Wanám , (also Huanyam and Pawumwa), were a group of Amerindians once native to the region of southern Rondônia in Brazil . They lived on the Cautarinho , Sao Miguel and Manoel rivers near their confluence with the Guaporé . Around 1914 there were 300 Wanám. The rubber booms of the twentieth century destroyed the tribe because of the violence and diseases brought in by neo-Brazilians. The surviving Wanám went to live with neighboring groups Kabixí living on the São Miguel River. Although the Wanám people did not survive, their language did, at least among the Kabixí Indians.
59-537: Wanám took refuge from mosquitoes in small conical cabines tightly thatched with patoju leaves. They also built small shelters consisting of a few palm leaves placed horizontally on three perpendicular poles, for workshops and as men's clubs. They used hammocks made of cotton but sometimes also fibers. Farming was practiced by all the people living along Guaporé in the 1900th and 2000th century including Wanám and had greater importance than collecting or hunting. They had taboo restrictions for some kind of foods, for example it
118-739: A Venezuelan anesthesiologist who trained and specialized in New York City, did extensive research on curare as a possible paralyzing agent for patients during surgical procedures. In 1942, he became the first person in Latin America to use curare during a medical procedure when he successfully performed a tracheal intubation in a patient to whom he administered curare for muscle paralysis at the El Algodonal Hospital in Caracas, Venezuela. After its introduction in 1942, curare/curare-derivatives became
177-403: A drop spindle which had a fruit or a wooden disk for a whorl and a small hook at the proximal end. Thicker strings were manufactured by the roll method : Cotton was first twisted by hand, then attached to the toes, and twisted again by means of a spindle rolled up and down the left thigh. Arm and leg bands were woven on a small loom formed by lashing two transverse cross bars to a frame made of
236-451: A fiber band with long hanging fringes, attached around each bicep. Around the upper arm, women wore a row of triangular shell pendants strung with seeds. The complete festive attire consisted of feather head-dresses, monkey- or sloth-skin caps, bark-cloth frontlets, feather bracelets, and ear sticks trimmed with feathers and Astrocaryum or feather rings. Necklaces were strung with seeds or animal teeth. Both men and women parted their hair in
295-511: A forked branch. The warp was wound around the two cross bars. The final pattern of the fabric was obtained by crossing the warp threads and holding them in place with wooden splinters which were removed as the weft was passed through in their place. Hammocks were made by wrapping the warp around two vertical posts and twining it at set intervals. Potter's clay was mixed with the ashes of a kind of sponge that floats in flooded forests. The sponges contain calcium spiculae, which give unusual strength to
354-505: A high fence. When effecting a cure, the Wanám shaman reached a state of trance by smoking a great many cigarettes containing fine powder made of an unidentified substance, and resin fragments. Most of the treatment consisted of blowing smoke on the patient. When visiting Wanám in 1914 Nordesnkiöld tells about conflicts with other tribes and groups, especially with fights with the Cabiji that probably
413-400: A hollow nut near the tip. Wanám poisoned their arrows with curare and carried them with the points in a bamboo sheath to prevent accidents. They hunted with simple blowguns made of a section of bamboo about 6 feet (2 m.) in length. Blowgun darts, usually made of thin palm splinters, were kept in a section of bamboo enclosed in a palm spathe. They were also poisoned with curare. For the release,
472-518: A muscle relaxant. He discovered that different types of curare called for as many as 15 ingredients, and in time helped to identify more than 70 species that produced the drug. In the 1940s, it was used on a few occasions during surgery as it was mistakenly thought to be an analgesic or anesthetic. The patients reported feeling the full intensity of the pain though they were not able to do anything about it since they were essentially paralyzed. On January 23, 1942, Harold Griffith and Enid Johnson gave
531-407: A point so that they may be stuck into the sandy ground, and other forms. Basketry work included mats, sieves, fire fans, knapsacks, and rectangular baskets. A type of basket was constructed by intertwining the leaflets of a palm leaf on either side of the woody leaf-stalk, whereby something resembling a mat was produced. The woody portion running down the middle of the leaf stalk was then cut away and
