155-590: The Wadali Brothers – Puranchand Wadali and Pyarelal Wadali – are Sufi singers and musicians from Guru Ki Wadali in the Amritsar District in Punjab , India . Pyarelal Wadali, the younger of the two died on 4 March 2018 at the age of 75 due to cardiac arrest at the Fortis Escorts Heart Institute, Amritsar. Born into the fifth generation of musicians given to singing the messages of Sufi saints,
310-410: A hadith : "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil , the complete human who personifies the attributes of Absolute Reality , and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide. Sufi orders trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad through Ali ibn Abi Talib , with the notable exception of
465-567: A "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs ( mawali ), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. Around 746, Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which
620-805: A claim unrecognized outside of al-Andalus, he maintained that the Umayyad Caliphate, the true, authentic caliphate, more legitimate than the Abbasids, was continued through him in Córdoba . It was to survive for centuries. Some Umayyads also survived in Syria, and their descendants would once more attempt to restore their old regime during the Fourth Fitna . Two Umayyads, Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani and Maslama ibn Ya'qub, successively seized control of Damascus from 811 to 813, and declared themselves caliphs. However, their rebellions were suppressed. Previté-Orton argues that
775-570: A collapse in revenue, the converts' lands would become the property of their villages and remain liable for the full rate of the kharaj . In tandem, Umar intensified the Islamization drive of his Marwanid predecessors, enacting measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and inaugurating Islamic iconoclasm . His position among the Umayyad caliphs is unusual, in that he became the only one to have been recognized in subsequent Islamic tradition as
930-626: A complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul , including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period. Opposition to Sufi teachers and orders from more literalist and legalist strains of Islam existed in various forms throughout Islamic history. It took on
1085-542: A free atmosphere. In 2003, they entered Bollywood , rendering music director and writer Gulzar ’s soulful lyrics in their unique style in the film Pinjar . They also sang one song in Dhoop . On the cards is a documentary which the Discovery Channel is planning to make on them. Sufi Sufism ( Arabic : الصوفية , romanized : al-Ṣūfiyya or Arabic : التصوف , romanized : al-Taṣawwuf )
1240-529: A genuine caliph ( khalifa ) and not merely as a worldly king ( malik ). After the death of Umar II, another son of Abd al-Malik, Yazid II ( r. 720–724 ) became caliph. Not long after his accession, another mass revolt against Umayyad rule was staged in Iraq, this time by the prominent statesman Yazid ibn al-Muhallab . The latter declared a holy war against the Umayyads, took control of Basra and Wasit and gained
1395-491: A kneeling spear wall formation in battle, probably as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting. The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period. Byzantine coinage was used until 658; Byzantine gold coins were still in use until
1550-687: A largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. Despite the distance from the Arab garrison towns of Khurasan, the unfavorable terrain and climate and his enemies' numerical superiority, Qutayba, through his persistent raids, gained the surrender of Bukhara in 706–709, Khwarazm and Samarkand in 711–712 and Farghana in 713. He established Arab garrisons and tax administrations in Samarkand and Bukhara and demolished their Zoroastrian fire temples . Both cities developed as future centers of Islamic and Arabic learning. Umayyad suzerainty
1705-707: A monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the common Abrahamic setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity. An alternative motive may have been to divert the religious focus of Muslims in the Umayyad realm from the Ka'aba in Zubayrid Mecca (683–692), where the Umayyads were routinely condemned during the Hajj. In Damascus, Abd al-Malik's son and successor al-Walid I ( r. 705–715 ) confiscated
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#17330929409751860-697: A more serious threat had arisen in Khorasan . The Hashimiyya movement (a sub-sect of the Kaysanites Shia ), led by the Abbasid family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the Hashim clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in
2015-522: A musical offering at the Harballabh temple, where an executive of All India Radio, Jalandhar, spotted them and recorded their first song. The Wadali Brothers sing in the gurbani , kafi , ghazal and bhajan genres of music. They live in their ancestral house in Guru Ki Wadali, and teach music to those who promise to preserve it. They do not charge their disciples, and lead a very simple life devoted to
2170-414: A naval campaign against the city. The Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad fleets and defeated Maslama's army, prompting his withdrawal to Syria in 718. The massive losses incurred during the campaign led to a partial retrenchment of Umayyad forces from the captured Byzantine frontier districts, but already in 720, Umayyad raids against Byzantium recommenced. Nevertheless, the goal of conquering Constantinople
2325-487: A particularly violent form in the 18th century with the emergence of the Wahhabi movement . Around the turn of the 20th century, Sufi rituals and doctrines also came under sustained criticism from modernist Islamic reformers , liberal nationalists, and, some decades later, socialist movements in the Muslim world. Sufi orders were accused of fostering popular superstitions, resisting modern intellectual attitudes, and standing in
2480-446: A reaction against the expansion of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri . Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism , they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology . Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents of Sunni Islam , certain strands of Sufi thought transferred over to
2635-483: A revolt against Umayyad rule from Iraq. An army mobilized by Iraq's governor Ibn Ziyad intercepted and killed Husayn outside Kufa at the Battle of Karbala . Although it stymied active opposition to Yazid in Iraq, the killing of Muhammad's grandson left many Muslims outraged and significantly increased Kufan hostility toward the Umayyads and sympathy for the family of Ali. The next major challenge to Yazid's rule emanated from
2790-534: A series of raids on coastal areas of the Visigothic Kingdom paved the way to the permanent occupation of most of Iberia by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and on into south-eastern Gaul (last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. Arab expansion had already been limited following
2945-561: A stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration, though the talks failed to achieve a resolution. The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of Ali's supporters, who became known as the Kharijites , to revolt. Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while
