149-739: The WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship is a secondary title contested for in the Puerto Rican professional wrestling promotion , the World Wrestling Council (WWC). The title has been in use since 1975. Prior to being defended in the WWC, it was defended in L&;G Promotions, until 1977, when the title moved to the WWC after L&G closed. For a time, the title was defended in the W*ING promotion in Japan as
298-412: A U.S. state or Washington, D.C. can vote in presidential elections. Puerto Rico has eight senatorial districts , 40 representative districts , and 78 municipalities ; there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government. Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios , and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for
447-563: A fig leaf , i.e., associated with the covering up of an act that is actually embarrassing or distasteful with something of innocuous appearance. Puerto Rico remains a territory of the United States, exercising substantial internal self-government, but subordinated to the U.S. Constitution in areas such as foreign affairs or defense. For this reason, it is not considered to be a full-fledged associated state under either international or U.S. domestic law. The history of Puerto Rico began with
596-577: A "protector de indios", an ecclesiastical representative who acted as the protector of the Indians and represented them in formal litigation. Later in the 16th century, in Peru , thousands of indigenous men were forced to hard work as underground miners in the silver mines of Potosí , by means of the continuation of the pre-Hispanic Inca mita tradition. King Philip III inherited a difficult situation in Chile , where
745-436: A binding referendum. The bill does not decide PR's fate, it simply prepares the United States to respond the outcome of referendum. In the 5 November 2024 elections, there was three choices in a non-binding referendum which included Statehood, Independence, or Independence with Free Association on the ballot; Statehood won with 59%. In addition, on November 5, 2024, Jennifer Gonzalez won the office of Governor of Puerto Rico in
894-598: A brutal conflict. The victorious former slaves founded the republic of Haiti in 1804. Later slave revolts were arguably part of the upsurge of liberal and democratic values centered on individual rights and liberties which came in the aftermath of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in Europe. As emancipation became more of a concrete reality, the slaves' concept of freedom changed. No longer did they seek to overthrow
1043-482: A decree, Código Negro Español (Spanish Black Code), that specified food and clothing provisions, put limits on the number of work hours , limited punishments, required religious instruction, and protected marriages, forbidding the sale of young children away from their mothers. But planters often flouted the laws and protested against them, considering them a threat to their authority and an intrusion into their personal lives. The slaveowners did not protest against all
1192-467: A four-year term. The municipality of San Juan is the oldest, founded in 1521; the next earliest settlements are San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. Increased settlement in the 18th century saw 30 more communities established, following 34 in the 19th century. Six were founded in the 20th century, the most recent being Florida in 1971. Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties:
1341-553: A free black Spanish woman from Jerez de la Frontera and a Spanish settler from Segovia who met in Seville and embarked together as a couple to the New World. This marriage took place in 1565 in the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine, Florida. Estevanico , recorded as a black slave from Morocco, survived the disastrous Narváez expedition from 1527 to 1536 when most of the men died. After
1490-533: A head tax for themselves and half-value for the slaves. However, non-Muslims were prohibited from holding Muslim slaves, and so if one of their slaves converted to Islam, they were required to sell the slave to a Muslim. Mozarabs were later, by the 9th and 10th centuries, permitted to purchase new non-Muslim slaves via the peninsula's established slave trade. During the reconquista , Christian Spain sought to retake territory lost to Muslims and this led to changing norms regarding slavery. Though enslavement of Christians
1639-804: A key part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the New World . The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. In 1593, Portuguese soldiers, sent from Lisbon by order of Phillip II, composed the first garrison of the San Felipe del Morro fortress in Puerto Rico. Some brought their wives, while others married Puerto Rican women, and today there are many Puerto Rican families with Portuguese last names. The smallest of
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#17328761709821788-752: A long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft when it has been in effect. Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, residents of Puerto Rico, contrary to a popular misconception, do pay U.S. federal taxes: customs taxes (which are subsequently returned to the Puerto Rico Treasury), import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Residents pay federal payroll taxes , such as Social Security and Medicare , as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees, those who do business with
1937-565: A much smaller scale than the Portuguese. Artisans acquired black slaves and trained them in their trade, increasing the artisans' output. Another form of forced labor used in the New World with origins in Spain was the encomienda , on the model of the award of the labor to Christian victors over Muslims during the reconquista . This institution of forced labor was initially employed by the Spaniards in
2086-441: A number of blacks were accused of rebellion. They were executed in the main plaza ( zócalo ) by hanging, an event recorded in an indigenous pictorial and alphabetic manuscript. Demand for African slaves was high and the slave trade was controlled by the Portuguese, who set up trading posts on the west coast of Africa. Spanish colonists purchased them directly from Portuguese traders, who in turn purchased them from African traders on
2235-525: A number of years in the Spanish militia. Most were settled in a community called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose , the first settlement of free Africans in North America. The enslaved African Francisco Menéndez escaped from South Carolina and traveled to St. Augustine, Florida, where he became the leader of the settlers at Mose and commander of the black militia company there from 1726 until sometime after 1742. The former slaves also found refuge among
2384-441: A post of annoyance to them.". Spain requested British intervention, but London declined to assist Spain in the negotiations. Some of President James Monroe 's cabinet demanded Jackson's immediate dismissal, but Adams realized that Jackson's actions had put the U.S. in a favorable diplomatic position. Adams negotiated very favorable terms. As Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons,
2533-520: A secondary but strategically significant role compared to larger and wealthier colonies like Peru and New Spain . By the late 19th century, a distinct Puerto Rican identity began to emerge, centered around a fusion of European , African , and indigenous elements. In 1898, following the Spanish–American War , Puerto Rico was acquired by the United States . Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917 and can move freely between
