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141-672: War poetry is poetry on the topic of war. While the term is applied especially to works of the First World War , the term can be applied to poetry about any war, including Homer 's Iliad , from around the 8th century BC as well as poetry of the American Civil War , the Spanish Civil War , the Crimean War and other wars. War poets may be combatants or noncombatants. The Iliad is an epic poem in dactylic hexameter which

282-630: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to

423-583: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,

564-536: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of

705-829: A Jewish poet who wrote in German from Podiebrad an der Elbe in the Kingdom of Bohemia , had enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1913. On 4 November 1917, Janowitz died of wounds received at the Battle of Caporetto . Two years after his death, a volume of Janowitz's war poems, Aus der Erde und anderen Dichtungen ("Out of the Earth and Other Poems") was published in Munich . The first complete collection of his poems, however, came out only in 1992. According to Jeremy Adler, "Franz Janowitz conflicts with

846-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS  Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to

987-592: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as

1128-418: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,

1269-401: A grand scale for English, Stramm achieved more modestly for German." Stramm's war poetry was first published by Herwarth Walden in the avant-garde literary journal Der Sturm and later appeared in the collection Tropfenblut ("Dripping Blood"), which was published in 1919. First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as

1410-715: A major role in convincing the Prince to come to Scotland and to initiate the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . Other poems about the Uprising were written in both Gaelic and English by John Roy Stewart , who served as colonel of the Edinburgh Regiment and a close and trusted confidant of Prince Charles Edward Stuart . The Irish poem Mo Ghile Mear , which was composed by the County Cork Bard Seán "Clárach" Mac Domhnaill ,

1551-588: A massive army from a coalition of Greek states led by King Agamemnon of Mycenae . The events between the cremation of Hector and the Fall of Troy are expanded upon in the 4th century epic poem Posthomerica , by Quintus of Smyrna . In pre-Islamic Persia, the war poem Ayadgar-i Zariran ('Memorial of Zarer') was composed; it was preserved by Zoroastrian priests after the Muslim conquest of Persia . In its surviving manuscript form, "The Memorial of Zarer" represents one of

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1692-735: A massive influence on Ukrainian literature . The Lay also captured the imagination of the intelligentsia during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry and has had a major influence on Russian literature and culture . In 1375, Scottish Makar , or court poet, John Barbour completed the epic poem The Brus , which celebrates the deeds of Robert the Bruce , who led the Scottish people in their Wars of Independence against Kings Edward I and Edward II of England and who ultimately became King of Scotland . Around 1488, fellow Scottish Makar Blind Harry wrote

1833-596: A patriotic rally call for the North. Whitman volunteered for a time as a nurse in the army hospitals, and his collection Drum-Taps (1865) deals with his experiences during the War. On 18 July 1863, Die Minnesota-Staats-Zeitung , a newspaper published by and for German-speaking Forty-Eighters living in Minnesota , printed An die Helden des Ersten Minnesota Regiments ("To the Heroes of

1974-648: A poet from Clan Macrae , who emigrated to Moore County in the Colony of North Carolina around 1774, fought as a Loyalist during the American Revolution , and composed Gaelic war poetry there until his death around 1780. In 1783, the year that saw the end of the American Revolution and the beginning of the Highland Clearances in Inverness-shire, Cionneach mac Cionnich , a poet from Clan MacKenzie who

2115-540: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of

2256-799: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and

2397-504: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of

2538-471: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under

2679-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as

2820-451: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across

2961-557: Is "the first epic poem in Hungarian literature " and "one of the major works of Hungarian literature". Kenneth Clark 's Civilisation describes Szigeti veszedelem as one of the major literary achievements of the 17th century. Even though John Milton 's Paradise Lost is often credited with resurrecting Classical epic poetry , Milton's poem was published in 1667, sixteen years after Zrínyi's Szigeti Veszedelem . Another Croatian nobleman warrior-poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović wrote about

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3102-764: Is a lament for the defeat of the Uprising at the Battle of Culloden . The poem is a soliloquy by the Kingdom of Ireland , whom Seán Clárach personifies, according to the rules of the Aisling genre, as a woman from the Otherworld . The woman laments her state and describes herself as a grieving widow due to the defeat and exile of her lawful King. Poems about the Jacobite rising of 1745 have also been written in English by Sir Walter Scott , Carolina Nairne , Agnes Maxwell MacLeod , Allan Cunningham , and William Hamilton . However, even as

