Wamesa is an Austronesian language of Indonesian New Guinea, spoken across the neck of the Doberai Peninsula or Bird's Head. There are currently 5,000–8,000 speakers. While it was historically used as a lingua franca , it is currently considered an under-documented, endangered language . This means that fewer and fewer children have an active command of Wamesa. Instead, Papuan Malay has become increasingly dominant in the area.
41-577: The language is often called Wandamen in the literature; however, several speakers of the Windesi dialect have stated that Wandamen and Wondama refer to a dialect spoken around the Wondama Bay, studied by early missionaries and linguists from SIL . They affirm that the language as a whole is called Wamesa , the dialects of which are Windesi, Bintuni, and Wandamen. While Wamesa is spoken in West Papua , Wamesa
82-465: A natural class of voiced plosives to which phonological rules could uniformly apply. Wamesa is a bounded language with a three-syllable, right-aligned stress window, meaning that stress alternates and primary stress falls on the final, penultimate, or antepenultimate syllable of the Pword . However, the distribution is not even; in a random sampling test of 105 audio clips, 66 tokens had primary stress on
123-399: A "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties. Although the term "clitic" can be used descriptively to refer to any element whose grammatical status is somewhere in between a typical word and a typical affix, linguists have proposed various definitions of "clitic" as
164-527: A clitic-affix distinction. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech , such as a verb, to form a new word. A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have
205-442: A historical process of grammaticalization : lexical item → clitic → affix According to this model from Judith Klavans , an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.). At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as
246-451: A nearby word. They derive meaning only from that "host". Special clitics are morphemes that are bound to the word upon which they depend: they exist as a part of their host. That form, which is unaccented, represents a variant of a free form that carries stress. Both variants carry similar meaning and phonological makeup, but the special clitic is bound to a host word and is unaccented. Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing
287-462: A number of tests to differentiate between the two categories. Some tests, specifically, are based upon the understanding that when comparing the two, clitics resemble affixes, while words resemble syntactic phrases. Clitics and words resemble different categories, in the sense that they share certain properties. Six such tests are described below. These are not the only ways to differentiate between words and clitics. Clitics do not always appear next to
328-454: A sequence of clitics docked to the stem. A mesoclitic is a type of clitic that occurs between the stem of a verb and its affixes. Mesoclisis is rare outside of formal standard Portuguese, where it is predominantly found. In Portuguese, mesoclitic constructions are typically formed with the infinitive form of the verb, a clitic pronoun, and a lexicalized tense affix. For example, in the sentence conquistar- se -á ("it will be conquered"),
369-472: A similar way, also to express "this" / "that" and "these" / "those". For example: In Romance languages , some have treated the object personal pronoun forms as clitics, though they only attach to the verb they are the object of and so are affixes by the definition used here. There is no general agreement on the issue. For the Spanish object pronouns , for example: Portuguese allows object suffixes before
410-422: A technical term. One common approach is to treat clitics as words that are prosodically deficient: that, like affixes, they cannot appear without a host, and can only form an accentual unit in combination with their host. The term postlexical clitic is sometimes used for this sense of the term. Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between clitics and affixes. There
451-452: A verb, as in dar- no - lo -á ("he/she/it will give it to us") and dar- ta -ei ( ta = te + a , "I will give it/her to you"). This phenomenon is possible due to the historical evolution of the Portuguese synthetic future tense, which comes from the fusion of the infinitive form of the verb and the finite forms of the auxiliary verb haver (from Latin habēre ). This origin explains why
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#1732863134461492-867: A vowel or intervocalically. They may optionally become glides when adjacent to a single vowel. Finally, high vowels never become glides between two consonants, depriving the syllable of a nucleus. Nor do glides appear word-initially preceding a consonant or word-finally following a consonant, in which case the syllable structure would be at odds with the Sonority Sequencing Principle . Complex onsets and codas are not permitted in Wamesa, and consonant clusters across syllable boundaries are usually reduced, such that /C 1 C 2 / surfaces as [C 2 ]. However, there are three exceptions to this; clusters of homorganic nasals and voiced plosives are permitted to surface, as are consonant- glide clusters that form through
533-578: Is (or was until recently) very strict, whereas elsewhere various exceptions occur. These include phrases containing conjunctions (e. g. Ivan i Ana "Ivan and Ana"), nouns with a genitival attribute (e. g. vrh brda "the top of the hill"), proper names and titles and the like (e. g. (gospođa) Ivana Marić "(Mrs) Ivana Marić", grad Zagreb "the city (of) Zagreb"), and in many local varieties clitics are hardly ever inserted into any phrases (e. g. moj najbolji prijatelj "my best friend", sutra ujutro "tomorrow morning"). In cases like these, clitics normally follow
