sent to concentration camps. Of the 65,000 Viennese Jews deported to concentration camps, only about 2,000 survived, while around 800 survived World War II in hiding. In the Habsburg Empire, the antisemitic movement was strongly concentrated on Vienna. Antisemitism did not cease to exist in

7260-415: The Jewish population of the USSR to exile in Kazakhstan , Siberia or the Jewish Autonomous Oblast . Antisemitism has increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with increases in verbal attacks and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, and desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Those incidents took place not only in France and Germany , but also in Belgium , Austria , and

7392-406: The Jews as a race and not only due to their Jewish religion. The rise of modern antisemitism together with the rise of nationalism and the nation state brought a wave of antisemitism as Jews struggled to gain their rights as equal citizens. In Germany, this brought up the Hep-Hep riots in 1819 when the Jews of Bavaria were attacked for claiming their civic rights. One of the most famous examples of

7524-496: The Jews in the death camps; the largest of these was Auschwitz . With the end of World War II in 1945, surviving Jews began to return to their homes although many chose to emigrate to the United States , the United Kingdom , and British-controlled Palestine . To some extent, the antisemitism of the Nazi regime continued in different guises. Claims of blood libel and persecution of Jews continued, in part due to fear that returning Jews would attempt to reclaim property stolen during

7656-414: The KGB in America positively identify him as "Pink", a Soviet intelligence agent recruited in the 1930s, arguing that the details of Pink's resume fit Wahl and no one else. Philip Keeney of the Library of Congress and Mrs. Nathan Gregory Silvermaster were among the other accused Soviet agents who had a connection with the bookshop. On May 16, 1941, staffers of the Dies Committee with a subpoena raided

7788-547: The Massachusetts plan to protect small wage-earners through savings bank life insurance . He supported the conservation movement; in 1910, he emerged as the chief figure in the Pinchot–Ballinger investigation , saying: "We may have democracy, or we may have wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, but we can't have both." In 1889, Brandeis entered a new phase in his legal career when his partner, Samuel Warren, withdrew from their partnership to take over his recently deceased father's paper company. Brandeis then took on cases with

7920-404: The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom—revealed high levels of antisemitic attitudes. Greece's neo-Nazi party, Golden Dawn , won 21 seats in parliament, although these had all been lost by 2019. In Eastern Europe antisemitism in the 21st century continued on a similar scale to the 1990s. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states has brought

8052-418: The United States to his time there. Returning to the U.S. in 1875, Brandeis entered Harvard Law School at the age of 18. His admiration for the wide learning and debating skills of his uncle, Lewis Dembitz, inspired him to study law. Despite the fact that he entered the school without any financial help from his family, he became "an extraordinary student". During his time at Harvard, the teaching of law

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8184-430: The ablest American lawyers of this generation, after acting as professional advisers of great corporations, became finally their managers. Brandeis was unusual among lawyers since he always turned away cases he considered bad. If he believed a client to be in the wrong, he would persuade his clients to make amends, otherwise he would withdraw from the case. Once, uncertain as to the rightness of his client's case, he wrote

8316-401: The accusations of killing a Christian boy. Another example of modern antisemitism in Europe was the conspiracy theory of Jewish world economic domination, as presented in the hoax The Protocols of the Elders of Zion which was first published in Russia in 1903 and became known outside Russia after the Russian Revolution of 1917 . This theory was strengthened by the leading part Jews like

8448-648: The aftermath of World War II and continued to be part of Austrian political life and culture with its strongest hold in the political parties and the media. Bernd Marin , an Austrian sociologist, has characterized antisemitism in Austria after 1945 as an 'antisemitism without Jews', since Jews constituted only 0.1 percent of the Austrian population. Antisemitism was stronger in those areas where Jews no longer lived and where previously practically no Jews had lived, and among people who neither have had nor have any personal contact with Jews. Since post-war prejudice against Jews has been publicly forbidden and tabooed, antisemitism

8580-405: The banishment of Jews from Bohemia by the archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa, who later also stated that Jews had to pay for remaining in the country. With the development of the banking system and the need of rulers for financing their growing state apparatus, the term " Court Jew " was used in some western European states. The court Jews were businessmen and bankers who received privileges from