3243-402: Is believed to have been composed by Homer , a blind Greek Bard from Ionia . It is among the oldest surviving works of Western literature , believed to have begun as oral literature . The first written form is usually dated to around the 8th century BC. The Iliad is set during the ten-year siege of the polis of Troy ( Ilium ), ruled by King Priam and his sons Hector and Paris , by

3384-759: Is inspired by and named after Ali Pasha , the governor of the Pashalik of Ioannina in Ottoman Greece , describing, in heroic style, his life, and his military campaigns. The poem is written in Demotic Greek , which Shehreti considered a far more prestigious language than Turkish or Albanian . Historically, the Alipashiad is unique in Greek poetry due to its having been written from an Islamic point of view. The Greek War of Independence raged from 1821 to 1830 and resulted in

3525-410: Is known to have based his account very heavily on the memoirs of Zrinski's valet, Franjo Črnko. Karnarutić is known to have drawn further inspiration from Marko Marulić 's Judita . In 1651, Hungarian poet Miklós Zrínyi , the great-grandson of Nikola Zrinski, published the epic poem Szigeti veszedelem (" The Siege of Sziget "). According to Encyclopædia Britannica Online , The Siege of Sziget

3666-503: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by

3807-509: Is popular in Polish and Czech literatures. Vitězslav Nezval 's poem Edison is written in trochaic hexameter. In Greek and Latin, the syllabic structure deals with long and short syllables, rather than accented and unaccented. Trochaic meter was rarely used by the Latin poets in the classical period, except in certain passages of the tragedies and the comedies. The two main metres used in comedy were

3948-580: Is portrayed as having fought in the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 as an elite mercenary soldier for Æthelstan . The foundational masterpiece of Welsh poetry , Y Gododdin ( c.  638  – c.  1000 ), tells how Mynyddog Mwynfawr , the King of Gododdin in the Hen Ogledd , summoned warriors from several other Welsh kingdoms and led them in a campaign against the Anglo-Saxons which culminated with

4089-676: Is sometimes referred to as "The Poet-Priest of the Confederacy," and as "The Poet Laureate of the South." Rudyard Kipling wrote poetry in support of the British cause in the Boer War , including the well-known "Lichtenberg", which is about a combatant's death in a foreign land. Swinburne , Thomas Hardy , and others wrote also poems relating to the Boer War. Hardy's poems include "Drummer Hodge", and " The Man He Killed ". '"Swinburne regularly donated work to

4230-449: Is sometimes seen among the works of William Shakespeare : Dou ble, dou ble, toil and trou ble; Fi re burn and cauld ron bubb le. Perhaps owing to its simplicity, though, trochaic meter is fairly common in nursery rhymes : Pet er, Pet er pump kin- eat er Had a wife and could n't keep her. Trochaic verse is also well known in Latin poetry , especially of

4371-558: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as

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4512-626: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of

4653-531: The 2nd Minnesota Cavalry Regiment . During his service in that Regiment, Thomas wrote many Welsh poems, including Pryddest ar Wir Fawredd . On the Confederate side, the most well-known Civil War poet is Father Abram Ryan , a Roman Catholic priest and former military chaplain to the Confederate Army . Father Ryan, who eulogized the defeated South in poems like The Conquered Banner and The Sword of Lee ,

4794-617: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS  Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on

4935-510: The Austro-Hungarian Army prior to the outbreak of war in 1914. In response, Gyóni had written the great pacifist poem, Cézar, én nem megyek ("Caesar, I Will Not Go"). According to Peter Sherwood, "Gyóni's first, still elated, poems from the Polish Front recall the 16th century Hungarian poet Bálint Balassi 's soldiers' songs of the marches, written during the campaign against the Turks ." During

5076-760: The Ban of Croatia , defended the Hungarian fortress of the same name against an enormous Ottoman army under the command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent , has thrice been made the subject of epic poetry . The first epic poem about the Siege was composed in Croatian by the poet Brne Karnarutić of Zadar , titled Vazetje Sigeta grada (English: The Taking of the City of Siget ), and posthumously published at Venice in 1584. Karnarutić