2682-588: A significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations" regarding U.S. territories; The president would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico's legislature, governor, and other public authorities. There would be another referendum in 2017 in Puerto Rico, in favor of statehood although it
2831-448: A slave could buy his freedom, in the event that his master was willing to sell, by paying the price sought in installments. Slaves were allowed to earn money during their spare time by working as shoemakers, cleaning clothes, or selling the produce they grew on their own plots of land. For the freedom of their newborn child, not yet baptized, they paid at half the going price for a baptized child. Many of these freedmen started settlements in
2980-553: A time, and oftentimes two to three months. These wooden stocks were made in two types: lying-down or stand-up types. women were punished, even when pregnant. They were subjected to whippings: they had to lie "face down over a scooped-out piece of round [earth] to protect their bellies." Some masters reportedly whipped pregnant women in the belly, often causing miscarriages. The wounds were treated with "compresses of tobacco leaves, urine and salt." After 1784, Spain provided five ways by which slaves could obtain freedom. Five years later,
3129-490: A vote in the U.S. Congress , which oversees it under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 . Congress approved a territorial constitution in 1952, allowing residents of the archipelago to elect a governor in addition to a senate and house of representatives . The political status of Puerto Rico is an ongoing debate . Beginning in the mid-20th century, the U.S. government , together with
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#17328761709823278-461: Is Spanish for "rich port". Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen , a derivation of Borikén , its Indigenous Taíno name, which is popularly said to mean "Land of the Valiant Lord". The terms boricua , borinqueño , and borincano are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage, and derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively. The island
3427-460: Is also popularly known in Spanish as La Isla del Encanto , meaning "the island of enchantment". Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista , in honor of Saint John the Baptist , while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City"). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for
3576-573: Is headed by the governor , currently Pedro Pierluisi Urrutia . The legislative branch consists of the bicameral Legislative Assembly , made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber; the Senate is headed by a president , currently José Luis Dalmau , while the House is headed by the speaker of the House , currently Tatito Hernández . The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years, with
3725-474: Is land and 1,900 sq mi (4,900 km ) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than Delaware and Rhode Island but smaller than Connecticut . The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 110 mi (180 km), and the maximum width from north to south is 40 mi (64 km). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles . It is 80% of the size of Jamaica , just over 18% of
3874-607: Is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque , one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest , with an elevation of 3,494 ft (1,065 m). Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers , most of which originate in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of
4023-481: Is the coquí , a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest , the only tropical rainforest in the U.S. Forest Service system, located in the northeast of the island. It was previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to
4172-474: The Siete Partidas of Alfonso "the learned" (1252–1284) specified who could be enslaved: those who were captured in just war; offspring of an enslaved mother; those who voluntarily sold themselves into slavery, and specified slaves' good treatment by their masters. At the time it was generally domestic slavery and was a temporary condition of members of outgroups. As well as the formal parameters for slavery,
4321-544: The American model , with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. All governmental powers are delegated by the United States Congress , with the head of state being the president of the United States . As an unincorporated territory , Puerto Rico lacks full protection under the U.S. Constitution. The government of Puerto Rico is composed of three branches. The executive
4470-588: The Arauco War raged and the local Mapuche succeeded in razing seven Spanish cities (1598–1604). An estimate by Alonso González de Nájera put the toll at 3000 Spanish settlers killed and 500 Spanish women taken into captivity by Mapuche. In retaliation the proscription against enslaving Indians captured in war was lifted by Philip in 1608. This decree was abused when Spanish settlers in Chiloé Archipelago used it to launch slave raids against groups such as
4619-694: The Aztecs . The Spanish conquest and settlement in the New World quickly led to large-scale subjugation of indigenous peoples, mainly of the Native Caribbean people , by Columbus on his four voyages. Initially, forced labor represented a means by which the conquistadores mobilized native labor, with disastrous effects on the population . Unlike the Portuguese Crown 's support for the slave trade in Africa, los Reyes Católicos (English: Catholic Monarchs ) opposed
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4768-640: The Cabo Rojo , Desecheo , Culebra and Vieques National Wildlife Refuges , and in the Caja de Muertos and Mona and Monito Islands Nature Reserves . Examples of endemic species found in this ecoregion are the higo chumbo ( Harrisia portoricensis ), the Puerto Rican crested toad ( Peltophryne lemur ), and the Mona ground iguana ( Cyclura stejnegeri ), the largest land animal native to Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico has three of
4917-679: The Canary Islands following their conquest, but the Guanche (Canarian) population precipitously declined. The institution as an institution was much more widespread following the Spanish contact and conquests in Mexico and Peru, but the precedents were set prior to 1492. Prior to the Spanish colonization of the Americas , slavery was a common institution among some Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples , particularly
5066-685: The Chono of northwestern Patagonia who had never been under Spanish rule and never rebelled. The Real Audiencia of Santiago opined in the 1650s that slavery of Mapuches was one of the reasons for constant state of war between the Spanish and the Mapuche. Slavery for Mapuches "caught in war" was abolished in 1683 after decades of legal attempts by the Spanish Crown to suppress it. When Spain first enslaved Native Americans on Hispaniola , and then replaced them with captive Africans, it established slave labor as
5215-610: The Creek and Seminole , Native Americans who had established settlements in Florida at the invitation of the Spanish government. In 1771, Governor of Florida John Moultrie wrote to the Board of Trade, "It has been a practice for a good while past, for negroes to run away from their Masters, and get into the Indian towns, from whence it proved very difficult to get them back." When colonial officials asked
5364-540: The Department of War . A U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Ortega v. Lara , 202 U.S. 339, 342 (1906), involving the Foraker Act and referring to the island as "the acquired country", soon affirmed that the U.S. Constitution applied within its territory and that any domestic Puerto Rican laws which did not conflict with it remained in force. The Jones Act of 1917, which made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens , paved