574-551: Is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but depends phonologically on another word or phrase. In this sense, it is syntactically independent but phonologically dependent—always attached to a host. A clitic is pronounced like an affix , but plays a syntactic role at the phrase level. In other words, clitics have the form of affixes, but the distribution of function words . Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns , determiners , or adpositions . Note that orthography
615-428: Is a marginal phoneme because it only appears following /ŋ/ . The coronal tap and trill are in free variation, though the trill tends to occur more in word-initial or word-final position and in careful speech. Place and manner contrasts as described above are supported by the minimal and near-minimal pairs found in the following table. Where possible, Wamesa words have been selected to show native (non-loan) phonemes in
656-660: Is evaluated at the level of the phonological phrase. Thus, to avoid clash, stress can shift within a word to compensate for the presence of a stressed syllable across a word boundary. For example, the word ka.tú 'small' typically has a stressed final syllable. However, when followed by yá.na 'there' as in the phrase below, stress within ka.tú shifts to avoid two adjacent stressed syllables. ma.rá.ri.a ka.tú yá.na 'child' → ma.rá.ri.a ká.tu yá.na 'small there' {ma.rá.ri.a ka.tú yá.na} → {ma.rá.ri.a ká.tu yá.na} 'child' {} {'small there'} 'small child there' In summary, lapse avoidance can only occur at
697-423: Is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a diachronic point of view , a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for
738-684: Is not a Papuan language but rather a South Halmahera–West New Guinea (SHWNG) language. Locations: There are five contrastive vowels in Wamesa, as is typical of Austronesian languages. These vowels are shown in the tables below. Word Gloss Five diphthongs appear in Wamesa: /au/ , /ai/ , /ei/ , /oi/ , and /ui/ . Two-vowel and three-vowel clusters are also common in Wamesa. Almost all VV-clusters contain at least one high vowel , and no two non-high vowels may be adjacent in larger clusters. Cluster Word(s) Gloss There are 14 consonants in Wamesa, three of which are marginal (shown in parentheses in
779-537: Is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word they depend on (like the Latin clitic -que , meaning "and") or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic ' s in "it's" for "it has" or "it is"). Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to
820-438: Is specified in the underlying form of words. However, as mentioned earlier, stress shift may occur in certain words in order to create a better phonological structure (i.e. create alternation while avoiding clash and lapse). Secondary stresses are apparent in words of more than two syllables and, in cases of shifting stress, can be added at the beginnings of words to reduce lapses (several adjacent syllables without any stress). In
861-513: The reflexive pronoun forms si and se , li (yes–no question), unstressed present and aorist tense forms of biti ("to be"; sam, si, je, smo, ste, su ; and bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi , for the respective tense), unstressed personal pronouns in genitive ( me, te, ga, je, nas, vas, ih ), dative ( mi, ti, mu, joj, nam, vam, im ) and accusative ( me, te, ga (nj), je (ju), nas, vas, ih ), and unstressed present tense of htjeti ("want/will"; ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će ) These clitics follow
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#1732863134461902-500: The Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.150 via cp1114 cp1114, Varnish XID 454995989 Upstream caches: cp1114 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 06:52:14 GMT Clitic In morphology and syntax , a clitic ( / ˈ k l ɪ t ɪ k / KLIT -ik , backformed from Greek ἐγκλιτικός enklitikós "leaning" or "enclitic" )
943-466: The addition of multiple enclitics sometimes causes large lapses at the ends of words. For example, the construction below has a five-syllable lapse at the end. ma.né.ta=pa-ta.ta=ma friend= DET - 1PL . INCL = FOC ma.né.ta=pa-ta.ta=ma friend=DET-1PL.INCL=FOC 'we friends' This would appear to be a violation of the three-syllable stress window, but the fact that clitics never carry stress indicates that they may combine with their hosts at
984-429: The clitic can appear between the verb stem and its tense marker, as the future tense was originally a separate word. One distinction drawn by some scholars divides the broad term "clitics" into two categories, simple clitics and special clitics. This distinction is, however, disputed. Simple clitics are free morphemes: can stand alone in a phrase or sentence. They are unaccented and thus phonologically dependent upon
1025-404: The conditional and future suffixes of the verbs: Colloquial Portuguese allows ser to be conjugated as a verbal clitic adverbial adjunct to emphasize the importance of the phrase compared to its context, or with the meaning of "really" or "in truth": Note that this clitic form is only for the verb ser and is restricted to only third-person singular conjugations. It is not used as a verb in
1066-519: The contracted versions of auxiliary verbs, as in I'm and we've . Some also regard the possessive marker , as in The Queen of England's crown as an enclitic, rather than a (phrasal) genitival inflection. Some consider the infinitive marker to and the English articles a, an, the to be proclitics. The negative marker -n't as in couldn't etc. is typically considered a clitic that developed from
1107-437: The environment /C [labial] a_a/. Velar plosive [g] only appears following [ŋ] , and [ŋ] can only appear without a following [g] if it is stem-initial. There are no underlying glides in Wamesa; [j] and [w] are allophones of the vowel phonemes /i/ and /u/ . This phonetic alternation is obligatory, permitted, or prohibited, depending upon the environment. High vowels must become glides word-initially preceding
1148-502: The example below, the addition of the enclitic determiner = pai causes primary stress to shift to the right by two syllables (a single foot), and a secondary stress is added to the left in order to fill the lapse. ma.rá.ri.a child → ma.rà.ri.á=pai child= DET ma.rá.ri.a → ma.rà.ri.á=pai child {} child=DET 'the child' However, secondary stress always precedes primary stress and clitics are never able to carry stress in Wamesa. These two factors mean that