8712-416: The beginning of World War II , the Nazis began the extermination of Jews in Europe. The Jews were concentrated in ghettos and later they were sent to concentration and death camps where they were immediately or eventually murdered. In the occupied territories of the USSR, Jews were murdered by death squads , sometimes with the help of locally recruited units . This practice was later replaced by gassing

8844-422: The bookshop and seized its membership list of 1200 names out of the hands of a woman manager who was attempting to leave with it. This list was used by the Dies Committee to produce a color coded chart showing the membership interlocks between the bookshop and other alleged communist front groups in Washington. The Civil Service Commission later ruled that membership in the bookshop was insufficient grounds for firing

8976-418: The campaign against the " rootless cosmopolitan " in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the Doctors' Plot , issued between 1952 and 1953, during which a number of Jewish doctors were arrested and accused of attempting to murder leading party leaders. Modern historian Edvard Radzinsky has also suggested that Stalin planned to deport

9108-404: The client, "The position that I should take if I remained in the case would be to give everybody a square deal." Brandeis and Warren's firm has been in continuous practice in Boston since its founding in 1879; the firm is known as Nutter McClennen & Fish . Brandeis defined modern notions of the individual right to privacy in a path-breaking article he published with his partner, Warren, in

9240-428: The continent had experienced significant political reformation. In western Europe, Jews were largely limited by local monarchs, especially as a consequence of the growing fear of competition with the local merchants due to the fact that the main occupation of Jews was commerce and banking. Notable examples are the limitation of the number of Jews allowed to settle in Breslau issued by Frederick II of Prussia in 1744 and

9372-426: The continuing success of his law practice, they later purchased a vacation house in Dedham , where they would spend many of their weekends and summer vacations. Unexpectedly, his wife's health soon became frail, and so in addition to his professional duties, he found it necessary to manage the family's domestic affairs. They shunned the more luxurious ways of their class, holding few formal dinner parties and avoiding

9504-557: The country within six or eleven months, respectively. The Protestant Reformation saw a rise of antisemitism with Martin Luther 's On the Jews and Their Lies . Martin Luther and antisemitism proved that the Protestant church would be virulent to the Jews. The Renaissance , Enlightenment and imperialist eras led to a series of increasingly xenophobic and non-religious expressions of antisemitic phobias and outrages, even as much of

9636-724: The death of Jesus , with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%. A 2006 study in the Journal of Conflict Resolution found that although almost no respondents in countries of the European Union regarded themselves as antisemitic, antisemitic attitudes correlated with anti-Israel opinions. Looking at populations in 10 European countries, Charles A. Small and Edward H. Kaplan surveyed 5,000 respondents, asking them about Israeli actions and classical antisemitic stereotypes. The surveys asked questions about whether people thought that

9768-500: The demands of society. The press is overstepping in every direction the obvious bounds of propriety and of decency. Gossip is no longer the resource of the idle and of the vicious, but has become a trade, which is pursued with industry, as well as effrontery. To satisfy a prurient taste the details of sexual relations are spread broadcast in the columns of the daily papers. ... The intensity and complexity of life, attendant upon advancing civilization, have rendered necessary some retreat from

9900-516: The discount on new books, included prominent Washingtonians like Louis Brandeis . Other members, such as geologist Ruth A. M. Schmidt , joined the Bookshop because of its mission to work towards racial equality. Members of the Washington Bookshop who were federal employees were investigated by federal loyalty boards, while others were blacklisted as communist suspects. Lawrence Hill (1912–1988),

10032-774: The early 1930s after the German defeat in World War I and the economic crisis of 1929 , which resulted in the rise of the Nazis and their explicitly antisemitic program. Hate speech which referred to Jewish citizens as "dirty Jews" became common in antisemitic pamphlets and newspapers such as the Völkischer Beobachter and Der Stürmer Additionally, blame was laid on Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in World War I (see Dolchstosslegende ). The Nazi antisemitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech. Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in