590-430: A synthetic preparation of curare (Intercostrin/Intocostrin) to a patient undergoing an appendectomy (to supplement conventional anesthesia). Safer curare derivatives, such as rocuronium and pancuronium , have superseded d-tubocurarine for anesthesia during surgery. When used with halothane d-tubocurarine can cause a profound fall in blood pressure in some patients as both the drugs are ganglion blockers . However, it
649-411: A widely used paralyzing agent during medical and surgical procedures. In medicine, curare has been superseded by a number of curare-like agents, such as pancuronium , which have a similar pharmacodynamic profile, but fewer side effects. The various components of curare are organic compounds classified as either isoquinoline or indole alkaloids. Tubocurarine is one of the major active components in
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#1732884649860708-457: Is a common name for various alkaloid arrow poisons originating from plant extracts. Used as a paralyzing agent by indigenous peoples in Central and South America for hunting and for therapeutic purposes, curare only becomes active when it contaminates a wound or is introduced directly to the bloodstream; it is not active when ingested orally. Curare is prepared by boiling the bark of one of
767-440: Is an enzyme used to break down the acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter left over in motor neuron synapses . The aforementioned inhibitors, termed "anticurare" drugs, reversibly bind to the enzyme's active site, prohibiting its ability to bind to its original target, ACh. By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors can effectively raise the amount of ACh present in the neuromuscular junction. The accumulated ACh will then correct for
826-399: Is considered highly toxic and slow-acting, with a lowest reported lethal dose of 375 μg/kg (unknown route of administration). For animals, the median lethal dose of tubocurarine is: Death can be prevented by artificial ventilation until curare subsides and muscle function is regained, in which case no permanent effects of poisoning occur. In 1807, Alexander von Humboldt provided
885-699: Is derived from wurari , from the Carib language of the Macusi of Guyana. It has its origins in the Carib phrase "mawa cure" meaning of the Mawa vine, scientifically known as Strychnos toxifera . Curare is also known among indigenous peoples as Ampi, Woorari, Woorara, Woorali, Wourali, Wouralia, Ourare, Ourari, Urare, Urari, and Uirary. The noun 'curare' is not to be confused with the Latin verb 'curare' ('to heal, cure, take care of'). In 1895, pharmacologist Rudolf Boehm sought to classify
944-410: Is made by beating sodden strips of the fibrous inner bark of these trees into sheets, which are then finished into a variety of items. Many texts that mention "paper clothing" are actually referring to barkcloth. Some modern cotton-based fabrics are also named "barkcloth" for their resemblance to these traditional fabrics. Before the development of woven textiles, barkcloth made from trees belonging to
1003-559: Is often associated with 1940s through 1960s home fashions, particularly in tropical, abstract, "atomic" and "boomerang" prints, the last two themes being expressed by images of atoms with electrons whirling, and by the boomerang shape which was very popular in mid-century cocktail tables and fabrics and influenced by the Las Vegas "Atomic City" era. Waverly , a famed design house for textiles and wall coverings between 1923 and 2007, called their version of this fabric rhino cloth, possibly for
1062-497: Is paralysis of every voluntarily controlled muscle in the body (including the eyes), making it practically impossible for the victim to confirm consciousness while paralyzed. Spontaneous breathing is resumed after the end of the duration of action of curare, which is generally between 30 minutes and 8 hours, depending on the variant of the toxin and dosage. Cardiac muscle is not directly affected by curare, but if more than four to six minutes has passed since respiratory cessation
1121-449: Is safer to use d-tubocurarine with ether . In 1954, an article was published by Beecher and Todd suggesting that the use of muscle relaxants (drugs similar to curare) increased death due to anesthesia nearly sixfold. This was refuted in 1956. Modern anesthetists have at their disposal a variety of muscle relaxants for use in anesthesia. The ability to produce muscle relaxation irrespective of sedation has permitted anesthetists to adjust