5217-487: The Battle of Catraeth around the year 600. The narrator names himself as Aneirin and professes to have been one of only two to four Welsh survivors of the battle. The Brussels Manuscript of the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib , which is believed to have been written around 1635 by Franciscan friar and historian Mícheál Ó Cléirigh , contains many Irish war poems not found elsewhere. Like the other two surviving manuscripts,

5358-703: The British Army on the night before the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Longfellow's poem was first published in the January 1861 issue of The Atlantic Monthly and later included as part of Longfellow's 1863 poetry collection Tales of a Wayside Inn . Ralph Waldo Emerson 's 1837 poem Concord Hymn pays tribute to the Patriot militia at the Battle of Concord and famously says that they fired, " The shot heard round

5499-701: The Czech nobility 's offer of the throne of the Kingdom of Bohemia , after the local officials of "The Knave of Hearts", the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II , were overthrown in a palace coup known as the Third Defenestration of Prague . In German poetry , the Baroque anti-war sonnets of Andreas Gryphius remain well known. Gryphius made many enemies for himself by denouncing the destruction, suffering, and needless civilian casualties left behind by

5640-461: The Don River . Since its 18th-century rediscovery in a 15th-century manuscript from Yaroslavl and 1800 publication by Aleksei Musin-Pushkin , The Lay has inspired other poems, art, music, and the opera Prince Igor by Alexander Borodin . It is claimed by Russians, Belarusians , and Ukrainians as a national epic . As the main characters of the poem came from modern Ukraine , The Lay has had

5781-423: The Earl of Surrey defeated and killed King James IV of Scotland and gave no quarter to an estimated 12,000 nobles and commons recruited from both the Scottish Highlands and Lowlands, is sometimes considered the end of the Middle Ages in the British Isles . By far the most famous war poem about the battle is the poem in Scots , The Flowers of the Forest by Lady Jean Elliot . In 1755, Lady Jean published

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5922-427: The Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I

6063-415: The Greek τροχός , trokhós , 'wheel', from the phrase τροχαῖος πούς , trokhaîos poús , 'running foot'; it is connected with the word τρέχω , trékhō , 'I run'. The less-often used word choree comes from χορός , khorós , 'dance'; both convey the "rolling" rhythm of this metrical foot. The phrase was adapted into English in the late 16th century. There

6204-591: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,

6345-428: The Siege of Przemyśl , Gyóni wrote poems to encourage the city's defenders and these verses were published there, under the title, Lengyel mezőkön, tábortúz melett ( By Campfire on the Fields of Poland ). A copy reached Budapest by aeroplane , which was an unusual feat in those days. According to Erika Papp Faber, "His leaning toward Socialism and his anti-militarist attitude were, for a brief time, suspended, as he

6486-403: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in

6627-400: The battle of the same name . The Battle of Brunanburh in 937 is also celebrated by an Old English poem of the same name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , which in 1880 was translated into modern English, in a metrical mixture of Trochees and dactyls , by Alfred Tennyson . The anti-hero Egill Skallagrímsson of Egil's Saga , attributed to the twelfth-century bard Snorri Sturluson ,

6768-414: The guerrilla warfare of Boer Commando leader Christiaan De Wet . Published poets wrote over two thousand poems about and during the war. However, only a small fraction still is known today, and several poets that were popular with contemporary readers are now obscure. An orthodox selection of poets and poems emerged during the 1960s, which often remains the standard in modern collections and distorts

6909-423: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at

7050-429: The ship of state into shipwreck. MacCionnich also argues that truth is on the side of George Washington and the Continental Army and that the Gaels would do well to emigrate from the Highlands and Islands to the United States before the King and the landlords take every farthing they have left. During the early 19th century, Albanian Muslim bard Haxhi Shehreti composed the epic poem Alipashiad . The work

7191-442: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held

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7332-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross

7473-431: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia

7614-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from

7755-409: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,

7896-593: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in

8037-493: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,

8178-427: The Battle. His poem Odiljenje sigetsko ("The Sziget Farewell"), first published in 1684, reminisces about the event without rancour or crying for revenge. The last of the four cantos is titled "Tombstones" and consists of epitaphs for the Croatian and Turkish warriors who died during the siege, paying equal respect to both. In her book The Real Personage of Mother Goose , author Katherine Elwes Thomas alleges that