10164-674: The existence of these gray hairs." Brandeis became a leader of the Progressive movement , and he used the law as the instrument for social change. From 1897 to 1916, he was heavily involved with multiple reform crusades. He fought in Boston to secure honest traction franchises and, in 1907 launched a six-year fight to prevent the banker J. P. Morgan , who acquired the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad , from monopolizing New England 's railroads. After an exposé of insurance fraud in 1906, he devised

10296-490: The fact that on their Friday gatherings, Judaists continue to advocate hatred towards all non-Judaists as far as comparing the latter to cattle and propagating spitting on them?" Kharatyan also accused local Jews of calling for "anti-Christian actions." The Jewish Council of Armenia sent an open letter to President Robert Kocharian expressing its deep concern with the recent rise of antisemitism. Armen Avetissian responded to this by publishing yet another antisemitic article in

10428-617: The gas." In October, a synagogue in Brussels was vandalized by two unidentified male perpetrators who spray-painted "death to the Jews" and "boom" on the wall. The increased frequency of antisemitic attacks started in May 2014, when four people were killed in a shooting at the Belgian Jewish Museum in Brussels. Two days later, a young Muslim man entered the CCU (Jewish Cultural Center) while an event

10560-499: The glory of Boston, is in our keeping. In 1906, Brandeis won a modest victory when the state legislature enacted a measure he drafted designed to make it a punishable crime for a public official to solicit a job from a regulated public utility or for an officer of such a company to offer such favors. His anti-corruption philosophy was included in his closing argument for the Glavis-Ballinger case of 1910, in which he stated that

10692-459: The growing number of giant companies which were capable of dominating whole industries. He began to lose faith that the economic system was able to regulate them for the public's welfare. As a result, he denounced "cut-throat competition" and worried about monopolies. He also became concerned about the plight of workers and was more sympathetic to the labor movement. His earlier legal battles had convinced him that concentrated economic power could have

10824-549: The happiest of my life. I worked! For me, the world's center was Cambridge." After graduation, he stayed on at Harvard for another year, where he continued to study law on his own while also earning a small income by tutoring other law students. In 1878, he was admitted to the Missouri bar and accepted a job with a law firm in St. Louis, where he filed his first brief and published his first law review article. After seven months, he tired of

10956-519: The help of colleagues, two of whom became partners in 1897 in his new firm: Brandeis, Dunbar, and Nutter. He won his first important victory in 1891, when he persuaded the Massachusetts legislature to make the liquor laws less restrictive and thereby more reasonable and enforceable. He suggested a viable "middle course": by moderating the existing regulations, he told the lawmakers that they would remove liquor dealers' incentive to violate or to corrupt

11088-542: The highest ideals as to morals and love. God has blessed my endeavors. According to biographer Melvin Urofsky , Brandeis was influenced greatly by his uncle Lewis Naphtali Dembitz . Unlike other members of the extended Brandeis family, Dembitz regularly practiced Judaism and was actively involved in Zionist activities. Brandeis later changed his middle name from David to Dembitz in honor of his uncle, and through his uncle's model of social activism, became an active member of

11220-455: The history of Armenian-Jewish relations has been filled with "Aryans vs. Semites" conflict manifestations. He accused Jews of inciting ethnic conflicts, including the dispute over Nagorno-Karabagh and demonstrated concern for Armenia's safety in light of Israel's good relations with Turkey . In 2002, a book entitled National System (written by Romen Yepiskoposyan in Armenian and Russian )

11352-400: The influence of Chief Justice Gray." The new firm was eventually successful, having gained new clients from within the state and in several neighboring states as well. Their former professors referred a number of clients to the firm, garnering Brandeis more financial security and eventually the freedom to take an active role in progressive causes. As a partner in his law firm, he worked as

11484-492: The large presence of Jews in Vienna. The Jews were systematically destroyed 1938–1945. Evidences of the presence of Jewish communities in the geographical area today covered by Austria can be traced back to the 12th century. In 1848 Jews were granted civil rights and the right to establish an autonomous religious community, but full citizenship rights were given only in 1867. In an atmosphere of economic, religious, and social freedom,