1180-427: Is said, to have extramarital intercourse. Parents and children-in-law turn their faces away when speaking to each other ; the same avoidance exists between cross-cousins. When death approaches, a Wanám distributed his possessions among his heirs. After he had breathed his last, his past deeds were celebrated in a chant. He was then wrapped in his hammock and buried outside the house in a circular grave surrounded by
1239-896: The Austronesian expansion (c.3000 to 1500 BC). The oldest example, found in the Dingmo Site in Guangxi , has been dated back to ~5900 BC. They were spread along with Austronesian voyagers into Island Southeast Asia , Oceania (with the notable exception of Micronesia ), and Madagascar . Genetic studies on the paper mulberry populations in the Pacific have all confirmed close genealogical ties to populations in Taiwan and Southern China. Though they exist in abundance in archaeological sites in Island Southeast Asia, barkcloth have largely disappeared in
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#17328846498601298-716: The Kabola ethnic group wear barkcloth and dance traditional dances. Barkcloth has been manufactured in Buganda , Uganda , for centuries and is Uganda's sole representative on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists . The production of barkcloth may have originated in Southeastern China, in a region adjacent to Vietnam. South East China was the origins to the ancestors of many people, including those who migrated to Vietnam. Throughout ancient Vietnam,
1357-511: The Menispermaceae family and those from Strychnos , a genus of the Loganiaceae [ now Strychnaceae ] family. Some preparations may contain alkaloids from both [...] and the majority have other secondary ingredients. Curare was used as a paralyzing poison by many South American indigenous people. Since it was too expensive to be used in warfare, curare was mainly used for hunting. The prey
1416-527: The South American dart poison. As an alkaloid, tubocurarine is a naturally occurring compound that consists of nitrogenous bases, although the chemical structure of alkaloids is highly variable. Tubocurarine and C toxiferine consist of a cyclic system with quaternary ammonium ions. On the other hand, while acetylcholine does not contain a cyclic system, it does contain a quaternary ammonium ion. Because of this shared moiety, curare alkaloids can bind readily to
1475-463: The active site of receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction, blocking nerve impulses from being sent to the skeletal muscles, effectively paralyzing the muscles of the body. Curare is an example of a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) , one of the two types of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors , at the neuromuscular junction . The main toxin of curare, d-tubocurarine , occupies
1534-408: The animal and the recovery is complete if the animal's respiration is maintained artificially. In 1825, Charles Waterton described a classical experiment in which he kept a curarized female donkey alive by artificial respiration with a bellows through a tracheostomy . Waterton is also credited with bringing curare to Europe. Robert Hermann Schomburgk , who was a trained botanist, identified
1593-403: The arrow was held between the index and the middle finger. Some trumpets had a bell modeled of wax and affixed to a long tube of human bone; other trumpets were globular in shape and made of clay; and still others combined a wide bamboo resonator, a slender bamboo tube, and a separate mouth piece. Those trumpets were used for signals when arriving to a village or settlement. Fire was produced by
1652-518: The bark-cloth was widely made; this practice of producing barkcloth has survived in modern times in a few rural areas in Vietnam. Today, what is commonly called barkcloth is a soft, thick, slightly textured fabric, so named because it has a rough surface like that of tree bark. This barkcloth is usually made of densely woven cotton fibers. Historically, the fabric has been used in home furnishings, such as curtains, drapery, upholstery, and slipcovers. It
1711-640: The cardiac muscle may stop functioning due to oxygen deprivation, making cardiopulmonary resuscitation including chest compressions necessary. Since tubocurarine and the other components of curare bind reversibly to the ACh receptors, treatment for curare poisoning involves adding an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, which will stop the destruction of acetylcholine so that it can compete with curare. This can be done by administration of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors such as pyridostigmine , neostigmine , physostigmine , and edrophonium . Acetylcholinesterase