5513-576: The Dominican Republic in the Greater Antilles and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Lesser Antilles , it consists of the eponymous main island and numerous smaller islands, including Vieques , Culebra , and Mona . With approximately 3.2 million residents , it is divided into 78 municipalities , of which the most populous is the capital municipality of San Juan , followed by those within
5662-399: The Greater Antilles , Puerto Rico was a stepping-stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the Spanish–American War , Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of
5811-467: The Köppen climate classification is mostly tropical rainforest . Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 °F (29 °C) in lower elevations and 70 °F (21 °C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season , which stretches from April into November, and a dry season stretching from December to March. The mountains of
5960-813: The Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth , while the PNP seeks to make Puerto Rico a U.S. state . Meanwhile, the PIP seeks to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation free from U.S. authority. In terms of party strength,
6109-622: The Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources . There are many other even smaller islets , like Monito , located near Mona, and Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan , both located on the San Juan Bay . The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra , which are connected to the main island by bridges. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 5,320 square miles (13,800 km ), of which 3,420 sq mi (8,900 km )
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6258-744: The Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company , launched a series of economic projects to develop Puerto Rico into an industrial high-income economy. It is classified by the International Monetary Fund as a developed jurisdiction with an advanced, high-income economy ; it ranks 40th on the Human Development Index . The major sectors of Puerto Rico's economy are manufacturing , primarily pharmaceuticals , petrochemicals , and electronics, followed by services , namely tourism and hospitality. Puerto Rico
6407-560: The San Juan metropolitan area . Spanish and English are the official languages of the government , though Spanish predominates. Puerto Rico was settled by a succession of Amerindian peoples beginning 2,000 to 4,000 years ago; these included the Ortoiroid , Saladoid , and Taíno . It was claimed by Spain following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1493 and subsequently colonized by Juan Ponce de León in 1508. Puerto Rico
6556-492: The Siete Partidas also makes a value judgment, stating that it "was the basest and most wretched condition into which anyone could fall because man, who is the freest noble of all God's creatures, becomes thereby in the power of another, who can do with him what he wishes as with any property, whether living or dead." As the Spanish (Castilians) and Portuguese expanded overseas, they conquered and occupied Atlantic islands off
6705-572: The U.S. Treasury . Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income , and the island receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though
6854-605: The UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme : Luquillo Biosphere Reserve represented by El Yunque National Forest and the Guánica Biosphere Reserve . Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians / reptiles , recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride
7003-543: The W*ING/WWC Caribbean Heavyweight Championship . Throughout the years, the championship has been used on and off in WWC, although it was a mainstay of the promotion and defended regularly until the mid-1990s. It was revived roughly from January 1994 to April 1995 before being abandoned. More than six years later in December 2001, the WWC began contesting bouts for the championship once more. However,
7152-472: The West Indies by Europeans, with approximately 4,000 being brought by the Spanish. The second sector, which flourished after 1790, was rural and was directed by private slaveholders/planters involved in the production of export agricultural commodities , especially sugar. After 1763, the scale and urgency of defense projects led the state to deploy many of its enslaved workers in ways that were to anticipate
7301-508: The West Indies to work on newly established agricultural plantations. These slaves were left behind when the British returned Havana to the Spanish as part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris , and form a significant part of the Afro-Cuban population today. While historians have studied the production of sugar on plantations by enslaved workers in nineteenth-century Cuba, they have sometimes overlooked
7450-408: The archipelago and the mainland . However, residents of Puerto Rico are disenfranchised from federal elections and generally do not pay federal income tax . In common with four other territories , Puerto Rico sends a nonvoting representative to the U.S. Congress , called a Resident Commissioner , and participates in presidential primaries ; as it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have
7599-584: The encomienda system, allowed abuse by holders of the labor grants ( encomenderos ), and officially abolished the enslavement of the native population. However, indigenous people who rebelled against the Spanish could be enslaved, so that following the Mixtón War (1540–42) in northwest Mexico many indigenous slaves were captured and moved elsewhere in Mexico. The statutes of 1573, within the "Ordinances Concerning Discoveries," forbade unauthorized operations against independent Indian peoples. It required appointment of
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#17328761709827748-556: The encomienda system, was also abolished, despite the considerable anger this caused in the conquistador group who had expected to hold their grants in perpetuity. It was replaced by the repartimiento system. After passage of the 1542 New Laws , also known as the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of the Indians , the Spanish greatly restricted the power of
7897-494: The first contact . Resistance to indigenous captivity in the Spanish colonies produced the first modern debates over the legitimacy of slavery. And uniquely in the Spanish American colonies, laws like the New Laws of 1542, were enacted early in the colonial period to protect natives from bondage. To complicate matters further, Spain's haphazard grip on its extensive American dominions and its erratic economy acted to impede
8046-621: The trans-Atlantic slave trade , enslaved Black people were sold throughout the Spanish Empire, particularly in Caribbean territories. During the colonial period, Spanish territories were the most extensive and wealthiest in the Americas. Since Spaniards themselves were barred by the Crown from participating in the Atlantic slave trade, the right to export slaves in these territories, known as the Asiento de Negros
8195-423: The 1543 laws that prohibited it. The Spanish empire enslaved people of African origin . The Spanish often depended on others to obtain enslaved Africans and transport them across the Atlantic. Spanish colonies were major recipients of enslaved Africans, with around 22% of the Africans delivered to American shores ending up in the Spanish Empire. Asian people ( chinos ) in colonial Mexico were also taken from