11616-466: The last five years, whereas only 36% of non-Jews believed the same. A CNN-sponsored poll in 2018 established that anti-Semitic stereotypes were very prevalent in Europe. One fifth of the people surveyed declared that Jews have too much influence in media and politics , and one third stated they knew little or nothing about the Holocaust . In 2023, 52% of 8,000 Jews from 13 European countries surveyed said they have experienced antisemitism in public in

11748-485: The law." Among his notable early cases were actions fighting railroad monopolies, defending workplace and labor laws , helping create the Federal Reserve System , and presenting ideas for the new Federal Trade Commission . He achieved recognition by submitting a case brief, later called the " Brandeis brief ", which relied on expert testimony from people in other professions to support his case, thereby setting

11880-426: The laws. The legislature was won over by his arguments and changed the regulations. Brandeis wrote that "the law has everywhere a tendency to lag behind the facts of life." He chipped away at assumptions that legal principles should never be changed. He worked to break the traditional hold on legal thinking to make laws that met the needs of the changing community. Part of his reasoning and philosophy for acting as

12012-501: The line into anti-Semitism." This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated on the one hand with the Muslim antisemitism (described below) and on the other hand with the rise of far-right political parties owing to the economic crisis of 2008. There are a number of antisemitic political parties in the EU, and a survey in ten European countries—specifically Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy,

12144-469: The luxury hotels when they traveled. Brandeis would never fit the stereotype of the wealthy man. Although he belonged to a polo club, he never played polo. He owned no yacht, just a canoe that he would paddle by himself on the fast-flowing river that adjoined his cottage in Dedham. He wrote to his brother of his brief trips to Dedham: "Dedham is a spring of eternal youth for me. I feel newly made and ready to deny

12276-526: The majority of whom voiced antisemitic feelings. Participants in the antisemitic riots outside the Israeli embassy in 2009 were said to be mainly Muslim youth, supported by left-wing autonomous Blitz activists. Islamic terrorists have been involved in some violent attacks on Jews. In 2012 in Toulouse, armed terrorist Mohammed Merah , the child of Muslim parents from Algeria, murdered four Jews. Merah had previously targeted French army soldiers. A brother of

12408-404: The mentally ill as well as hardened criminals. Brandeis spent nine months and held fifty-seven public hearings, at one such hearing proclaiming, "Men are not bad. Men are degraded largely by circumstances.... It is the duty of every man... to help them up and let them feel that there is some hope for them in life." As a result of the hearings, the board of aldermen decreed that the administration of

12540-462: The minor casework and accepted an offer by his Harvard classmate, Samuel D. Warren II , to set up a law firm in Boston . They were close friends at Harvard, where Warren ranked second in the class to Brandeis's first. Warren also came from a wealthy Boston family and their new firm benefitted from his family's connections. Soon after returning to Boston, while waiting for the law firm to gain clients, he

12672-545: The nation on a legal trajectory of such profound magnitude that it finally transcended its humble beginnings." State courts and legislatures quickly drew on Brandeis and Warren's work. In 1905 the Georgia Supreme Court recognized a right to privacy in a case involving a photograph of the plaintiff published without his consent in an advertisement with a misattributed quotation. By 1909, California, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Utah had passed statutes establishing

12804-692: The past. It is located in the city's Aragast Park, a few blocks north of the centrally located Republic Square, which is home to a number of government buildings. On 12 February 2021, the Holocaust Memorial in Yerevan was once again vandalized. On 15 November 2023, a month into the Gaza War , the Mordechai Navi Synagogue was set fire to. Antisemitism has a long history in Austria, typically focused on

12936-462: The payrolls of the private transit companies. One alderman gave jobs to 200 of his followers. In Boston and other cities, such abuses were part of the corruption in which graft and bribery were common, and in some cases, even newly freed felons resumed their political careers. "Always the moralist," writes biographer Thomas Mason, "Brandeis declared that 'misgovernment in Boston had reached the danger point. ' " He declared that from then on he would keep