1770-413: The clay. Vessels were coiled, then scraped with shells, and polished with pebbles. After the clay had hardened, the pot was dried before a patoju-leaf screen that separated it from the fire. The dried pot was then covered with wood and fired in the open. Painted decoration was applied after firing. The inside was smeared with a black waxlike coating. The main vessel types were bowls, large jars which taper to
1829-496: The conduction of nerve impulses from the motor nerve to the skeletal muscle , and that this interference occurred at the neuromuscular junction . From 1887, the Burroughs Wellcome catalogue listed under its 'Tabloids' brand name, 1 ⁄ 12 grain (5.4 mg) tablets of curare (price: 8 shillings) for use in preparing a solution for hypodermic injection. In 1914, Henry Hallett Dale (1875–1968) described
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1888-437: The dozens of plant sources, leaving a dark, heavy paste that can be applied to arrow or dart heads. These poisons cause weakness of the skeletal muscles and, when administered in a sufficient dose, eventual death by asphyxiation due to paralysis of the diaphragm . In medicine, curare has been used as a treatment for tetanus and strychnine poisoning and as a paralyzing agent for surgical procedures. The word 'curare'
1947-399: The drill method. Cotton or bark cloth was used as tinder. Basketry fire fans were rectangular. For torches, pieces of bark were dipped in wax. There were as many chiefs as family heads, but heir authority was scant. At puberty, girls' upper and lower lips were perforated by the shaman. In some settlements, the number of men so far exceeded that of women, that married women were permitted, it
2006-549: The early [pre-1900] work were very inaccurate because of the complexity and variation of the composition of the mixtures of alkaloids involved [...] these were impure, non-crystalline alkaloids [...] Almost all curare preparations were and are complex mixtures, and many of the physiological actions attributed to the early curarizing preparations were undoubtedly due to impurities, particularly to other alkaloids present. The curare preparations are now considered to be of two main types, those from Chondrodendron or other members of
2065-438: The edge of a flat wooden mallet to detach it from the wooden layer; then it was cut to proper size. Patches of bark were hammered on a smooth log, wrung thoroughly, dried, and sewn together. Men were their own and their wives' tailors. Decorative effects were achieved by glueing or sewing strips or patches of different colors on the surface. Sewing needles were made of bone or of Astrocaryum wood. Thin cotton threads were made with
2124-564: The edges. Hunting arrows were tipped with a bone slinter serving both as point and barb. They also used human arm bones for making arrowheads. The reason for using arm bones since the arm is what you use when firing a bow. Bird arrows consisted of a reed with its bulbous root forming the head. Fish arrows had one to three points. The feathering was either of the wrapped (Arara feathering) or of the sewn type (Xingii feathering). The feathering of some arrows consisted of three or even four feathers, an unusual number. The whistling arrows were provided with
2183-446: The effect of the curare by activating the receptors not blocked by toxin at a higher rate. The time of onset varies from within one minute (for tubocurarine in intravenous administration , penetrating a larger vein), to between 15 and 25 minutes (for intramuscular administration , where the substance is applied in muscle tissue). It is harmless if taken orally because curare compounds are too large and highly charged to pass through
2242-583: The first eye-witness account of curare preparation. A mixture of young bark scrapings of the Strychnos plant, other cleaned plant parts, and occasionally snake venom is boiled in water for two days. This liquid is then strained and evaporated to create a dark, heavy, viscid paste that would be tested for its potency later. This curare paste was described to be very bitter in taste. In 1938, Richard Gill and his expedition collected samples of processed curare and described its method of traditional preparation; one of