8319-454: The British upper class and the literary world were romanticizing the Uprising and the culture of the Scottish clans , the suppression of Highland Scottish culture, which had begun after the rising's defeat, continued for nearly two centuries afterward. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's 1860 poem Paul Revere's Ride both retells and fictionalizes the efforts of Boston silversmith Paul Revere to warn Patriot militia of an imminent attack by

8460-422: The Brussels Manuscript relates the wars between the Irish clans and the Norse and Danish invaders , and celebrates the ultimate rise to power of Brian Boru as High King of Ireland . The Song of Dermot and the Earl is an anonymous Anglo-Norman verse chronicle written in the early 13th century in England. It retells the 1170 invasion of Ireland by Diarmait Mac Murchada , the wars that followed between

8601-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of

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8742-410: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of

8883-409: The Earl since Goddard Henry Orpen published a diplomatic edition under this title in 1892. The Tale of Igor's Campaign ( Слово о пълкѹ Игоревѣ ), an epic poem in Old East Slavic , describes a failed raid made in the year 1185 by an army led by Prince Igor Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversk against the Polovtsians ( Cumans ), Pagan Turkic nomads living along the southern banks of

9024-420: The English nursery rhyme The Queen of Hearts is about the events that caused the outbreak of the Thirty Years War . The King and Queen of Hearts are, according to Elwes Thomas, a thinly disguised description of Elector Palatine ( German : Kurfürst von der Pfalz ) Friedrich V and his wife Elizabeth Stuart . The Queen's decision to bake tarts refers to her persuasion of her Calvinist husband to accept

9165-400: The European imagination. For poets, the unprecedented scale of violence annihilated the classic traditions of war literature – individual heroism, military glory, and virtuous leadership. Writers struggled for a new idiom commensurate with their apocalyptic personal experience. European Modernism emerged from the trenches of the Western Front . " British poetry especially was transformed by

9306-423: The First Minnesota Regiment"), a work of German poetry in tribute to the Union soldiers of the 1st Minnesota Infantry Regiment and their iconic charge from Cemetery Ridge during the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg . The poet was G. A. Erdman of Hastings, Minnesota . Also during the American Civil War, Edward Thomas, a Welsh-language poet whose Bardic name was Awenydd , enlisted in Company E of

9447-548: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond

9588-465: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in

9729-462: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke

9870-426: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As

10011-421: The Great War." August Stramm , who is considered the first of the expressionists , has been called by Jeremy Adler one of, "the most innovative poets of the First World War ." Stramm, Adler writes, treated, "language like a physical material" and, "honed down syntax to its bare essentials." Citing Stramm's fondness for "fashioning new words out of old," Adler has also written that, "what James Joyce did on

10152-616: The Highland Clans" and Òran do'n Phrionnsa – "A Song to the Prince," serve as testament to the Bard's passionate loyalty to the House of Stuart . According to literary historian John MacKenzie , these poems were sent to Aeneas MacDonald , the brother of the Clanranald tacksman of Kinlochmoidart . Aeneas read the poems aloud to Prince Charles Edward Stuart in English translation and the poems played

10293-675: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed

10434-869: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,

10575-598: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through

10716-705: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany

10857-631: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against

10998-503: The Uprising was only completed many years later. When Ailean Dearg, the Chief of Clan Macdonald of Clanranald had been mortally wounded at the Battle of Sherrifmuir , Alasdair Dubh, 11th Chief of Clan MacDonald of Glengarry rallied the faltering warriors of Clan Donald by throwing up his Highland bonnet and crying Buillean an-diugh, tuiream a-màireach! ("Blows today, mourning tomorrow!"). Following Alasdair Dubh's death (c. 1721 or 1724), he

11139-678: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening

11280-480: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as

11421-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced

11562-466: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered

11703-535: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23   July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25   July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in

11844-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3   August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which

11985-527: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,

12126-636: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw

12267-568: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,

12408-511: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS  Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,