13068-426: The pogroms were estimated in tens of thousands dead. The Holocaust was among the most significant events in modern Jewish history and one of the largest genocides in the history of the world . Approximately six million Jews were murdered by the Nazis, accounting for roughly 2/3 of all European Jews. By the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated Jews in Europe. Their situation changed in

13200-428: The poor law would be completely reorganized. In 1896, he was asked to lead the fight against a Boston transit company, which was trying to gain concessions from the state legislature that would have given it control over the city's emerging subway system. Brandeis prevailed, and the legislature enacted his bill. The transit franchise struggle revealed that many of Boston's politicians had placed political friends on

13332-508: The portions of his FBI file which have been made public are so heavily redacted that it is impossible to determine what the substance of the allegations was, although it is known that NSA code experts speculated that he was the Soviet agent who appears in the Venona intercepts under the codename "Pink." John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassilliev in their 2009 book Spies: The Rise and Fall of

13464-445: The practice weakened the "moral standards of society as a whole." They wrote: That the individual shall have full protection in person and in property is a principle as old as the common law; but it has been found necessary from time to time to define anew the exact nature and extent of such protection. Political, social, and economic changes entail the recognition of new rights, and the common law, in its eternal youth, grows to meet

13596-491: The public servant "cannot be worthy of the respect and admiration of the people unless they add to the virtue of obedience some other virtues—the virtues of manliness, of truth, of courage, of willingness to risk positions, of the willingness to risk criticism, of the willingness to risk the misunderstanding that so often comes when people do the heroic thing." In the 1890s, Brandeis began to question his views on American industrialism, write Klebanow and Jonas. He became aware of

13728-605: The ranks of Jobbik , an openly antisemitic party, in the Hungarian parliament. This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews. A 2005 French study showed that anti-Jewish prejudice was more prevalent among religious Muslims than among non-religious ones; 46% expressed antisemitic sentiments compared to 30% of non-practising Muslims in France. Only 28% of

13860-578: The rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history. Following the Partitions of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria at the end of the 18th century, most Polish Jews found themselves under Russian rule. In order to restrict the Jews from spreading throughout the Russian Empire and to protect Russian merchants from competition,

13992-727: The religious Muslims were found to be totally without such prejudice. The few studies available which had been conducted among Muslim youth in various western European countries showed some similar outcomes. A 2011 study of elementary school children in Dutch -language schools in Brussels by a Belgian sociologist showed that about 50 percent of Muslim students in second and third grade could be considered antisemites, versus 10% of others. Also in 2011, Gunther Jikeli published findings from 117 interviews with 19-year-old Muslim youths in Berlin , Paris , and London ,

14124-538: The right to privacy ever written by a member of the Supreme Court. Some have criticized Brandeis for evading issues related to African-Americans, as he did not author a single opinion on any cases about race during his twenty-three year tenure, and he consistently voted with the Supreme Court majority including in support of racial segregation . Louis David Brandeis was born on November 13, 1856, in Louisville, Kentucky ,

14256-634: The right. In 1939 the American Law Institute 's Restatement of Torts also recognized a right to privacy at common law. Years later, after becoming a justice of the Supreme Court, Brandeis discussed the right to privacy in his famous dissenting opinion in Olmstead v. United States . In 1890, Brandeis became engaged to his second cousin Alice Goldmark, of New York. He was then 34 years of age and had previously found little time for courtship. Alice

14388-500: The rise of nationalist movements and accusations against Jews of responsibility for the economic crisis, controlling local businesses and bribing the government, alongside traditional and religious motives for antisemitism (blood libels for example). Most of the antisemitic incidents are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when

14520-540: The role of a judge. In a letter while at Harvard, he wrote of his "desperate longing for more law" and of the "almost ridiculous pleasure which the discovery or invention of a legal theory gives me." He referred to the law as his "mistress," holding a grip on him that he could not break. His eyesight began failing as a result of the large volume of required reading and the poor visibility under gaslights . The school doctors suggested he give up school entirely. He found another alternative: paying fellow law students to read