2301-402: The heart. Curare poisoning can be managed by artificial respiration such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation . In a study of 29 army volunteers that were paralyzed with curare, artificial respiration managed to keep oxygen saturation always above 85%, a level at which there is no evidence of altered state of consciousness . Yet, curare poisoning mimics total locked-in syndrome in that there
2360-517: The indigenous people as means of paralyzing prey, certain tribes would create monopolies from curare production. Thus, curare became a symbol of wealth among the indigenous populations. In 1596, Sir Walter Raleigh mentioned the arrow poison in his book Discovery of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana (which relates to his travels in Trinidad and Guayana ), though the poison he described
2419-564: The lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. For this reason, people can safely eat curare-poisoned prey, and it has no effect on its flavor. Isolated attempts to use curare during anesthesia date back to 1912 by Arthur Lawen of Leipzig, but curare came to anesthesia via psychiatry ( electroplexy ). In 1939 Abram Elting Bennett used it to modify metrazol induced convulsive therapy . Muscle relaxants are used in modern anesthesia for many reasons, such as providing optimal operating conditions and facilitating intubation of
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2478-399: The mat doubled, whereupon, along the line where the edges meet, the leaflets were interwoven so that a cylindrical basket was formed. Around the bottom there was a raised ring. Wanám carved wood with agouti incisors hafted to a stick, with piranha teeth, or with bird bones and pierce holes with bone awls. War arrows had large lanceolate bamboo heads, sometimes artistically jagged along
2537-480: The middle and cut it at shoulder level. Combs were made of bamboo splinters (composite type). They removed all body hair. Tattooing is not mentioned in the literature but body paintings were practiced. It consisted of various geometrical motifs: Reticulated surfaces, dots, zigzags, stripes, etc., and they used urucu and genipa . Wanám were known to make canoes from bark but when they got access to axes of metal they started to do dugouts. The inner bark wais beaten with
2596-664: The mulberry family ( Moraceae ) were an important aspect of the pre-Austronesian and Austronesian material culture during the Neolithic period . Stone barkcloth beaters, in particular, are considered part of the "Austronesian toolkit." They have been found in abundance in the Pearl River basin in Southern China , which is considered to be part of the homelands of the Austronesian peoples before they started migrating into islands during
2655-555: The physiological actions of acetylcholine . After 25 years, he showed that acetylcholine is responsible for neuromuscular transmission , which can be blocked by curare. The best known and historically most important toxin (because of its medical applications) is d- tubocurarine . It was isolated from the crude drug – from a museum sample of curare – in 1935 by Harold King of London, working in Sir Henry Dale 's laboratory. King also established its chemical structure. Pascual Scannone,
2714-500: The plant species used at that time was Chondrodendron tomentosum . Various irritating herbs, stinging insects, poisonous worms, and various parts of amphibians and reptiles are added to the preparation. Some of these accelerate the onset of action or increase the toxicity; others prevent the wound from healing or blood from coagulating. Curare poisoning can be indicated by typical signs of neuromuscular-blocking drugs such as paralysis including respiration but not directly affecting
2773-459: The production of arrow poisons. Among them are: In family Menispermaceae : Other families: Some plants in the family Aristolochiaceae have also been reported as sources. Alkaloids with curare-like activity are present in plants of the fabaceous genus Erythrina . Administration must be parenteral , as gastro-intestinal absorption is ineffective. The toxicity of curare alkaloids in humans has not been systematically established, but it
2832-520: The region as they were replaced by woven textiles. But they survived until around the 19th century in the outlying regions of the Austronesian expansion, particularly in Island Melanesia and Polynesia , as well as the interior highlands of Borneo . Some communities in Southeast Asia are reviving this practice. At Monbang traditional village on Alor Island , Indonesia, tourists can see members of
2891-411: The rough, nubbly surface. American barkcloth shot through with gold Lurex threads was called Las Vegas cloth , and contained as much as 65% rayon as well, making it a softer, more flowing fabric than the stiffer all-cotton rhino cloth or standard cotton barkcloth. Curare Curare ( / k ʊ ˈ r ɑːr i / or / k j ʊ ˈ r ɑːr i / ; kuu- RAH -ree or kyuu- RAH -ree )
