AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM) transmissions. It was the first method developed for making audio radio transmissions, and is still used worldwide, primarily for medium wave (also known as "AM band") transmissions, but also on the longwave and shortwave radio bands.
170-575: WVON (1690 AM "The Voice of the Nation", originally "Voice of the Negro") is a radio station serving the Chicago market , which airs an African-American -oriented talk format . WVON is operated by Midway Broadcasting Corporation via a local marketing agreement with frequency owner iHeartMedia . WVON's predecessor station began catering to an African-American audience in the 1940s. In 1963 Chess Records bought
340-532: A historically black university in Greensboro, North Carolina . Accounts of the reasons for the transfer differ, though Jackson has said that he changed schools because racial prejudice prevented him from playing quarterback and limited his participation on a competitive public-speaking team. Writing an article on ESPN.com in 2002, sociologist Harry Edwards noted that the University of Illinois had previously had
510-514: A shadow delegate and senator for the District of Columbia . Jackson is the father of former U.S. Representative Jesse Jackson Jr. and current U.S. Representative Jonathan Jackson . Jackson began his activism in the 1960s and founded the organizations that merged to form the Rainbow/PUSH organization. Extending his activism into international matters beginning in the 1980s, he became a critic of
680-619: A sit-in at the Greenville Public Library in Greenville, South Carolina, which only allowed white people. The group was arrested for "disorderly conduct". Jackson's pastor paid their bond, the Greenville News said. DeeDee Wright, another member of the group, later said they wanted to be arrested "so it could be a test case." The Greenville City Council closed both the main library and the branch black people used. The possibility of
850-465: A "chain". The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), General Electric , and Westinghouse organized a competing network around its own flagship station, RCA's WJZ (now WABC) in New York City, but were hampered by AT&T's refusal to lease connecting lines or allow them to sell airtime. In 1926 AT&T sold its radio operations to RCA, which used them to form the nucleus of the new NBC network. By
1020-841: A 10 shilling receiver license fee. Both highbrow and mass-appeal programmes were carried by the National and Regional networks. The period from the early 1920s through the 1940s is often called the "Golden Age of Radio". During this period AM radio was the main source of home entertainment, until it was replaced by television. For the first time entertainment was provided from outside the home, replacing traditional forms of entertainment such as oral storytelling and music from family members. New forms were created, including radio plays , mystery serials, soap operas , quiz shows , variety hours , situation comedies and children's shows . Radio news, including remote reporting, allowed listeners to be vicariously present at notable events. Radio greatly eased
1190-469: A Confederate sheriff. Robinson was a former professional boxer who was an employee of a textile brokerage and a well-known figure in the black community. One year after Jesse's birth, his mother married Charles Henry Jackson, a post office maintenance worker who later adopted the boy. Jesse was given his stepfather's name in the adoption, but as he grew up he also maintained a close relationship with Robinson. He considers both men to be his fathers. As
1360-460: A November 1987 New York Times article, "Most political analysts give him little chance of being nominated – partly because he is black, partly because of his unentrenched liberalism." Jackson's campaign was also interrupted by allegations about his half-brother Noah Robinson Jr.'s criminal activity. Jackson had to answer frequent questions about Robinson, who was often called "the Billy Carter of
1530-407: A black quarterback, but also noted that black athletes attending traditionally white colleges during the 1950s and 1960s encountered a "combination of culture shock and discrimination". Edwards also suggested that Jackson had left the University of Illinois in 1960 because he had been placed on academic probation, but the school's president reported in 1987 that Jackson's 1960 freshman year transcript
1700-557: A central station to all parts of the United States", he was unable to overcome the inherent distance limitations of this technology. The earliest public radiotelegraph broadcasts were provided as government services, beginning with daily time signals inaugurated on January 1, 1905, by a number of U.S. Navy stations. In Europe, signals transmitted from a station located on the Eiffel Tower were received throughout much of Europe. In both