12549-513: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply

12690-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and

12831-479: The creation of the world until the Muslim conquest in the 7th century. It is one of the world's longest epic poems created by a single poet, and the national epic of Greater Iran . The Shahnameh also contains many works of war poetry. Armenia 's national epic , Sasna Tsrer ( Daredevils of Sassoun ), is set during the time of the invasion of Armenia by the Caliphate of Baghdad (about 670), and focuses on

12972-946: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as

13113-529: The earliest surviving works of Iranian literature and the only surviving epic poem in Pahlavi . Historically, Iranian epic poems such as this one were composed and sung by travelling minstrels, who in pre-Islamic and Zoroastrian times were a fixture of Iranian society. Ferdowsi 's 11th century Shahnameh ("Book of Kings") retells the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from

13254-575: The effects of war and the transitoriness of human life; "Menschliches Elende" (Human misery); and "Trawrklage des verwüsteten Deutschlandes" (Lament of a Devastated Germany). In 1632, Gryphius had witnessed the pillaging and burning of the Silesian town of Freystadt by the Protestant troops of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden . Gryphius immortalized the sack of the city in a detailed eyewitness account titled Fewrige Freystadt , which made him many enemies. In

13395-580: The end of the First World War. Georg Trakl , an Expressionist poet from Salzburg , enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army as a medical officer in 1914. He personally witnessed the Battle of Gródek , fought in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , in which the Austro-Hungarian Army suffered a bloody defeat at the hands of the Imperial Russian Army . Georg Trakl is best known for the poem Grodek . Franz Janowitz  [ de ] ,

13536-462: The epic poem The Wallace , about the life and death of iconic Scottish nationalist Sir William Wallace . The events of the Scottish Wars of Independence are also a regular theme in the verse of Scotland 's national poet , Robert Burns . The 15th-century poem Zadonschina , which draws upon the same tradition of Pre-Christian Slavic war poetry as The Tale of Igor , was composed to glorify

13677-671: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed

13818-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but

13959-586: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold

14100-526: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron

14241-534: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for

14382-474: The history of English literature . "Similar cohorts of war poets occupy important positions in other European literature's. French literature has Charles Peguy , Guillaume Apollinaire , and Blaise Cendrars (who lost his right arm at the Second Battle of Champagne ). Italian poetry has Eugenio Montale , Giuseppe Ungaretti , and Gabriele D'Annunzio . German poetry has Georg Trakl , August Stramm , and Gottfried Benn . "These scarred survivors reshaped

14523-502: The impression of World War I poetry. This selection tends to emphasize the horror of war, suffering, tragedy and anger against those that wage war. In a 2020 article for the St Austin Review about American WWI poet John Allan Wyeth , Dana Gioia writes, "The First World War changed European literature forever. The horror of modern mechanized warfare and the slaughter of nineteen million young men and innocent civilians traumatized

14664-563: The independence of the Greek people after more than four hundred years of rule by the Ottoman Empire . The uprising and its many predecessors also produced many great composers of war poetry. In English poetry , Lord Byron is by far the most famous of these poets. Byron travelled to Greece during the fighting and joined the Greek rebels. Byron also glorified the Greek cause in many of his poems, which continued to be widely read. Even though he

14805-477: The invaders and Haskulf Thorgilsson , the last Hiberno-Norse King of Dublin and Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , the last High King of Ireland , and the subsequent visit to Ireland by King Henry II of England in 1172. The chronicle survived only in a single manuscript which was re-discovered in the 17th century at Lambeth Palace in London. The manuscript bears no title, but has been commonly dubbed The Song of Dermot and

14946-467: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as

15087-485: The line, but these forces were too weak to re-establish a front. Trochee The adjective form is trochaic . The English word trochee is itself trochaic since it is composed of the stressed syllable / ˈ t r oʊ / followed by the unstressed syllable / k iː / . Another name formerly used for a trochee was a choree ( / ˈ k ɔːr iː / ), or choreus . Trochee comes from French trochée , adapted from Latin trochaeus , originally from

15228-773: The long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and

15369-530: The lyrics anonymously and The Flowers of the Forest was at first thought to be an ancient ballad. However, Robert Burns suspected it was an imitation, and together with Ramsay and Sir Walter Scott eventually identified the author. The 1566 Battle of Szigetvár , in which a vastly outnumbered army of 2,300 Croatian and Hungarian soldiers in service to the Habsburg monarchy and under the command of Nikola IV Zrinski ,