14652-480: The shooter, Abdelghani Merah, said he and his siblings had been brought up on antisemitic views espoused by their parents. In September 2024, Katharina von Schnurbein , the European Commission’s coordinator on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life in Europe, stated at a United Nations workshop that the current rise of antiemetic events ‘reminds us of the darkest days of Europe’. The summary of

14784-487: The sovereign and acted as their treasurers and tax collectors. In many cases, the court Jews obtained significant power as the "right hand" of the sovereign; in other cases, the court Jews were blamed for the financial problems of the states or when the sovereign lost his power. One notable court Jew was Joseph Süß Oppenheimer (1698–1738) the financial planner for Duke Karl Alexander of Württemberg in Stuttgart. Oppenheimer

14916-409: The textbooks aloud, while he tried to memorize the legal principles. Despite the difficulties, his academic work and memorization talents were impressive. He graduated in 1877 as valedictorian and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa . Brandeis achieved the highest grade point average in the history of the school, a record that stood for eight decades. Brandeis said of that period: "Those years were among

15048-445: The world, and man, under the refining influence of culture, has become more sensitive to publicity, so that solitude and privacy have become more essential to the individual; but modern enterprise and invention have, through invasions upon his privacy, subjected him to mental pain and distress, far greater than could be inflicted by mere bodily injury. Legal historian Wayne McIntosh wrote that "the privacy tort of Brandeis and Warren set

15180-406: The writings of Goethe and Schiller , and his favorite composers were Beethoven and Schumann . In their religious beliefs, although his family was Jewish, only his extended family practiced a more conservative form of Judaism, while his parents practiced the split-off movement of Frankism . They celebrated the main Christian holidays along with most of their community, treating Christmas as

15312-475: The year before the survey, 90% responded they had encountered antisemitism online in the past year. Overall, Jews in Europe are pessimistic about antisemitism and expect it to get worse, but most have no intentions to leave Europe. Polling data taken in 2015-2016 shows the following results regarding the proportions of Christians in the following countries who would reject Jews as family members, neighbors or citizens. A major source of antisemitism in Armenia

15444-654: The youngest of four children, and raised in a secular Jewish household. His parents, Adolph Brandeis and Frederika Dembitz, both of whom were Frankist Jews , immigrated to the United States from their childhood homes in Prague , Bohemia (then part of the Austrian Empire , and now part of the Czech Republic). They emigrated as part of their extended families for both economic and political reasons. His extended family included Dante scholar Irma Brandeis , whose father

15576-565: Was Brandeis' second cousin. The Revolutions of 1848 had produced a series of political upheavals and the families, though politically liberal and sympathetic to the rebels, were shocked by the antisemitic riots that erupted in Prague while the rebels controlled it. In addition, the Habsburg Empire had imposed business taxes on Jews. Family elders sent Adolph Brandeis to America to observe and prepare for his family's possible emigration. He spent

15708-576: Was actually 'antisemitism without antisemites', but different expressions of it were to be found in the Austrian polities. During the 1980s, the taboo against open expressions of explicitly antisemitic beliefs has remained, but the means of circumventing it linguistically have extended its boundaries in such a way that the taboo itself appears to have lost some of its significance. Anti-Jewish prejudices which had remained hidden began to surface and were increasingly found in public settings. Thus, verbal antisemitism

15840-438: Was an interest in personal integrity, "the right to be let alone," that ought to be secured against invasion except for some compelling reason of public welfare. Brandeis saw emotions as a positive expression of human nature, and so desired privacy protection for them as protection against repression of the human spirit. Between 1888 and 1890, Brandeis and his law partner, Samuel Warren, wrote three scholarly articles published in

15972-519: Was appointed law clerk to Horace Gray , the chief justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court , where he worked for two years. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar without taking an examination, which he later wrote to his brother, was "contrary to all principle and precedent." According to Klebanow and Jonas, "the speed with which he was admitted probably was due to his high standing with his former professors at Harvard Law, as well as to

16104-720: Was creating mammoth companies, which he felt threatened the well-being of millions of Americans. Although the Sherman Antitrust Act was enacted in 1890, it was not until the 20th century that there was any major effort to apply it. Antisemitism in Europe Antisemitism , the prejudice or discrimination against Jews , has had a long history since the ancient times . While antisemitism had already been prevalent in ancient Greece and Roman Empire , its institutionalization in European Christianity after