8344-412: The 16th century, the Spanish colonies were the most important customers of the Atlantic slave trade, claiming several thousands in sales, but other European colonies soon dwarfed these numbers when their demand for enslaved workers began to drive the slave market to unprecedented levels. Some of the first black people in the Americas were " Atlantic Creoles ", as the charter generation is described by
8493-456: The 1817–1818 campaign by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War . The United States afterwards effectively controlled East Florida (from the Atlantic to the Appalachicola River ). According to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams , the US had to take action there because Florida had become "a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as
8642-497: The 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (English: Working People's Party) but none obtained more than 1% of the vote. Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party , the Socialist Workers Movement , and the Hostosian National Independence Movement . The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with
8791-416: The 2024 general election, with nearly 40% of the vote, who is pro-statehood. Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques , Culebra , Mona , Desecheo , and Caja de Muertos . Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of
8940-429: The 3 November 2020 general elections; the ballot asked one question: "Should Puerto Rico be admitted immediately into the Union as a State ?" The results showed that 52 percent of Puerto Rico voters answered yes. In the United States in the early 2020s, the Puerto Rico Status Act was being worked on by Congress, and H.R. 8393 passed the House in 2022- though it has not passed the Senate; this bill would support PR making
9089-452: The African slave trade. He later argued that enslavement of both indigenous and Africans was wrong, violating their human rights. Las Casas campaigned for protections of the indigenous, especially crown limits on the exploitation of the encomienda, helping to bring about the 1542 New Laws. In Spanish Florida and farther north, the first African slaves arrived in 1526 with Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón 's establishment of San Miguel de Gualdape on
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#17328761709829238-431: The American continents. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 . The decree was printed in Spanish, English and French in order to attract Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate
9387-453: The American historian Ira Berlin . Mixed-race men of African and Portuguese/Spanish descent, some slaves and others free, sailed with Iberian ships and worked in the ports of Spain and Portugal; some were born in Europe, others in African ports as sons of Portuguese trade workers and African women. The mixed-race men often grew up bilingual, making them useful as interpreters in African and Iberian ports. Some famous black Spanish soldiers in
9536-455: The Atlantic coast. With the increased dependency on enslaved Africans and with the Spanish crown opposed to enslavement of indigenous, except in the case of rebellion, slavery became associated with race and racial hierarchy, with Europeans hardening their concepts of racial ideologies. These were buttressed by prior ideologies of differentiation as that of the limpieza de sangre (en: purity of blood), which in Spain referred to individuals without
9685-558: The Atlantic, is located about 71 mi (114 km) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 170 mi (270 km) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep , it is almost 27,600 ft (8,400 m) deep. The Mona Canyon , located in the Mona Passage between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, is another prominent oceanic landform with steep walls measuring between 1.25 and 2.17 miles (2.01 and 3.49 km) in height from bottom to top. The climate of Puerto Rico in
9834-440: The Atlantic, may have spoken Spanish and perhaps were even Christians. About 17 of them started in the copper mines, and about a hundred were sent to extract gold. As Old World diseases decimated Caribbean indigenous populations in the first decades of the 1500s, enslaved blacks from Africa ( bozales ) gradually replaced their labor, but they also mingled and joined in flights to freedom, creating mixed-race maroon communities in all
9983-431: The Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones , which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño . A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane (also known as
10132-414: The Cordillera Central create a rain shadow and are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects, adding to the climatic variation. Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. Between
10281-471: The Crown decided to cede the territory to the United States. It accomplished this through the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819, effective 1821. Support for abolitionism rose in Great Britain. Slavery in France's Caribbean colonies was abolished by Revolutionary decree in 1794, (slavery in Metropolitan France was abolished in 1315 by Louis X ) but was restored under Napoleon I in 1802. Slaves in Saint-Domingue revolted in response and became independent following
10430-432: The Lesser Antilles would be free if they accepted Catholicism. On September 3, 1680 and June 1, 1685 the crown issued similar decrees for escaping French slaves. On November 7, 1693 King Carlos II issued a decree freeing all slaves escaping from the English colonies who accepted Catholicism. There were similar decrees October 29, 1733, March 11 and November 11, 1740, and September 24, 1850 in the Buen Retiro by Ferdinand VI and
10579-401: The Native Americans to return the fugitive slaves, they replied that they had "merely given hungry people food, and invited the slaveholders to catch the runaways themselves." After the American Revolutionary War , slaves from the state of Georgia and the Low Country of South Carolina escaped to Florida. The U.S. Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including
10728-512: The New Laws and liberation of tens of thousands of Native Americans led to a number of rebellions and conspiracies by "Encomenderos" (Encomienda holders) which had to be put down by the Spanish crown . People were in enslaved in what is now Spain since the times of the Roman Empire . Slavery also existed among Native Americans of both Meso-America and South America. The Crown attempted to limit
10877-520: The PPD and PNP usually hold about 47% of the vote each while the PIP holds about 5%. After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in
11026-620: The Philippines and enslaved. They were taken to Acapulco by Novohispanic ships and sold. The Spanish restricted and outright forbade the enslavement of Native Americans from the early years of the Spanish Empire with the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and the New Laws of 1542. The latter led to the abolition of the Encomienda , private grants of groups of Native Americans to individual Spaniards as well as to Native American nobility. The implementation of
11175-514: The Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk ( Buteo platypterus brunnescens ) and the elfin woods warbler ( Setophaga angelae ). The Northern Karst country of Puerto Rico is also home to one of the remaining rainforest tracts in the island, with the Río Abajo State Forest being the first focus for the reintroduction of the highly endangered Puerto Rican parrot outside of the Sierra de Luquillo. In