15510-552: The medieval period. Since the stress never falls on the final syllable in Medieval Latin, the language is ideal for trochaic verse. The dies irae of the Requiem mass is an example: Di es ir ae, di es il la Sol vet sae clum in fa vi lla Tes te Da vid cum Si by lla. The Finnish national epic, Kalevala , like much old Finnish poetry, is written in a variation of trochaic tetrameter . Trochaic metre

15651-591: The most famous 19th-century war poem is Tennyson 's " The Charge of the Light Brigade ", which he supposedly wrote in only a few minutes after reading an account of the battle in The Times . It immediately became hugely popular, even reaching the troops in the Crimea , where it was distributed in pamphlet form. As the American Civil War was beginning, American poet Walt Whitman published his poem " Beat! Beat! Drums! " as

15792-547: The mountains to gain their independence. Dionysios Solomos , another poet of the Greek War of Independence , wrote the Hymn to Liberty , which is now the Greek national anthem , in 1823, just two years after the Greeks rose against the Ottoman Empire . It is also the national anthem of Cyprus , which adopted it in 1966. Solomos is considered to be the national poet of Greece. Probably

15933-460: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of

16074-541: The papers to rouse the spirit, from 'Transvaal', with the infamous closing line, 'Strike, England, and strike home', to 'The Turning of the Tide'." During the last phase of the war in the former Orange Free State , the Afrikaner people of Winburg taunted the Scottish regiments in the local British Army garrison with a parody of the Jacobite ballad Bonnie Dundee , which was generally sung in English. The parody celebrated

16215-523: The private armies of both sides in both verse form and in prose. Gryphius's first collection of poems, Sonnete ("Sonnets"), was published in 1637 by Wigand Funck in Lissa , and is accordingly known as the Lissaer Sonettbuch , after the town. The collection of 31 sonnets includes some of his best known poems, such as "Vanitas vanitatum, et omnia vanitas", later titled "Es ist alles eitel" (All is vanity), about

16356-789: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after

16497-437: The received idea of the best German war poets. Neither realistic , nor ironic, nor properly expressionistic , while he excoriated the battlefield that the whole world had become, he still preserved a Faith in nobility, innocence, and song. Forced into maturity by the war, his poetic voice never lost a certain childlike note – indeed, in some of his best poems, naivety and wisdom coexist to an almost paradoxical degree. Such poetry

16638-771: The resistance of four generations within the same family, which culminates with Armenian folk hero David of Sasun driving the Muslim invaders from Armenia . It was collected and written down from the oral tradition by Fr. Garegin Srvandztiants , a celibate priest of the Armenian Apostolic Church , in 1873. The epic was first published in Constantinople in 1874. It is better known as Sasuntsi Davit (" David of Sasun "). The Old English poem The Battle of Maldon , which survives only in an unfinished fragment, celebrates

16779-405: The sensibility of modern verse. The Great War also changed literature in another brutal way; it killed countless young writers." From the war itself until the late 1970s, the genre of war poetry was almost exclusively reserved for male poets. This was based on an idea of an exclusive authenticity limited to the works of those who had fought and died in the war. It excluded other forms of experience in

16920-409: The song Là Sliabh an t-Siorraim , Sìleas na Ceapaich , the daughter of the 15th Chief of Clan MacDonald of Keppoch , sings of the joy upon the arrival of Prince James Francis Edward Stuart , the indecisive Battle of Sheriffmuir and the state of uneasy anticipation between the battle and the end of the Jacobite rising of 1715 . The most iconic poem by Sìleas, however, inspired by the events of

17061-464: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this

17202-682: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It

17343-417: The trauma of trench warfare and indiscriminate massacre. The 'War Poets' constitute an imperative presence in modern British literature with significant writers such as Wilfred Owen , Robert Graves , Siegfried Sassoon , David Jones , Ivor Gurney , Rupert Brooke , Edward Thomas , and Isaac Rosenberg . Their work, which combined stark realism and bitter irony with a sense of tragic futility, altered