1870-469: A child, Jackson was taunted by other children about his out-of-wedlock birth and has said these experiences helped motivate him to succeed. Living under Jim Crow segregation laws, Jackson was taught to go to the back of the bus and use separate water fountains—practices he accepted until the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955. He attended the racially segregated Sterling High School in Greenville, where he
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#17328701828122040-479: A commencement speech at Medgar Evers College in which he bemoaned that many young people were "experiencing an ethical collapse, a spiritual withdrawal, and escaping this reality through drugs, alcohol, sex without love, making unwanted babies and turning on each other with violence". Later that month, after basketball player Len Bias died from cardiac arrest stemming from "cocaine intoxication", Jackson and Representative Charles Rangel called for Reagan to announce
2210-596: A concerted attempt to specify performance of AM receivers through the 1993 AMAX standard, a joint effort of the EIA and the NAB, with FCC backing... The FCC rapidly followed up on this with codification of the CQUAM AM stereo standard, also in 1993. At this point, the stage appeared to be set for rejuvenation of the AM band. Nevertheless, with the legacy of confusion and disappointment in the rollout of
2380-617: A consortium, the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), established on 18 October 1922, which was given a monopoly on broadcasting. This enterprise was supported by a tax on radio sets sales, plus an annual license fee on receivers, collected by the Post Office. Initially the eight stations were allowed regional autonomy. In 1927, the original broadcasting organization was replaced by a government chartered British Broadcasting Corporation . an independent nonprofit supported solely by
2550-552: A continuous-wave (CW) transmitter. Fessenden began his research on audio transmissions while doing developmental work for the United States Weather Service on Cobb Island, Maryland. Because he did not yet have a continuous-wave transmitter, initially he worked with an experimental "high-frequency spark" transmitter, taking advantage of the fact that the higher the spark rate, the closer a spark-gap transmission comes to producing continuous waves. He later reported that, in
2720-596: A critic of police brutality, the Republican Party , and conservative policies, and is regarded as one of the most influential African-American activists of the 20th and 21st centuries. Jackson was born in Greenville, South Carolina , on October 8, 1941, to Helen Burns (1924–2015), a 16-year-old high school student, and her 33-year-old married neighbor, Noah Louis Robinson (1908–1997). His ancestry includes Cherokee , enslaved African-Americans, Irish plantation owners , and
2890-491: A dramatic personal appeal to Syrian President Hafez al-Assad , Goodman was released. The Reagan administration was initially skeptical about Jackson's trip, but after Jackson secured Goodman's release, Reagan welcomed Jackson and Goodman to the White House on January 4, 1984. This helped to boost Jackson's popularity as an American patriot and served as a springboard for his 1984 presidential run. In June 1984 Jackson negotiated
3060-568: A few " telephone newspaper " systems, most of which were established in Europe, beginning with the Paris Théâtrophone . With this in mind, most early radiotelephone development envisioned that the device would be more profitably developed as a "wireless telephone" for personal communication, or for providing links where regular telephone lines could not be run, rather than for the uncertain finances of broadcasting. The person generally credited as
3230-463: A few hundred ( Hz ), to increase its rotational speed and so generate currents of tens-of-thousands Hz, thus producing a steady continuous-wave transmission when connected to an aerial. The next step, adopted from standard wire-telephone practice, was to insert a simple carbon microphone into the transmission line, to modulate the carrier wave signal to produce AM audio transmissions. However, it would take many years of expensive development before even
3400-438: A former Cook County Board President , joined the station as morning co-host. In summer 2020, Stroger left WVON, along with his co-host Maze Jackson, after being told by station management that they could no longer discuss Mayor Lori Lightfoot , and to disconnect any callers who were critical of her, immediately joining 1570 WBGX in the same time slot. AM broadcasting The earliest experimental AM transmissions began in
3570-682: A globalized world". He visited multiple locations in Malaysia, including the Institute of Diplomacy and Foreign Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in Thailand , including NIST International School in Bangkok. During the 1980s Jackson achieved wide fame as a politician and a spokesman for civil rights issues. In May 1983, Jackson became the first African-American man since Reconstruction to address