11324-469: The Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence. In November 2012, a two-question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question, voted on in August, asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. 54% voted against the status quo, effectively approving
11473-630: The Royal Decree of October 21, 1753. Since 1687, Spanish Florida attracted numerous African slaves who escaped from slavery in the Thirteen Colonies . Since 1623 the official Spanish policy had been that all slaves who touched Spanish soil and asked for refuge could become free Spanish citizens, and would be assisted in establishing their own workshops if they had a trade or given a grant of land to cultivate if they were farmers. In exchange they would be required to convert to Catholicism and serve for
11622-632: The San Felipe Segundo hurricane in Puerto Rico) of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane. In 2017, Puerto Rico was affected by Category 5 Hurricane Irma and Category 4 Hurricane Maria , causing widespread and devastating impacts , particularly to the electric grid. Puerto Rico is home to three terrestrial ecoregions: Puerto Rican moist forests , Puerto Rican dry forests , and Greater Antilles mangroves . Puerto Rico has two biosphere reserves recognized by
11771-619: The Seven Cities of Gold , he was killed in a dispute with the Zuñi local people. The Spanish privateer and merchant Amaro Pargo (1678-1747) managed to transport slaves to the Caribbean , although, it is estimated, to a lesser extent than other captains and figures of the time dedicated to this activity. In 1710, the privateer was involved in a complaint by the priest Alonso García Ximénez, who accused him of freeing an African slave named Sebastián, who
11920-423: The Spanish Crown issued the "Royal Decree of Graces of 1789", which set new rules related to the slave trade and added restrictions to the granting of freedman status. The decree granted its subjects the right to purchase slaves and to participate in the flourishing slave trade in the Caribbean. Later that year a new slave code, also known as El Código Negro (The Black Code), was introduced. Under "El Código Negro",
12069-495: The Spanish and the Portuguese colonized the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa, where they engaged in sugar cane production following the model of Mediterranean production. The sugar complex consisted of slave labor for cultivation and processing, with the sugar mill ( ingenio ) and equipment established with significant investor capital. When plantation slavery was established in Spanish America and Brazil, they replicated
12218-450: The U.S. Constitution . Laws enacted at the federal level in the U.S. apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress . Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation", for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations", which is held by the U.S. federal government. The U.S. Supreme Court has indicated that once
12367-693: The U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is". Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the Jones–Shafroth Act . U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, hold primary elections in Puerto Rico to choose delegates to vote on
12516-465: The U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Congress, and the United Nations . Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain an unincorporated territory of the U.S., become a U.S. state, or become an independent country. Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of
12665-600: The announcement they reactivated the title and a tournament be held to crown a new champion. Puerto Rico Puerto Rico ( Spanish for 'rich port'; abbreviated PR ), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is a self-governing Caribbean archipelago and island organized as an unincorporated territory of the United States under the designation of commonwealth . Located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami , Florida , between
12814-468: The areas which became known as Cangrejos ( Santurce ), Carolina , Canóvanas , Loíza , and Luquillo . Some became slave owners themselves. Despite these paths to freedom, from 1790 onwards, the number of slaves more than doubled in Puerto Rico as a result of the dramatic expansion of the sugar industry in the island. On May 29, 1680 the Spanish crown decreed that slaves escaping to Spanish territories from Barlovento, Martinique, San Vicente and Granada in
12963-569: The barracoons were harsh; they were highly unsanitary and extremely hot. Typically there was no ventilation; the only window was a small barred hole in the wall. Cuba's slavery system was gendered in a way that some duties were performed only by male slaves, some only by female slaves. Female slaves in Havana from the 16th century onwards performed duties such as operating the town taverns, eating houses, and lodges, as well as being laundresses and domestic labourers and servants. Female slaves also served as
13112-596: The basis for colonial sugar production. It was believed by Europeans that Africans had developed immunities to European diseases, and would not be as susceptible to fall ill as the Native Americans because they had not been exposed to the pathogens yet. In 1501, Spanish colonists began importing enslaved Africans from the Iberian Peninsula to their Santo Domingo colony on the island of Hispaniola . These first Africans, who had been enslaved in Europe before crossing
13261-441: The bondage of indigenous people, rejecting forms of slavery based on race . Conquistadors regarded indigenous forced labor and tribute as rewards for participation in the conquest and the Crown gave some conquerors encomiendas . The indigenous people held in encomienda were not slaves, but their underpaid labor was mandatory and coerced, while they had rights and could take to trial to their managers, and they were "cared for" by
13410-451: The broad and systematic spread of plantations operated by slave labor. Altogether, the struggle against slavery in the Spanish American colonies left a notable tradition of opposition that set the stage for conversations about human rights . Slavery in Spain can be traced to the times of the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans. Slavery was cross-cultural and multi-ethnic. It had an important role in
13559-644: The commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole , but the commissioner can vote in committee. Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico . Residents of Puerto Rico, including other U.S. citizens, cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but can vote in primaries . Puerto Ricans who become residents of
13708-453: The crucial role of the Spanish state before the 1760s. Cuba ultimately developed two distinct but interrelated sources using enslaved labor, which converged at the end of the eighteenth century. The first of these sectors was urban and was directed in large measure by the needs of the Spanish colonial state, reaching its height in the 1760s. As of 1778, it was reported by Thomas Kitchin that "about 52,000 slaves" were being brought from Africa to
13857-432: The current Georgia coast. They rebelled and lived with indigenous people, destroying the colony in less than 2 months. More slaves arrived in Florida in 1539 with Hernando de Soto , and in the 1565 founding of St. Augustine, Florida . Native Americans were also enslaved in Florida by the encomienda system. Slaves escaping to Florida from the colony of Georgia were freed by Carlos II's proclamation November 7, 1693 if
14006-507: The development of the economy for Spain and other countries. The Romans extensively utilized slavery for labor and slaves' status was specified in the Code of Justinian. With the rise of Christianity, the status of was altered in that Christians were in theory banned from enslaving fellow Christians, but the practice persisted. With the rise of Islam, and the conquest of most of the Iberian peninsula in