16236-581: Was dangerous because he was incorruptible ... [and] the fears of the Establishment were greater because Brandeis was the first Jew to be named to the Court." On June 1, 1916, he was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 47 to 22, to become one of the most famous and influential figures ever to serve on the high court. His opinions were, according to legal scholars, some of the "greatest defenses" of freedom of speech and

16368-583: Was executed after the death of the Duke and his story was used by Nazi propaganda. Most of Europe's Jewish population was concentrated in central and eastern Europe within the borders of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Jews of Poland had been granted an unprecedented degree of religious and cultural autonomy since the Statute of Kalisz in 1264, which was ratified by subsequent Kings of Poland and

16500-512: Was printed and presented at the Union of Writers of Armenia . In that book, Jews (along with Turks) are identified as number-one enemies of Armenians and are described as "the nation-destroyer with a mission of destruction and decomposition." A section in the book entitled The Greatest Falsification of the 20th Century denies the Holocaust , claiming that it is a myth created by Zionists to discredit "Aryans": "The greatest falsification in human history

16632-589: Was rarely expressed directly, but rather used coded expressions, which reflected one of the country's major characteristics – ambivalence and ambiguity toward its past. Today the Jewish community of Austria consists of about 8,000 persons. Contemporary antisemitism was reported from Serfaus during 2009 and 2010. Several hotels and apartments in the renowned holiday resort have confirmed a policy of not allowing Jews on their premises. Bookings are tried to be detected in advance based on racial profiling , and are denied to possible orthodox Jews . Some are concerned about

16764-551: Was taking place and shouted racist slurs. A month later, a school bus in Antwerp, that was driving five-year-old Jewish children was stoned by a group of Muslim teens. Towards the end of August 2014, a 75-year-old Jewish woman was hit and pushed to the ground because of her Jewish-sounding surname. In 2020 Israel asked that the Carnaval parade in Aalst be canceled because of antisemitism. UNIA, Belgium’s federal equality agency, reported

16896-706: Was the daughter of Joseph Goldmark , a physician who had immigrated to America from Austria-Hungary after the collapse of the Revolution of 1848 . They were married on March 23, 1891, at the home of her parents in New York City in a civil ceremony. The newlywed couple moved into a modest home in Boston's Beacon Hill district and had two daughters, Susan Brandeis Gilbert, born in 1893, and Elizabeth Brandeis Rauschenbush, born in 1896. Alice supported her husband's resolve to devote most of his time to public causes. The Brandeis family "lived well but without extravagance." With

17028-462: Was the many restrictions imposed on the Jews. They were excluded from many occupations because of the fear of competition with the local population. For the most part, they could not own land, since, under the feudal system , the pledge of loyalty required from a vassal upon the enfeoffment of land had the form of a Christian oath; however, there were exceptions. Their residence in cities was often limited to specific areas known as ghettos. Following

17160-431: Was the story of William of Norwich (d. 1144), whose murder sparked accusations of ritual murder and torture by the local Jews. The Black Death which devastated Europe in the 14th century also gave rise to widespread persecution. In the face of the terrifying spread of the plague, the Jews served as scapegoats and were accused of poisoning the wells . Many Jewish communities in western and central Europe were destroyed in

17292-464: Was undergoing a change of method from the traditional, memorization-reliant, "black-letter" case law, to a more flexible and interactive Socratic method , using the casebook method to instruct students in legal reasoning. Brandeis easily adapted to the new methods, becoming active in class discussions, and joined the Pow-Wow club, similar to today's moot courts in law school, which gave him experience in

17424-489: Was vandalized by unknown individuals. A Nazi swastika symbol was scratched and black paint was splattered on the simple stone. After notifying the local police, Rabbi Gershon Burshtein, a Chabad emissary who serves as Chief Rabbi of the country's tiny Jewish community said "I just visited the memorial the other day and everything was fine. This is terrible, as there are excellent relations between Jews and Armenians." The monument has been defaced and toppled several times in

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