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#17328701828123740-512: A home audio device prior to the introduction of the high-fidelity , long-playing record in the late 1940s. Listening habits changed in the 1960s due to the introduction of the revolutionary transistor radio (Regency TR-1, the first transistor radio released December 1954), which was made possible by the invention of the transistor in 1948. (The transistor was invented at Bell labs and released in June 1948.) Their compact size — small enough to fit in
3910-580: A joint session of the Alabama Legislature , where he said it was "about time we forgot about black and white and started talking about employed and unemployed". Art Harris saw Jackson as "testing the waters for a black presidential candidacy down South". In June, Jackson delivered a speech to 4,000 black Baptist ministers in Memphis bemoaning the fact that only one percent of American public officials were African-American despite blacks making up 12 percent of
4080-545: A lawsuit led to the reopening of both libraries September 19, also the day after the News printed a letter written by Wright. In 1984, Jackson and Coretta Scott King , the widow of Martin Luther King Jr. , sent letters to Florida governor Bob Graham asking him to halt the scheduled execution of James Dupree Henry , a black man convicted of killing Z. L. Riley, an Orlando based civil rights leader. Jackson met with Graham, but
4250-469: A listening site at Plymouth, Massachusetts. An American Telephone Journal account of the December 21 alternator-transmitter demonstration included the statement that "It is admirably adapted to the transmission of news, music, etc. as, owing to the fact that no wires are needed, simultaneous transmission to many subscribers can be effected as easily as to a few", echoing the words of a handout distributed to
4420-479: A majority of early broadcasting stations operated on mediumwave frequencies, whose limited range generally restricted them to local audiences. One method for overcoming this limitation, as well as a method for sharing program costs, was to create radio networks , linking stations together with telephone lines to provide a nationwide audience. In the U.S., the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)
4590-411: A month after the 1973 Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade legalized abortion, Jackson began a PUSH campaign against the decision, calling abortion murder and declaring that Jesus and Moses might not have been born if abortion had been available in ancient times. Jackson's strong rhetoric on abortion temporarily alienated one of his major supporters, T. R. M. Howard , a Black physician who performed
4760-503: A national scale. The introduction of nationwide talk shows, most prominently Rush Limbaugh 's beginning in 1988, was sometimes credited with "saving" AM radio. However, these stations tended to attract older listeners who were of lesser interest to advertisers, and AM radio's audience share continued to erode. In 1961, the FCC adopted a single standard for FM stereo transmissions, which was widely credited with enhancing FM's popularity. Developing
4930-465: A nationwide campaign for president as a Democrat . Jackson's candidacy divided support among black politicians, and even prominent African-Americans such as Coretta Scott King , who supported his right to run, refrained from endorsing him due to their belief he would not win the nomination. Among black office-holders, Jackson received the support of former Mayor of Atlanta Maynard Jackson , and Mayor of Newark Kenneth A. Gibson . Jackson entered
5100-768: A nationwide war on drugs and seek increased funding of federal anti-drug education programs in public schools. During the 1987 Chicago mayoral election , Jackson led an effort to get Chairman Paul G. Kirk to meet with the Cook County party leaders in Chicago to prevent the campaign's deterioration and avoid "dissension and splintering of the Democratic vote". Jackson and his supporters charged that Chicago Democrats would do anything to prevent Harold Washington from being reelected, including campaigning for his Republican challenger. By early 1986, speculation began that Jackson would mount
5270-404: A new organization. Time magazine quoted Jackson as saying at that time that the traditional civil rights movement had lost its "offensive thrust". People United to Save Humanity (Operation PUSH) officially began operations on December 25, 1971; Jackson later changed the name to People United to Serve Humanity. T. R. M. Howard was installed as a member of the board of directors and chair of
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5440-399: A policy allowing AM stations to simulcast over FM translator stations. Translators had previously been available only to FM broadcasters, in order to increase coverage in fringe areas. Their assignment for use by AM stations was intended to approximate the station's daytime coverage, which in cases where the stations reduced power at night, often resulted in expanded nighttime coverage. Although