14155-463: The dry and wet seasons, there is a temperature change of around 6 °F (3.3 °C). This change is due mainly to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean , which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal water temperatures during the year are about 75 °F (24 °C) in February and 85 °F (29 °C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded
14304-403: The economy. With rising demand for sugar on the international market, major planters increased their labour-intensive cultivation and processing of sugar cane. Sugar plantations supplanted mining as Puerto Rico's main industry and kept demand high for African slavery. Those slaves who worked on sugar plantations and in sugar mills were often subject to the harshest of conditions. The field work
14453-403: The eighth century, slavery declined in remaining Iberian Christian kingdoms. At the time of the formation of Al-Andalus , Muslims were prohibited from enslaving fellow believers, but there was a slave trade of non-Muslims in which Muslims and local Jewish merchants traded in Spanish and Eastern European Christian slaves. Mozarabs and Jews were allowed to remain and retain their slaves if they paid
14602-708: The elements of the complex in the New World on a much larger scale. The Portuguese exploration of the African coast and the division of overseas territories via the Treaty of Tordesillas meant that the African slave trade was held by the Portuguese. However, demand for African slaves as the Spanish established themselves in the Caribbean meant that became part of the Spanish Empire 's social mosaic. Black slaves in Spain were overwhelmingly domestic servants, and increasingly became prestigious property for elite Spanish households though at
14751-420: The enslavement of the native peoples in the newly conquered lands on religious grounds. When Columbus returned with indigenous slaves , they ordered the survivors to be returned to their homelands. In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the Laws of Burgos were introduced to protect the rights of the natives in the New World and secure their freedom. The papal bull Sublimus Dei of 1537, to which Spain
14900-488: The entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("Free Associated State of Puerto Rico"), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico . The Spanish official name was suggested by its architect Luis Muñoz Marín and adopted by a constitutional assembly on July 25 1952. Some authorities have called it a euphemism and have charged that the official name in English of "Commonwealth" constitutes
15049-399: The federal government, Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S., and some others, such as Puerto Rican residents that are members of the U.S. military, and Puerto Rico residents who earned income from sources outside Puerto Rico also pay federal income taxes. In addition, because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because
15198-424: The first generations of the early Puerto Rican and Cuban populations. The slaves had little choice but to adapt. Many converted to Christianity and were given their masters' surnames. Both women and men were subject to the punishments of violence and humiliating abuse. Slaves who misbehaved or disobeyed their masters were often placed in stocks in the depths of the boiler houses where they were abandoned for days at
15347-599: The first stages of the Spanish conquest of America were Juan Valiente and Juan Beltrán in Chile, Juan Garrido (credited with the first harvesting of wheat planted in New Spain ) and Sebastián Toral in Mexico, Juan Bardales in Honduras and Panama, and Juan García in Peru. The first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States was an interracial union between
15496-409: The first years these black overseers were so absolute in their maltreatment of the Indians, over-loading them, sending them far from their land and giving them many other tasks that many Indians died because of them and at their hands, which is the worst feature of the situation." In Yucatan, there were regulations attempting to prevent blacks presence in indigenous communities. In Mexico City in 1537,
15645-456: The gold mines, or in the island's ginger and sugar fields. They were allowed to live with their families in a hut on the master's land, and given a patch of land where they could farm, but otherwise were subjected to harsh treatment; including sexual abuse as the majority of colonists had arrived without women; many of them intermarried with the Africans or Taínos. Their mixed-race descendants formed
15794-487: The government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party . On 7 January 2020, the country experienced its largest earthquake since 1918, estimated at magnitude 6.4. Economic losses were estimated to be more than $ 3.1 billion. The Puerto Rico Trench , the largest and deepest trench in
15943-402: The harsh regime. Sometimes if the overseers did not like the quality of children, they separate the parents and sent the mother back to working in the fields. African slaves were legally branded with a hot iron on the forehead, prevented their "theft" or lawsuits that challenged their captivity. The colonists continued this branding practice for more than 250 years. They were sent to work in
16092-408: The intense work regimes on sugar plantations in the nineteenth century. Another important group of workers enslaved by the Spanish colonial state in the late eighteenth century were the king's laborers, who worked on the city's fortifications . The Spanish colonies were late to exploit slave labor in the production of sugarcane , particularly on Cuba. The Spanish colonies in the Caribbean were among
16241-438: The island after the failed Taíno revolt of 1511. The Spanish colonists, fearing the loss of their labour force, complained to the courts that they needed manpower. As an alternative, Las Casas suggested the importation and use of African slaves. In 1517, the Spanish Crown permitted its subjects to import twelve slaves each, thereby beginning the slave trade on the colonies. The other major form of coerced labor in their colonies,
16390-509: The island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon . In addition to El Yunque National Forest, the Puerto Rican moist forest ecoregion is represented by protected areas such as the Maricao and Toro Negro state forests . These areas are home to endangered endemic species such as the Puerto Rican boa ( Chilabothrus inornatus ), the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk ( Accipiter striatus venator ),
16539-511: The islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Catholic Church . In 1898, during the Spanish–American War , Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the U.S. The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the U.S. The Foraker Act of 1900 established a civil government, ending rule by American generals and
16688-596: The islands where Europeans had established chattel slavery . Slaves first arrived in Puerto Rico in 1511, after the Black conquistador Juan Garrido helped invade the island in 1508-1509. Spanish colonist turned Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566) observed and recorded the effects of enslavement on the Native populations. Initially he sought to protect the indigenous from enslavement by advocating and participating in