3100-496: A summit of pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes, namely the Quda'a and their Kindite allies, organized by Ibn Bahdal in the old Ghassanid capital of Jabiya , Marwan was elected caliph in exchange for economic privileges to the loyalist tribes. At the subsequent Battle of Marj Rahit in August 684, Marwan led his tribal allies to a decisive victory against a much larger Qaysite army led by al-Dahhak, who
3255-438: A token portion of the provincial tax revenues to Damascus, the caliph let his governors rule with practical independence. After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate. Afterward, Ziyad launched a concerted campaign to firmly establish Arab rule in the vast Khurasan region east of Iran and restart
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#17330929409753410-784: A wide range of meanings, by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah (exemplary teachings and practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ), gave definitions of tasawwuf that described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts. Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism such as "intensification of Islamic faith and practice" and "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals". The term Sufism
3565-458: Is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification , spirituality , ritualism , and asceticism . Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis" (from صُوفِيّ , ṣūfīy ), and historically typically belonged to "orders" known as tariqa (pl. ṭuruq ) - congregations formed around a grand wali who would be
3720-616: Is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical . The life of the Algerian Sufi master Abdelkader El Djezairi is instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and El Hadj Umar Tall in West Africa , and Sheikh Mansur and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus . In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion which holds back Islamic achievement in
3875-492: Is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the Sahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith , which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am
4030-404: Is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level" through simultaneously "fulfilling ... [the obligatory] religious duties" and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the 'narrow gate' in the depth of the soul out into
4185-651: Is often considered the formative period in Islamic art . During the pre-Islamic period , the Umayyads or Banu Umayya were a leading clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca . By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads dominated the Quraysh's increasingly prosperous trade networks with Syria and developed economic and military alliances with the nomadic Arab tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, affording
4340-411: Is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with God, He will bestow on him a great reward. — [Translation of Quran 48:10 ] Sufis believe that by giving bayʿah (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi Shaykh , one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad
4495-508: Is usually defined by their relationship to governments. Turkey, Persia and The Indian Subcontinent have all been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and are the heart of Turkey's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. They have spread westwards to Cyprus , Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina , Kosovo , and, more recently, to
4650-516: The kharaj (land tax). Since avoidance of taxation incentivized both mass conversions to Islam and abandonment of land for migration to the garrison cities, it put a strain on tax revenues, especially in Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan. Thus, "the Umayyad rulers had a vested interest in preventing the conquered peoples from accepting Islam or forcing them to continue paying those taxes from which they claimed exemption as Muslims", according to Hawting. To prevent
4805-417: The jizya ( poll tax ) from which Muslims were exempt. It was A yearly tax levied on non-Muslims who permanently lived in Muslim lands. The amount varied based on the taxpayer's wealth, with the poor, women, children, and elderly exempt. Muslims were required to pay the zakat , which was earmarked or hypothecated explicitly for various alms programmes for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts. Under
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4960-546: The Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim in April. The suppression of the revolt marked the end of the Iraqi muqātila as a military force and the beginning of Syrian military domination of Iraq. Iraqi internal divisions, and the utilization of more disciplined Syrian forces by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert power in the province. To consolidate Umayyad rule after
5115-463: The Battle of Toulouse in 721. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. From it emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the caliphate. It is also regarded as the beginning of Moroccan independence, as Morocco would never again come under the rule of an eastern caliph or any other foreign power until
5270-619: The Hejaz , present day Saudi Arabia and that it has existed as a practice of Muslims from the earliest days of Islam, even predating some sectarian divides. Sufi orders are based on the bayah ( Arabic : بَيْعَة , lit. 'pledge') that was given to Muhammad by his Ṣahabah . By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah had committed themselves to the service of God. Verily, those who give Bay'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bay'âh (pledge) to God . The Hand of God
5425-849: The Islamic prophet Muhammad . Within the Sufi tradition, the formation of the orders did not immediately produce lineages of master and disciple. There are few examples before the eleventh century of complete lineages going back to the Prophet Muhammad. Yet the symbolic importance of these lineages was immense: they provided a channel to divine authority through master-disciple chains. It was through such chains of masters and disciples that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to both general and special devotees. These orders meet for spiritual sessions ( majalis ) in meeting places known as zawiyas , khanqahs or tekke . They strive for ihsan (perfection of worship), as detailed in
5580-566: The Maghreb (western North Africa), conquering Tangier and Sus in 708/709. Musa's Berber mawla , Tariq ibn Ziyad , invaded the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) in 711 and within five years most of Hispania was conquered . Al-Hajjaj managed the eastern expansion from Iraq. His lieutenant governor of Khurasan , Qutayba ibn Muslim , launched numerous campaigns against Transoxiana (Central Asia), which had been
5735-511: The Muhajirun , Muhammad's early followers and fellow emigrants from Mecca, would ally with their fellow tribesmen from the former Qurayshite elite and take control of the Muslim state. The Muhajirun gave allegiance to one of their own, the early, elderly companion of Muhammad , Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ), and put an end to Ansarite deliberations. Abu Bakr was viewed as acceptable by the Ansar and
5890-511: The Naqshbandi order, who trace their original precepts to Muhammad through Abu Bakr . However, it was not necessary to formally belong to a tariqa. In the Medieval period, Sufism was almost equal to Islam in general and not limited to specific orders. Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders ( tariqa , pl. tarîqât ) in