2950-425: The same position on the receptor as ACh with an equal or greater affinity, and elicits no response, making it a competitive antagonist . The antidote for curare poisoning is an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor (anti-cholinesterase), such as physostigmine or neostigmine . By blocking ACh degradation, AChE inhibitors raise the amount of ACh in the neuromuscular junction; the accumulated ACh will then correct for
3009-402: The shirt, men often wore a barkcloth jacket, open in front. They also tied up the foreskin of the penis with a cotton thread and tucked it under a string belt. Women tied plaited cotton ligatures around the fleshy parts of their limbs. Adult women thrust large conical quartz labrets in the lower lip and smaller ones in the upper lip; girls used only resin spikes as labrets. A typical ornament was
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#17328846498603068-460: The trachea. Before muscle relaxants, anesthesiologists needed to use larger doses of the anesthetic agent, such as ether , chloroform or cyclopropane to achieve these aims. Such deep anesthesia risked killing patients who were elderly or had heart conditions. The source of curare in the Amazon was first researched by Richard Evans Schultes in 1941. Since the 1930s, it was being used in hospitals as
3127-428: The two effects independently and on the fly to ensure that their patients are safely unconscious and sufficiently relaxed to permit surgery. The use of neuromuscular blocking drugs carries with it the risk of anesthesia awareness . There are dozens of plants from which isoquinoline and indole alkaloids with curarizing effects can be isolated, and which were utilized by indigenous tribes of Central and South America for
3186-475: The various alkaloid poisons based on the containers used for their preparation. He believed curare could be categorized into three main types as seen below. However useful it appeared, it became rapidly outmoded. Richard Gill, a plant collector, found that the indigenous peoples began to use a variety of containers for their curare preparations, henceforth invalidating Boehm's basis of classification. Manske also observed in his 1955 The Alkaloids : The results of
3245-418: The vine as one of the genus Strychnos and gave it the now accepted name Strychnos toxifera . George Harley (1829–1896) showed in 1850 that curare ( wourali ) was effective for the treatment of tetanus and strychnine poisoning. In 1857, Claude Bernard (1813–1878) published the results of his experiments in which he demonstrated that the mechanism of action of curare was a result of interference in
3304-492: Was another Wanám group. This conflict resulted in 10 dead Cabiji. Also Creném who lived in the upper San Miguel were said to be enemies. Barkcloth Barkcloth or bark cloth is a versatile material that was once common in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. Barkcloth comes primarily from trees of the family Moraceae, including Broussonetia papyrifera , Artocarpus altilis , Artocarpus tamaran , and Ficus natalensis . It
3363-473: Was possibly not curare. In 1780, Abbe Felix Fontana discovered that it acted on the voluntary muscles rather than the nerves and the heart. In 1832, Alexander von Humboldt gave the first western account of how the toxin was prepared from plants by Orinoco River natives. During 1811–1812, Sir Benjamin Collins Brody experimented with curare ( woorara ). He was the first to show that curare does not kill
3422-697: Was shot by arrows or blowgun darts dipped in curare, leading to asphyxiation owing to the inability of the victim's respiratory muscles to contract. In particular, the poison was used by the Kalinago , indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean , on the tips of their arrows. In addition, the Yagua people , indigenous to Colombia and northeastern Peru, commonly used these toxins via blowpipes to target prey 30 to 40 paces distant. Due to its popularity among
3481-467: Was taboo to eat deer meat. Very important was also the Brazil nut tree. Nordenskiöld tells about the presence of Brazil nuts in all settlements they visited in 1914. The dress of both sexes were a long barkcloth shirt. This was often discarded if it interfered with one's activities or was likely to be damaged by water. The shirts were decorated with sewn or glued strips of bark cloth or dyed with urucu . Over
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