17484-626: The victory of Dmitri Donskoi , Great Prince of Moscow over Mamai and the Mongols of the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo along the Don River on 8 September 1380. The poem survives in six medieval manuscripts. The author of Zadonshchina is believed to have been Sofonii (Russian: Софоний). His name as the author of the text is mentioned in two surviving manuscript copies. The Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, in which an English army led by

17625-530: The war also gave women greater artistic freedom and space to express their identities as artists. Serbian World War I poets include: Milutin Bojić , Vladislav Petković Dis , Miloš Crnjanski , Dušan Vasiljev , Ljubomir Micić , Proka Jovkić , Rastko Petrović , Stanislav Vinaver , Branislav Milosavljević , Milosav Jelić , Vladimir Stanimirović . and others. Géza Gyóni , a Hungarian poet with twin beliefs in socialism and anti-militarism , had unhappily served in

17766-577: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in

17907-581: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought

18048-445: The war, such as mourning, nursing and the home front, which were more likely to be experienced by other demographics such as women. There were over 500 women writing and publishing poetry during World War I. Examples of poems by female poets include Teresa Hooley 's A War Film , Jessie Pope 's War Girls , Pauline B. Barrington 's Education , and Mary H.J. Henderson 's An Incident . In addition to giving women greater access to work,

18189-418: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm   II abdicated on 9 November, and

18330-437: The world ." David Humphreys wrote the first sonnet in American poetry in 1776, right before he left Yale College to fight as a colonel in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . Colonel Humphreys' sonnet was titled Addressed to my Friends at Yale College, on my leaving them to join the Army . Among the earliest known Scottish Gaelic poets in North America, is Kintail -born Iain mac Mhurchaidh ,

18471-422: Was a well-established ancient tradition that trochaic rhythm is faster than iambic. When used in drama it is often associated with lively situations. One ancient commentator notes that it was named from the metaphor of people running ( ἐκ μεταφορᾶς τῶν τρεχόντων ) and the Roman metrician Marius Victorinus notes that it was named from its running and speed ( dictus a cursu et celeritate ). Trochaic meter

18612-473: Was born at Castle Leather near Inverness , composed the only surviving Gaelic poem of the era which takes up the Patriot, rather than the Loyalist, banner - The Lament of the North . In the poem, MacCionnich mocks the Scottish clan chiefs for becoming absentee landlords , for both rackrenting and evicting their clansmen en masse in favor of sheep, and of "spending their wealth uselessly", in London. He accuses King George III both of tyranny and of steering

18753-419: Was caught up in the general patriotic fervor at the outbreak of World War I. But once he experienced the horrors of war first hand, he soon lost his romantic notions, and returned to the more radical positions of his youth, as it evident in his further volumes." One of his poems from this period, Csak egy éjszakára ( For Just One Night ) became a prominent anti-war poem and its popularity has lasted well beyond

18894-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to

19035-545: Was eulogized by Sìleas in the song-poem Alistair à Gleanna Garadh , which hearkens back to the mythological poetry attributed to Amergin Glúingel and which remains an iconic and oft imitated work of Scottish Gaelic literature. In Scottish Gaelic literature , the greatest war poet of the Jacobite rising of 1745 is Alasdair Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair , a tacksman from the Clanranald branch of Clan Donald . Jacobite songs penned by Alasdair such as: Òran Nuadh – "A New Song", Òran nam Fineachan Gaidhealach – "The Song of

19176-424: Was fired by a vision of a transcendental realm that lay beyond conflict, but never sought to exclude death. His 25 years, the last four of which were spent in the Army, scarcely left him time to develop a wholly independent voice, but his work displays an increasing mastery of form and deepening of vision. His small oeuvre consists of Novellen , essays, aphorisms, and a handful of the best German poems connected with

19317-415: Was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire , which disturbed

19458-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4   August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,

19599-600: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of

19740-428: Was strangled inside Nebojša Tower in Belgrade by order of Sultan Selim III of the House of Osman in 1798 while planning a Greek uprising with the assistance of Napoleon Bonaparte , the nationalist verse of Rigas Feraios helped inspire the Greek War of Independence and he remains a major figure in Greek poetry . In his poems, Feraios urged the Greek people to leave the cities for the mountains and to fight in

19881-586: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became

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