6045-647: The Patiala Gharana . Pyarelal was trained by his elder brother, who he considered his guru and mentor up till his death. Their first musical performance outside their village was in Harballabh Temple in Jalandhar . In 1975, the duo went to Jalandhar to perform at the Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan but was not allowed to sing because their appearance did not pass muster. Disappointed, they decided to make
6200-577: The Qadariyya . In 744, Yazid III , a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army tracked down and killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign. Yazid had appointed his brother, Ibrahim , as his successor, but Marwan II (744–750), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from
6355-706: The Qadiriyya order was Hanbali , with its founder, Abdul-Qadir Gilani , being a renowned jurist; the Chishtiyya was Hanafi ; the Shadiliyya order was Maliki ; and the Naqshbandiyya order was Hanafi . Thus, it is precisely because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such as Abdul-Qadir Gilani , Ghazali , and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn ( Saladin ) were connected with Sufism" that
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6510-585: The Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja Akhmet Yassawi , Rumi , and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 – c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia , Central Asia , and South Asia . Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world, and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia. Between
6665-470: The early Muslim conquests during the reign of Caliph Umar. Al-Walid I's successor, his brother Sulayman ( r. 715–717 ), continued his predecessors' militarist policies, but expansion mostly ground to a halt during his reign. The deaths of al-Hajjaj in 714 and Qutayba in 715 left the Arab armies in Transoxiana in disarray. For the next 25 years, no further eastward conquests were undertaken and
6820-570: The modern era and attacks from fundamentalist Islamic movements (such as Salafism and Wahhabism ), Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world . It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest. The Arabic word tasawwuf ( lit. ' 'Sufism' ' ), generally translated as Sufism, is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. The Arabic term Sufi has been used in Islamic literature with
6975-677: The "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam, and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice". The original meaning of ṣūfī seems to have been "one who wears wool ( ṣūf )", and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable". Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Another explanation traces
7130-439: The 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Renaissance" whose physical artifacts survive. In many places a person or group would endow a waqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as a zawiya , khanqah , or tekke ) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for
7285-523: The 20th century. It was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. In India , the Umayyad armies were defeated by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty and by the north Indian Pratiharas , stagnating further eastward Arab expansion. In the Caucasus , the confrontation with the Khazars peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established Derbent as a major military base and launched several invasions of
7440-482: The Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule. The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha, who had opposed Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyad clan but feared that their own influence and the power of the Quraysh, in general, would dissipate under Ali. Backed by one of Muhammad's wives, A'isha , they attempted to rally support against Ali among
7595-419: The Arab immigrants and troops who arrived during the conquest of Iraq in the 630s–640s , resented the transition of power to Syria. They remained divided, nonetheless, as both cities competed for power and influence in Iraq and its eastern dependencies and remained divided between the Arab tribal nobility and the early Muslim converts, the latter of whom were divided between the pro- Alids (loyalists of Ali) and
7750-741: The Arab tribes who originally served in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire in Syria. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as Christian Syrian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army Ministry, the Diwan Al-Jaysh, and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities. The Umayyad Syrian forces specialised in close order infantry warfare, and favoured using
7905-420: The Arabs lost territory. The Tang Chinese defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Aksu in 717, forcing their withdrawal to Tashkent . Meanwhile, in 716, the governor of Khurasan, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab , attempted to conquer the principalities of Jurjan and Tabaristan along the southern Caspian coast. His Khurasani and Iraqi troops were reinforced by Syrians, marking their first deployment to Khurasan, but
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#17330929409758060-500: The Arabs' initial successes were reversed by the local Iranian coalition of Farrukhan the Great . Afterward, the Arabs withdrew in return for a tributary agreement. On the Byzantine front, Sulayman took up his predecessor's project to capture Constantinople with increased vigor. His brother Maslama besieged the Byzantine capital from the land, while Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari launched
8215-406: The Arabs' severe losses in the offensive against Constantinople, Umar drew down Arab forces on the caliphate's war fronts, though Narbonne in modern France was conquered during his reign. To maintain stronger oversight in the provinces, Umar dismissed all his predecessors' governors, his new appointees being generally competent men he could control. To that end, the massive viceroyalty of Iraq and
8370-586: The Berbers of Ifriqiya, where the Umayyad governor was assassinated by his discontented Berber guards. Warfare on the frontiers was also resumed, with renewed annual raids against the Byzantines and the Khazars in Transcaucasia . The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was Hisham ( r. 724–743 ), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at Resafa in northern Syria, which
8525-589: The Byzantine Empire and raids into Syria by the Byzantines' Mardaite allies compelled him to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium in 689 which substantially increased the Umayyads' annual tribute to the Empire. During his siege of Circesium in 691, Abd al-Malik reconciled with Zufar and the Qays by offering them privileged positions in the Umayyad court and army, signaling a new policy by the caliph and his successors to balance
8680-426: The Egyptian dīwān in 705/706. Arabic ultimately became the sole official language of the Umayyad state, but the transition in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the 740s. Although the official language was changed, Greek and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were versed in Arabic kept their posts. According to Gibb, the decrees were the "first step towards the reorganization and unification of