1189-554: The first stressed word in the sentence or clause in most cases, which may have been inherited from Proto-Indo-European (see Wackernagel's Law ), even though many of the modern clitics became cliticised much more recently in the language (e.g. auxiliary verbs or the accusative forms of pronouns). In subordinate clauses and questions, they follow the connector and/or the question word respectively. Examples (clitics – sam "I am", biste "you would (pl.)", mi "to me", vam "to you (pl.)", ih "them"): In certain rural dialects this rule
1230-542: The grammar of the sentence but introduces prepositional phrases and adds emphasis. It does not need to concord with the tense of the main verb, as in the second example, and can be usually removed from the sentence without affecting the simple meaning. In the Indo-European languages , some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European : for example, * -kʷe is the original form of Sanskrit च ( -ca ), Greek τε ( -te ), and Latin -que . Serbo-Croatian :
1271-460: The initial phrase, although some Standard grammar handbooks recommend that they should be placed immediately after the verb (many native speakers find this unnatural). Examples: Clitics are however never inserted after the negative particle ne , which always precedes the verb in Serbo-Croatian, or after prefixes (earlier preverbs), and the interrogative particle li always immediately follows
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1312-587: The level of Pword, while clash avoidance is relevant at the level of Pphrase. In much of the literature on Wamesa an orthography is used which is based on the orthographic system of Indonesian . This orthography diverges from IPA notation in the following cases: Wamesa includes the following parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, determiner, preposition, complementizer, conjunction, numeral, interrogative, imperative, locative, demonstrative, particle, interjection, and adposition. SIL International Too Many Requests If you report this error to
1353-524: The level of the Pphrase rather than at Pword, where the stress window is relevant. Additionally, lapse is evaluated at the level of the Pword, meaning that stress in the following word never shifts to compensate. That is to say, stress in a word following the above construction would never shift leftwards for the purpose of reducing the lapse between words. This is in contrast to clash, (adjacent stressed syllables) which
1394-401: The lexical item not . Linguists Arnold Zwicky and Geoffrey Pullum argue, however, that the form has the properties of an affix rather than a syntactically independent clitic. In Cornish , the clitics ma / na are used after a noun and definite article to express "this" / "that" (singular) and "these" / "those" (plural). For example: Irish Gaelic uses seo / sin as clitics in
1435-649: The morphophonological processes described above. Additionally, an underlying cluster of a consonant followed by /β/ /r/ or /k/ does not reduce but surfaces as a nasal followed by a homorganic voiced plosive, both of which derive their place features from underlying /C 2 /. Data from related languages of the Yapen and Biakic groups suggests that historically , /β/ /r/ and /k/ were * b * d and * g in Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian. In this case, these phones would have formed
1476-443: The penultimate syllable. With the addition of enclitics , primary stress sometimes shifts towards the end of the word to stay within the stress window, but since Wamesa prefers its metrical feet to be trochees , stress usually jumps from the head of one foot to the next, rather than jumping single syllables. Note that stress in Wamesa is not predictable, meaning there is no rule for where primary stress will occur. Therefore, stress
1517-418: The reflexive pronoun "se" appears between the stem conquistar and the future tense affix á . This placement of the clitic is characteristic of mesoclisis. Other examples include dá- lo -ei ("I will give it") and matá- la -ia ("he/she/it would kill her"). These forms are typically found much more frequently in written Portuguese than in spoken varieties. Additionally, it is possible to use two clitics within
1558-517: The status of affixes (e.g., the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below ). Zwicky and Pullum postulated five characteristics that distinguish clitics from affixes: An example of differing analyses by different linguists is the discussion of the possessive marker ('s) in English. Some linguists treat it as an affix, while others treat it as a clitic. Similar to the discussion above, clitics must be distinguishable from words. Linguists have proposed
1599-401: The table below). Labial, coronal and velar places of articulation are contrastive in Wamesa. Coronal plosives sound relatively dental and may therefore be referred to as alveolar or alveo-dental until palatography can be executed to corroborate this. Lateral /l/ and affricate /d͡ʒ/ appear only in loanwords, while all other sounds occur in native Wamesa words. The voiced velar fricative /g/
1640-425: The word or phrase that they are associated with grammatically. They may be subject to global word order constraints that act on the entire sentence. Many Indo-European languages , for example, obey Wackernagel's law (named after Jacob Wackernagel ), which requires sentential clitics to appear in "second position", after the first syntactic phrase or the first stressed word in a clause: English enclitics include
1681-516: The word they connect to. A proclitic appears before its host. An enclitic appears after its host. Some authors postulate endoclitics, which split a stem and are inserted between the two elements. For example, they have been claimed to occur between the elements of bipartite verbs (equivalent to English verbs such as take part ) in the Udi language . Endoclitics have also been claimed for Pashto and Degema . However, other authors treat such forms as