16837-585: The last election held in November 2020 . The judicial branch is headed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico , currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez . Members of the judiciary are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Puerto Rico is represented in the U.S. Congress by a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives, the resident commissioner , currently Jenniffer González . Current congressional rules have removed
16986-422: The last to abolish slavery. While the British abolished slavery by 1833, Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873. On the mainland of colonies, Spain ended African slavery in the eighteenth century. Peru was one of the countries that revived the institution for some decades after declaring independence from Spain in the early 19th century. In 1789 the Spanish Crown led an effort to reform slavery and issued
17135-513: The latter paid fully into the system. Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies Slavery in the Spanish American viceroyalties included indigenous peoples, enslaved people from Africa, and enslaved people from Asia. The economic and social institution of slavery existed throughout the Spanish Empire including Spain itself. Enslaved Africans were brought over to the continent for their labour, indigenous people were enslaved until
17284-537: The main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The island's name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 . The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises (also Porto in Italian, French, and Portuguese). The name was changed back to Puerto Rico in 1931 by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila . The official name of
17433-493: The measures of the codex, many of which they argued were already common practices. They objected to efforts to set limits on their ability to apply physical punishment. For instance, the Black Codex limited whippings to 25 and required the whippings "not to cause serious bruises or bleeding". The slave-owners thought that the slaves would interpret these limits as weaknesses, ultimately leading to resistance. Another contested issue
17582-583: The most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The 1918 San Fermín earthquake occurred on 11 October , 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale . It originated off the coast of Aguadilla , several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami . It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $ 4 million in property damage. The failure of
17731-535: The north coast of Africa, including the Canary Islands as well as São Tomé and Madeira where they introduced plantation sugar cultivation. They treated the Canarian natives as pagans, supposedly justifying their enslavement, although several attempts were made by the Catholic Church to prevent their enslavement and defend the freedom of evangelized Canarians. The Canary Islands came under Castilian control, and in
17880-496: The parties' presidential candidates. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and not a U.S. state, the U.S. Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico. Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S. Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have
18029-473: The per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. This occurs because "the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government has a wider set of responsibilities than do U.S. State and local governments." In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $ 3.742 billion into
18178-453: The perceived taint of Jewish or Muslim ancestry. However, in Spanish America, purity of blood came to mean a person free of any African ancestry. In the vocabulary of the time, each enslaved African who arrived at the Americas was called " Pieza de Indias " (en: a piece of the Indies). The crown issued licenses " asientos ", to merchants to specifically trade slaves, regulating the trade. During
18327-663: The period from 1498 (when the Catholic Kings ordered the freedom of the Guanches enslaved) until 1520 (when the last Guanche slaves were freed), indigenous slavery was replaced by African slavery. Multiple West African states were participants in slave raiding and trading, and the slaves the Castilians purchased were considered legitimate slaves. Slave-trading African states accepted a variety of European goods, including firearms, horses, and other desirable goods in exchange for slaves. Both
18476-519: The person in whose charge they were placed ( encomendado ), this might mean offering them the Christian religion and other perceived (by the Spaniards) benefits of Christian civilization. With the collapse of indigenous populations in the Caribbean, where Spaniards created permanent settlements starting in 1493, Spaniards raided other islands and the mainland for indigenous people to enslave on Hispaniola. With
18625-476: The plantation (slave labour camp) system ( Maroons ). The first open Black rebellion occurred in Spanish labour camps (plantations) in 1521. Resistance, particularly to the enslavement of indigenous people, also came from Spanish religious and legal ranks. The first speech in the Americas for the universality of human rights and against the abuses of slavery was also given on Hispaniola, a mere nineteen years after
18774-500: The population applying for assistance after the storms. See also Effects of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico It is thought that a combination of the debt crisis and two major hurricanes in the late 2010s, caused further departures from the island. Overall the population has decreased by about half a million in the 21st century, with many seeking better opportunities on the mainland. Puerto Rico held its statehood referendum during
18923-496: The revival of the championship would be relatively short and it was rendered inactive in late August 2002 and hasn't been promoted by the World Wrestling Council since. On September 25, 2010, the title was reactivated and captured by Hideo Saito . The Caribbean Heavyweight Championship was declared vacated and inactive on March 31, 2012. May 13, 2023 during a segment on TV show, Superestrellas de la lucha libre, WWC made
19072-552: The rise of sugar cultivation as an export product in 1810, Spaniards increasingly utilized enslaved African people for labor on commercial plantations. Although plantation slavery in Spanish America was one aspect of slave labor, urban slavery in households, religious institutions, textile workshops ( obrajes ), and other venues was also important. Spanish slavery in the Americas diverged from other European powers in that it took on an early abolitionist stance towards Native American slavery. Although it did not directly partake in
19221-418: The second question to be voted on in November. The second question posed three alternate status options: statehood, independence, or free association . 61.16% voted for statehood, 33.34% for a sovereign free-associated state, and 5.49% for independence. In 2016, President Barack Obama signed into law H.R. 5278: PROMESA , establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rican government. This board will have
19370-492: The settlement of the Ortoiroid people before 430 BC. At the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1493, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the Taínos . The Taíno people's numbers went dangerously low during the later half of the 16th century because of new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, exploitation by Spanish settlers, and warfare. Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed
19519-646: The seven year-long bioluminescent bays in the Caribbean: Laguna Grande in Fajardo , La Parguera in Lajas and Puerto Mosquito in Vieques . These are unique bodies of water surrounded by mangroves that are inhabited by the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense . However, tourism, pollution, and hurricanes have highly threatened these unique ecosystems. Puerto Rico has a republican form of government based on