8835-429: The Hamadaniyyah (after Sayyid Ali Hamadani [d. 1384]), the Naqshbandiyya (after Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari [d. 1389]). Contrary to popular perception in the West, however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims, and in fact all of these orders were attached to one of the four orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. Thus,
8990-425: The Hejaz where Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , the son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and grandson of Abu Bakr, advocated for a shura among the Quraysh to elect the caliph and rallied opposition to the Umayyads from his headquarters in Islam's holiest sanctuary, the Ka'aba in Mecca. The Ansar and Quraysh of Medina also took up the anti-Umayyad cause and in 683 expelled the Umayyads from the city. Yazid's Syrian troops routed
9145-536: The Kharijites, who followed their own strict interpretation of Islam. The caliph applied a decentralized approach to governing Iraq by forging alliances with its tribal nobility, such as the Kufan leader al-Ash'ath ibn Qays , and entrusting the administration of Kufa and Basra to highly experienced members of the Thaqif tribe, al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba and the latter's protege Ziyad ibn Abihi (whom Mu'awiya adopted as his half-brother), respectively. In return for recognizing his suzerainty, maintaining order, and forwarding
9300-406: The Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the Battle of the Defile in 731. In 734, al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take Merv . After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved. The problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads. Hisham
9455-401: The Medieval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same. In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political and religious phenomena associated with Sufis. Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamic mysticism ", "the mystical expression of Islamic faith", "the inward dimension of Islam", "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam",
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#17330929409759610-434: The Medinans at the Battle of al-Harra and subsequently plundered Medina before besieging Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca . The Syrians withdrew upon news of Yazid's death in 683, after which Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and soon after gained recognition in most provinces of the caliphate, including Iraq and Egypt. In Syria Ibn Bahdal secured the succession of Yazid's son and appointed successor Mu'awiya II , whose authority
9765-453: The Muslim conquests in the surrounding areas. Not long after Ziyad's death, he was succeeded by his son Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad . Meanwhile, Amr ibn al-As ruled Egypt from the provincial capital of Fustat as a virtual partner of Mu'awiya until his death in 663, after which loyalist governors were appointed and the province became a practical appendage of Syria. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya (central North Africa)
9920-452: The Qurayshite elite and was acknowledged as caliph (leader of the Muslim community). He showed favor to the Umayyads by awarding them command roles in the Muslim conquest of Syria . One of the appointees was Yazid , the son of Abu Sufyan, who owned property and maintained trade networks in Syria. Abu Bakr's successor Umar ( r. 634–644 ) curtailed the influence of the Qurayshite elite in favor of Muhammad's earlier supporters in
10075-498: The Second Fitna, the Marwanids launched a series of centralization, Islamization and Arabization measures. To prevent further rebellions in Iraq, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian garrison in Wasit , situated between Kufa and Basra, and instituted a more rigorous administration in the province. Power thereafter derived from the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars and mawālī became their virtual subjects. The surplus from
10230-449: The Sufism of Imam Junayd of Baghdad in doctrines, manners and [spiritual] purification." Current Sufi orders include Madariyya Order , Alians , Bektashi Order , Mevlevi Order , Ba 'Alawiyya , Chishti Order , Jerrahi , Naqshbandi , Mujaddidi , Ni'matullāhī , Qadiriyya , Qalandariyya , Sarwari Qadiriyya , Shadhiliyya , Suhrawardiyya , Saifiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi . The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies
10385-453: The Umayyad Caliphate reached its greatest territorial extent. The war with the Byzantines had resumed under his father after the civil war, with the Umayyads defeating the Byzantines at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692. The Umayyads frequently raided Byzantine Anatolia and Armenia in the following years. By 705, Armenia was annexed by the caliphate along with the principalities of Caucasian Albania and Iberia , which collectively became
10540-456: The Umayyads to pay the Empire an annual tribute of gold, horses and slaves. Mu'awiya's main challenge was reestablishing the unity of the Muslim community and asserting his authority and that of the caliphate in the provinces amid the political and social disintegration of the First Fitna. There remained significant opposition to his assumption of the caliphate and to a strong central government. The garrison towns of Kufa and Basra, populated by
10695-425: The United States, via Albania . Sufism is popular in such African countries as Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan, Morocco, and Senegal , where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Sufism is traditional in Morocco, but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism under contemporary spiritual teachers such as Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi . Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal
10850-478: The Wadali brothers dabbled in the most unexpected of professions before they became Sufi singers. While Puranchand Wadali, the elder brother, was a regular in an akhara (wrestling ring) for 25 years, Pyarelal contributed to the meager family income by playing the role of Krishan in the village Ras Lila . Their father, Thakur Das Wadali, compelled Puranchand to learn music. Puranchand studied music from celebrated masters such as Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan of
11005-489: The administration and military, but nonetheless allowed the growing foothold of Abu Sufyan's sons in Syria, which was all but conquered by 638. When Umar's overall commander of the province Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah died in 639, he appointed Yazid governor of Syria's Damascus , Palestine and Jordan districts. Yazid died shortly after and Umar appointed his brother Mu'awiya in his place. Umar's exceptional treatment of Abu Sufyan's sons may have stemmed from his respect for
11160-470: The agriculturally rich Sawad lands was redirected from the muqātila to the caliphal treasury in Damascus to pay the Syrian troops in Iraq. The system of military pay established by Umar, which paid stipends to veterans of the earlier Muslim conquests and their descendants, was ended, salaries being restricted to those in active service. The old system was considered a handicap on Abd al-Malik's executive authority and financial ability to reward loyalists in
11315-454: The allegiance of the Iraqis. The recognition of Mu'awiya in Kufa, referred to as the "year of unification of the community" in the Muslim traditional sources, is generally considered the start of his caliphate. With his accession, the political capital and the caliphal treasury were transferred to Damascus , the seat of Mu'awiya's power. Syria's emergence as the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate
11470-454: The ambits of Shia Islam during the late medieval period. This particularly happened after the Safavid conversion of Iran under the concept of Irfan . Important focuses of Sufi worship include dhikr , the practice of remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in spreading Islam through their missionary and educational activities. Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in
11625-426: The army. Thus, a professional army was established during Abd al-Malik's reign whose salaries derived from tax proceeds. In 693, the Byzantine gold solidus was replaced in Syria and Egypt with the dinar . Initially, the new coinage contained depictions of the caliph as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community and its supreme military commander. This image proved no less acceptable to Muslim officialdom and
11780-529: The cathedral of St. John the Baptist and founded the Great Mosque in its place as a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to historian Nikita Elisséeff. Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, historian Robert Hillenbrand calls the Damascus mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of Muslim supremacy and permanence". Under al-Walid I
11935-479: The city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf . Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as Sheikh of the principals and practices of Tasawwuf . Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering
12090-403: The clan a degree of political power in the region. The Umayyads under the leadership of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb were the principal leaders of Meccan opposition to the Islamic prophet Muhammad , but after the latter captured Mecca in 630, Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh embraced Islam. To reconcile his influential Qurayshite tribesmen, Muhammad gave his former opponents, including Abu Sufyan, a stake in
12245-482: The clan. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, with Damascus as their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests , conquering Ifriqiya , Transoxiana , Sind , the Maghreb and Hispania ( al-Andalus ). At its greatest extent (661–750), the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km (4,300,000 sq mi), making it one of the largest empires in history in terms of area. The dynasty
12400-752: The death of Mu'awiya II. Al-Dahhak in Damascus, the Qays tribes in Qinnasrin (northern Syria) and the Jazira, the Judham in Palestine, and the Ansar and South Arabians of Homs all opted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the leader of the Umayyads expelled to Syria from Medina, was prepared to submit to Ibn al-Zubayr as well but was persuaded to forward his candidacy for the caliphate by Ibn Ziyad. The latter had been driven out of Iraq and strove to uphold Umayyad rule. During
12555-554: The diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also a step towards a more definitely Muslim administration". Indeed, it formed an important part of the Islamization measures that lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic coloring it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship. In 691/692, Abd al-Malik completed the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. It was possibly intended as
12710-493: The divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari . Hasan al-Basri , a tabi ', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart". Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history , partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri . Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than
12865-548: The divine one. They believe in the Sufi tradition deeply. They consider themselves as a medium through which the preaching of great saints is passed on to others. They have never indulged commercially, and they have only a handful of recordings to their name (mostly from live concerts). They believe in singing freely as homage to the divine one. They do not feel very comfortable in using electronic gadgets in their music, and stress on Alap and Taans . They believe that spiritual heights can only be attained if you sing unreservedly, in
13020-461: The domain of the pure arid unimprisonable Spirit which itself opens out on to the Divinity." Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate tradition from Islam apart from so-called pure Islam , is frequently a product of Western orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalists . As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with
13175-575: The earliest scholars to be called by the term being Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abdak al-Sufi. Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar, from Basra, and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi . Others, such as Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati , were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes, but later came to be identified as such due to their focus on tazkiah (purification). Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarani , Hasan of Basra , Harith al-Muhasibi , Abu Nasr as-Sarraj and Said ibn al-Musayyib . Ruwaym , from
13330-417: The early Middle Ages. The term tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd ), meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring
13485-491: The early Umayyad caliphs, prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served the Byzantines . The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Mu'awiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The Umayyad era
13640-587: The early medieval period onwards, when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from India and Iraq to the Balkans and Senegal . The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and
13795-781: The early teachers, as well as Abdul-Qadir Gilani , Hammad, Abu al-Bayan and others of the later masters— that they do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition. Al-Ghazali narrates in Al-Munqidh min al-dalal : The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I
13950-491: The east was broken up. Umar's most significant policy entailed fiscal reforms to equalize the status of the Arabs and mawali , thus remedying a long-standing issue which threatened the Muslim community. The jizya (poll tax) on the mawali was eliminated. Hitherto, the jizya, which was traditionally reserved for the non-Muslim majorities of the caliphate, continued to be imposed on non-Arab converts to Islam, while all Muslims who cultivated conquered lands were liable to pay
14105-702: The east, where his armies attempted to subdue both Tokharistan , with its centre at Balkh , and Transoxiana , with its centre at Samarkand . Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the Sogdians of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the " Day of Thirst " in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of Khurasan , promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. Discontent among
14260-511: The end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule. Iraq remained politically unstable and the garrisons of Kufa and Basra had become exhausted by warfare with Kharijite rebels. In 694 Abd al-Malik combined both cities as a single province under the governorship of al-Hajjaj, who oversaw the suppression of the Kharijite revolts in Iraq and Iran by 698 and