19668-429: The ships, horses, equipment and finally most of the men were lost, with three other survivors, Estevanico spent six years traveling overland from present-day Texas to Sinaloa , and finally reaching the Spanish settlement at Mexico City . He learned several Native American languages in the process. He went on to serve as a well-respected guide. Later, while leading an expedition in what is now New Mexico in search of
19817-675: The size of Hispaniola and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles. The topography of the island is mostly mountainous with large flat areas in the northern and southern coasts. The main mountain range that crosses the island from east to west is called the Cordillera Central (also known as the Central Mountain Range in English). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 4,390 feet (1,340 m),
19966-543: The slaves were willing to convert to Catholicism, and it became a place of refuge for slaves fleeing the Thirteen Colonies . In this early period, enslaved African men were often labor bosses, overseeing indigenous labor. Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia (1482-1568), one of the First Twelve Franciscans to arrive in Mexico in 1524, considered blacks the Fourth Plague on Mexican Indians. He wrote "In
20115-465: The south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks . Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old ( Jurassic ) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in
20264-478: The southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American Plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis . These seismic events, along with landslides , represent some of
20413-589: The southwest, the Guánica State Forest and Biosphere Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 that are endemic to Puerto Rico, and is considered a prime example of the Puerto Rican dry forest ecoregion and the best-preserved dry forest in the Caribbean. Other protected dry forests in Puerto Rico can be formed within the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge complex at
20562-469: The total Cuban population and 41% of the non-white Cuban population. Planters encouraged Afro-Cuban slaves to have children in order to reproduce their work force. The masters wanted to pair strong and large-built black men with healthy black women. They were placed in the barracoons and forced to have sex and create offspring of "breed stock" children, who would sell for around 500 pesos. The planters needed children to be born to replace slaves who died under
20711-585: The town prostitutes. Some Cuban women could gain freedom by having children with white men. As in other Latin cultures, there were looser borders with the mulatto or mixed-race population. Sometimes men who took slaves as wives or concubines freed both them and their children. As in New Orleans and Saint-Domingue, mulattos began to be classified as a third group between the European colonists and African slaves. Freedmen , generally of mixed race, came to represent 20% of
20860-592: The way for the drafting of Puerto Rico's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952. Puerto Rico is one of five territories with less representation in the Federal government, along with the Federal District. In 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the U.S. government to expedite a process that would allow
21009-460: Was 110 °F (43 °C) at Arecibo , while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 °F (4 °C) in the mountains at Adjuntas , Aibonito , and Corozal . The average yearly precipitation is 66 in (1,676 mm). Climate change in Puerto Rico has had a large impact on the ecosystems and landscapes. Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season , similar to the rest of
21158-623: Was a major foreign policy objective of other European powers, sparking numerous European wars such as the War of Spanish Succession and the War of Jenkins' Ear . In the mid-nineteenth century when most countries in the Americas reformed to disallow chattel slavery , Cuba and Puerto Rico – the last two remaining Spanish American colonies – were among the last, followed only by Brazil . Enslaved people challenged their captivity in ways that ranged from introducing non-European elements into Christianity ( syncretism ) to mounting alternative societies outside
21307-596: Was boycotted by some political opponents of it. (see 2017 Puerto Rican status referendum ) In 2017, Puerto Rico suffered back-to-back large hurricanes: the Category 5 Hurricane Irma (September 7, 2017) and the Category 4 Hurricane Maria (September 20, 2017). The storms caused an extreme amount of damage to the island, causing the following effects: all power was knocked out, 95% cell service, 43% of waste water treatment plants, 40 thousand land slides, 97% of roads blocked, 28% of health facilities damaged, leading to over 90% of
21456-447: Was committed, also officially banned enslavement of indigenous peoples, but it was rescinded a year after its promulgation. When Ponce de León and the Spaniards arrived on the island of Borikén (Puerto Rico), they enslaved Taíno tribes on the island, forcing them to work in the gold mines and in the construction of forts. Many Taíno died, particularly from smallpox, to which they had no immunity . Other Taínos committed suicide or left
21605-405: Was contested by other European powers into the 18th century but remained a Spanish possession for the next 400 years. The decline of the indigenous population , followed by an influx of Spanish settlers, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia , and African slaves vastly changed the cultural and demographic landscape of the archipelago. Within the Spanish Empire , Puerto Rico played
21754-419: Was originally permitted, over the period from the 8th to the 11th centuries the Christian kingdoms gradually ceased this practice, limiting their pool of slaves to Muslims from Al-Andalus. Conquered Muslims were enslaved with the justification conversion and acculturation, but Muslim captives were often offered back to their families and communities for cash payments ( rescate ). The thirteenth-century code of law,
21903-424: Was rigorous manual labour which the slaves began at an early age. The work days lasted close to 20 hours during harvest and processing, including cultivating and cutting the crops, hauling wagons, and processing sugarcane with dangerous machinery. The slaves were forced to reside in barracoons , where they were crammed in and locked in by a padlock at night, getting about three to four hours of sleep. The conditions of
22052-406: Was the work hours that were restricted "from sunrise to sunset"; plantation owners responded by explaining that cutting and processing of cane needed 20-hour days during the harvest season. By 1570, the colonists found that the gold mines were depleted, relegating the island to a garrison for passing ships. The cultivation of crops such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and ginger became the cornerstone of
22201-674: Was transported to Venezuela on one of Amaro's ships. The aforementioned Alonso García granted a power of attorney on July 18, 1715 to Teodoro Garcés de Salazar so that he could demand his return in Caracas . Despite this fact, Amaro Pargo himself also owned slaves in his domestic service. The population of slaves in Cuba received a large boost when the British captured Havana during the Seven Years' War , and imported 10,000 slaves from their other colonies in
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