14415-559: The family, their burgeoning alliance with the powerful Banu Kalb tribe as a counterbalance to the influential Himyarite settlers in Homs who viewed themselves as equals to the Quraysh in nobility, or the lack of a suitable candidate at the time, particularly amid the plague of Amwas which had already killed Abu Ubayda and Yazid. Under Mu'awiya's stewardship, Syria remained domestically peaceful, organized and well-defended from its former Byzantine rulers. Umar's successor, Uthman ibn Affan ,
14570-408: The feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire. The first four caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the practices and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously. These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection, and religious administration. Each of these
14725-574: The fields of science and technology. A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish -born wandering Sufi Ivan Aguéli . René Guénon , the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and
14880-410: The former Byzantine territories of Syria and Egypt. In Medina, he relied extensively on the counsel of his Umayyad cousins, the brothers al-Harith and Marwan ibn al-Hakam . According to the historian Wilferd Madelung , this policy stemmed from Uthman's "conviction that the house of Umayya, as the core clan of Quraysh, was uniquely qualified to rule in the name of Islam". Uthman's nepotism provoked
15035-459: The hands of the Quraysh, as opposed to Ali's determination to diffuse power among all of the Muslim factions. From early in his reign, Uthman displayed explicit favouritism to his kinsmen, in stark contrast to his predecessors. He appointed his family members as governors over the regions successively conquered under Umar and himself, namely much of the Sasanian Empire , i.e. Iraq and Iran, and
15190-507: The historian Hugh N. Kennedy , Uthman was killed because of his determination to centralize control over the caliphate 's government by the traditional elite of the Quraysh, particularly his Umayyad clan, which he believed possessed the "experience and ability" to govern, at the expense of the interests, rights and privileges of many early Muslims. After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from
15345-508: The house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar , who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism ( dawah ). They sought support for
15500-483: The interests of the Qays and Yaman in the Umayyad state. With his unified army, Abd al-Malik marched against the Zubayrids of Iraq, having already secretly secured the defection of the province's leading tribal chiefs, and defeated Iraq's ruler, Ibn al-Zubayr's brother Mus'ab , at the Battle of Maskin in 691. Afterward, the Umayyad commander al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf besieged Mecca and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking
15655-562: The internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened. Later developments of Sufism occurred from people like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami . Early on Sufism
15810-536: The ire of the Ansar and the members of the shura . In 645/46, he added the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship and granted the latter's request to take possession of all Byzantine crown lands in Syria to help pay his troops. He had the surplus taxes from the wealthy provinces of Kufa and Egypt forwarded to the treasury in Medina, which he used at his personal disposal, frequently disbursing its funds and war booty to his Umayyad relatives. Moreover,
15965-771: The knowledge of knowing God and loving God". Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma'ilism , which led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism throughout Iran. Prominent tariqa include the Ba 'Alawiyya , Badawiyya , Bektashi , Burhaniyya , Chishti , Khalwati , Kubrawiya , Madariyya , Mevlevi , Muridiyya , Naqshbandi , Nimatullahi , Qadiriyya , Qalandariyya , Rahmaniyya , Rifa'i , Safavid , Senussi , Shadhili , Suhrawardiyya , Tijaniyyah , Uwaisi and Zahabiya orders. Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism
16120-427: The last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad , with the goal of undergoing tazkiya (self purification) and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of ihsan . The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavoring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known as fitra . Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history , partly as
16275-582: The latter's ally Amr ibn al-As ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658. In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in Jerusalem by his Syrian tribal allies. Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite dissident in January 661. His son Hasan succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's arrival to Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer. At that point, Mu'awiya entered Kufa and received
16430-538: The lexical root of the word to ṣafā ( صفاء ), which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of tasawwuf as considered in Islam is tazkiyah ( تزكية , meaning: self-purification), which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity." Others have suggested that
16585-459: The local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's work was recorded in Greek , Coptic , and Persian . It was only during the reign of Abd al-Malik that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic. The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and
16740-449: The lucrative Sasanian crown lands of Iraq, which Umar had designated as communal property for the benefit of the Arab garrison towns of Kufa and Basra , were turned into caliphal crown lands to be used at Uthman's discretion. Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in the killing of the caliph in 656. In the assessment of
16895-452: The military of the Byzantine Empire and their Ghassanid client kings, were "more accustomed to order and obedience" than their Iraqi counterparts, according to the historian Julius Wellhausen . Mu'awiya relied on the powerful Kalbite chief Ibn Bahdal and the Kindite nobleman Shurahbil ibn Simt alongside the Qurayshite commanders al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri and Abd al-Rahman , the son of
17050-494: The modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines of jurisprudence and theology , is represented by institutions such as Egypt 's Al-Azhar University and Zaytuna College , with Al-Azhar's current Grand Imam Ahmed el-Tayeb recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy" as being a follower "of any of the four schools of [legal] thought ( Hanafi , Shafi’i , Maliki or Hanbali ) and ... [also] of
17205-462: The months following the battle, the inter-tribal strife undermined the foundation of Umayyad power: the Syrian army. In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled the Zubayrid governor of Egypt and replaced him with Marwan's son Abd al-Aziz , who would rule the province until his death in 704/05. Another son, Muhammad , was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira. Marwan died in April 685 and
17360-411: The names in the chain but only the names of major Sufi Saints). Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire ( UK : / uː ˈ m aɪ j æ d / , US : / uː ˈ m aɪ æ d / ; Arabic : ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة , romanized : al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and
17515-500: The new order. Abu Sufyan and the Umayyads relocated to Medina , Islam's political centre, to maintain their new-found political influence in the nascent Muslim community. Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community. Leaders of the Ansar , the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven after his emigration from Mecca in 622, discussed forwarding their own candidate out of concern that
17670-514: The northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the Volga , but the Khazars remained unsubdued. Hisham suffered still worse defeats in
17825-619: The northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to Harran , in present-day Turkey . A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of Homs and Damascus in retaliation. Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first Dahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747, Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time
17980-511: The office of the caliph into a kingship. The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance. Yazid acceded after Mu'awiya's death in 680 and almost immediately faced a challenge to his rule by the Kufan partisans of Ali who had invited Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson Husayn to stage
18135-482: The path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings. Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like Abdul-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb , covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community. In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that
18290-487: The popular studies of writers like Idries Shah are continuously disregarded by scholars as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism" is somehow distinct from "Islam". Nile Green has observed that, in the Middle Ages, Sufism more or less was Islam . Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly important part of Islam" and "one of the most widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life" in Islamic civilization from
18445-566: The present day. All these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread included the Suhrawardiyya (after Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi [d. 1168]), Qadiriyya (after Abdul-Qadir Gilani [d. 1166]), the Rifa'iyya (after Ahmed al-Rifa'i [d. 1182]), the Chishtiyya (after Moinuddin Chishti [d. 1236]), the Shadiliyya (after Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili [d. 1258]),
18600-461: The primacy of the sharia forms the soundest tradition in tasawwuf , and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his fellow Hanbalis , al-Ansari al-Harawi and Abdul-Qadir, and the latter's own shaykh, Hammad al-Dabbas the upright. He cites the early shaykhs (shuyukh al-salaf) such as Al-Fuḍayl ibn ‘Iyāḍ , Ibrahim ibn Adham , Ma`ruf al-Karkhi , Sirri Saqti , Junayd of Baghdad, and others of
18755-474: The prominent general Khalid ibn al-Walid , to guarantee the loyalty of the key military components of Syria. Mu'awiya preoccupied his core Syrian troops in nearly annual or bi-annual land and sea raids against Byzantium, which provided them with battlefield experience and war spoils, but secured no permanent territorial gains. Toward the end of his reign the caliph entered a thirty-year truce with Byzantine emperor Constantine IV ( r. 668–685 ), obliging
18910-415: The province of Arminiya . In 695–698 the commander Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani restored Umayyad control over Ifriqiya after defeating the Byzantines and Berbers there. Carthage was captured and destroyed in 698, signaling "the final, irretrievable end of Roman power in Africa ", according to Kennedy. Kairouan was firmly secured as a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town of Tunis
19065-470: The purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. In his Al-Risala al-Safadiyya , ibn Taymiyyah describes the Sufis as those who belong to
19220-402: The reason for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaic to Islam. These mawalis (clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab overlords. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that
19375-421: The remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes. As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of
19530-467: The second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure, as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two. Historically, Sufis have often belonged to "orders" known as tariqa (pl. ṭuruq ) – congregations formed around a grand master wali who will trace their teaching through a chain of successive teachers back to
19685-429: The support of the Kufan elite. The caliph's Syrian army defeated the rebels and pursued and nearly eliminated the influential Muhallabids , marking the suppression of the last major Iraqi revolt against the Umayyads. Yazid II reversed Umar II's equalization reforms, reimposing the jizya on the mawali , which sparked revolts in Khurasan in 721 or 722 that persisted for some twenty years and met strong resistance among
19840-485: The tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that of Umar II , and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred. One grandson of Hisham, Abd al-Rahman I , survived, escaped across North Africa, and established an emirate in Moorish Iberia ( Al-Andalus ). In
19995-514: The troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers. Ali defeated them at the Battle of the Camel , in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and A'isha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion. Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the caliphate's new capital. Although Ali
20150-544: The two forces met in the Battle of the Zab , and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt. Some Umayyads in Syria continued to resist the takeover. The Umayyad princes Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani , al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, and Hashim ibn Yazid launched revolts in Syria and the Islamic–Byzantine frontier around late 750, but they were defeated. The victors desecrated
20305-502: The very survival of the orders and traditional Sufi lifestyle appeared doubtful to many observers. However, defying these predictions, Sufism and Sufi orders have continued to play a major role in the Muslim world, also expanding into Muslim-minority countries. Its ability to articulate an inclusive Islamic identity with greater emphasis on personal and small-group piety has made Sufism especially well-suited for contexts characterized by religious pluralism and secularist perspectives. In
20460-405: The way of progressive reforms. Ideological attacks on Sufism were reinforced by agrarian and educational reforms, as well as new forms of taxation, which were instituted by Westernizing national governments, undermining the economic foundations of Sufi orders. The extent to which Sufi orders declined in the first half of the 20th century varied from country to country, but by the middle of the century
20615-402: The word comes from the term Ahl al-Ṣuffa ("the people of the suffah or the bench"), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr , one of the most prominent companion among them was Abu Hurayra . These men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. The current consensus is that Sufism emerged in
20770-601: Was toppled by the Abbasids in 750. Survivors of the dynasty established themselves in Córdoba which, in the form of an emirate and then a caliphate , became a world centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the Islamic Golden Age . The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay
20925-472: Was a wealthy Umayyad and early Muslim convert with marital ties to Muhammad. He was elected by the shura council, composed of Muhammad's cousin Ali , al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam , Talha ibn Ubayd Allah , Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas and Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf , all of whom were close, early companions of Muhammad and belonged to the Quraysh. He was chosen over Ali because he would ensure the concentration of state power into
21080-421: Was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a solid power-base and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria. Mu'awiya did not claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of culpability in his death. Ali and Mu'awiya fought to
21235-544: Was carried out under the sign of the black flag . He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor, Nasr ibn Sayyar , and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, Wasit , was placed under siege , and in November of the same year Abul Abbas as-Saffah was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa. At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750
21390-415: Was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into Anatolia , but also in a major defeat (the Battle of Akroinon ), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion. From the caliphate's north-western African bases,
21545-503: Was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit. In the eleventh-century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified" trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized" into orders which have continued until
21700-461: Was effectively abandoned, and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains , over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter-raids during the next centuries. Contrary to expectations of a son or brother succeeding him, Sulayman had nominated his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz , as his successor and he took office in 717. After
21855-502: Was founded and equipped with an arsenal on Abd al-Malik's orders to establish a strong Arab fleet. Hassan ibn al-Nu'man continued the campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queen al-Kahina , between 698 and 703. His successor in Ifriqiya, Musa ibn Nusayr , subjugated the Berbers of the Hawwara , Zenata and Kutama confederations and advanced into
22010-446: Was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with
22165-437: Was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Spiritualists, such as George Gurdjieff , may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims. Here is a chart to explain the spiritual chain of major Sufi Orders and how it connects to Prophet Muhammad. (The chart doesn't include all
22320-460: Was known for its strict adherence to the sunnah , for example it was reported Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poet Jami , Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi". The term also had a strong connection with Kufa , with three of
22475-621: Was launched by the commander Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, which extended Umayyad control as far as Byzacena (modern southern Tunisia), where Uqba founded the permanent Arab garrison city of Kairouan . In contrast to Uthman, Mu'awiya restricted the influence of his Umayyad kinsmen to the governorship of Medina, where the dispossessed Islamic elite, including the Umayyads, was suspicious or hostile toward his rule. However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid I , as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning
22630-425: Was likely restricted to Damascus and Syria's southern districts. Mu'awiya II had been ill from the beginning of his accession, with al-Dahhak assuming the practical duties of his office, and he died in early 684 without naming a successor. His death marked the end of the Umayyads' Sufyanid ruling house, called after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan. Umayyad authority nearly collapsed in their Syrian stronghold after
22785-411: Was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as sterile monotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam. In recent times, Historian Nile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating, in
22940-454: Was replaced in 696 or 697 with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes and other Muslim religious formulas. In 698/699, similar changes were made to the silver dirhams issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian lands of the eastern caliphate. Arabic replaced Persian as the language of the dīwān in Iraq in 697, Greek in the Syrian dīwān in 700, and Greek and Coptic in
23095-660: Was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty . Uthman ibn Affan , the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member of the clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with Mu'awiya I , the long-time governor of Greater Syria , who became caliph after the end of the First Fitna in 661. After Mu'awiya's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the Second Fitna , and power eventually fell to Marwan I , from another branch of
23250-410: Was secured over the rest of conquered Transoxiana through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact. From 708/709, al-Hajjaj's kinsman Muhammad ibn al-Qasim conquered northwestern South Asia and established out of this new territory the province of Sind . The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in
23405-567: Was slain. Not long after, the South Arabians of Homs and the Judham joined the Quda'a to form the tribal confederation of Yaman . Marj Rahit led to the long-running conflict between the Qays and Yaman coalitions. The Qays regrouped in the Euphrates river fortress of Circesium under Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi and moved to avenge their losses. Although Marwan regained full control of Syria in
23560-491: Was subsequently given authority over the rest of the eastern caliphate. Resentment among the Iraqi troops towards al-Hajjaj's methods of governance, particularly his death threats to force participation in the war efforts and his reductions to their stipends, culminated with a mass Iraqi rebellion against the Umayyads in c. 700 . The leader of the rebels was the Kufan nobleman Ibn al-Ash'ath , grandson of al-Ash'ath ibn Qays. Al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebels at
23715-448: Was succeeded by Al-Walid II (743–744), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (including Qusayr Amra and Khirbat al-Mafjar ) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession and by persecuting
23870-503: Was succeeded by his eldest son Abd al-Malik . Although Ibn Ziyad attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ibn Ziyad's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi of Kufa at the Battle of Khazir in August 686. The setback delayed Abd al-Malik's attempts to reestablish Umayyad authority in Iraq, while pressures from
24025-521: Was the result of Mu'awiya's twenty-year entrenchment in the province, the geographic distribution of its relatively large Arab population throughout the province in contrast to their seclusion in garrison cities in other provinces, and the domination of a single tribal confederation, the Kalb-led Quda'a , as opposed to the wide array of competing tribal groups in Iraq. The long-established, formerly Christian Arab tribes in Syria, having been integrated into
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