5610-457: A political liability to "mostly a plus for the Democratic ticket, with few minuses". Reagan defeated Mondale in a landslide in the general election, and Thomas Cavanagh of the Joint Center for Political Studies noted that all black challengers lost their elections despite expectations that Jackson's presidential candidacy would increase turnout in their favor. In January 1985, concurrent with
5780-532: A presidential bid. In September, Jackson attended a presidential candidates forum; he embraced the Congressional Black Caucus's positions on education, employment, and defense, and was greeted with chants of "Run Jesse Run" and "Win Jesse Win". On October 11, 1987, Jackson announced his candidacy in the 1988 presidential election. At the time of his announcement, polling showed that he led in nine of
5950-476: A program on WVON from October 2005 to October 2008. On September 18, 2006, the station got another signal upgrade when WVON's call letters and programming moved to 1690 AM broadcasting with 10,000 watts during the day. This happened when Midway Broadcasting took over management of the station using an LMA (like a lease agreement) on the frequency licensed to Berwyn, Illinois , and owned by Clear Channel Communications (now known as iHeartMedia ). The move displaced
6120-401: A program on the station in the late 1950s. WHFC's programming was simulcast on 97.9 WEHS after WEHS's storecasting contract expired in the 1950s. In 1963, WHFC became WVON when it was purchased by Leonard and Phil Chess , the owners of Chess Records , for $ 1 million. WEHS was included in the sale. WVON debuted on April 1, 1963, and quickly became a success playing R&B music , becoming
6290-482: A prototype alternator-transmitter would be ready, and a few years beyond that for high-power versions to become available. Fessenden worked with General Electric 's (GE) Ernst F. W. Alexanderson , who in August 1906 delivered an improved model which operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although at low power. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but
6460-423: A result, AM radio tends to do best in areas where FM frequencies are in short supply, or in thinly populated or mountainous areas where FM coverage is poor. Great care must be taken to avoid mutual interference between stations operating on the same frequency. In general, an AM transmission needs to be about 20 times stronger than an interfering signal to avoid a reduction in quality, in contrast to FM signals, where
6630-605: A role in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), though he was concerned about Jackson's apparent ambition and attention-seeking. When Jackson returned from Selma, he was charged with establishing a frontline office for the SCLC in Chicago. In 1966 King and Bevel selected Jackson to head the Chicago branch of the SCLC's economic arm, Operation Breadbasket , and he was promoted to national director in 1967. Operation Breadbasket had been started by
6800-564: A running mate, citing "sufficient differences between Reverend Jackson and myself". Jackson addressed the 1984 Democratic National Convention , which notably featured an apology alluding to his comments considered derogatory to Jews and "answered the longstanding question of his loyalty to the party in the general election". Even in our fractured state, all of us count and all of us fit somewhere. We have proven that we can survive without each other. But we have not proven that we can win and progress without each other. We must come together. As
6970-511: A second presidential run in 1988. In March 1987, he formed an exploratory committee, making him the second potential candidate to do so, after Gary Hart. By April 1987, after previously having spent "all of half a day" in Iowa, Jackson had spent six days there throughout the year and moved his office to the rural part of the state instead of Des Moines . He stressed that farmers and businessmen were akin to unemployed blacks in being negatively affected by
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7140-452: A shirt pocket — and lower power requirements, compared to vacuum tubes, meant that for the first time radio receivers were readily portable. The transistor radio became the most widely used communication device in history, with billions manufactured by the 1970s. Radio became a ubiquitous "companion medium" which people could take with them anywhere they went. The demarcation between what is considered "experimental" and "organized" broadcasting
7310-427: A short-range "wireless telephone" demonstration, that included simultaneously broadcasting speech and music to seven locations throughout Murray, Kentucky. However, this was transmitted using induction rather than radio signals, and although Stubblefield predicted that his system would be perfected so that "it will be possible to communicate with hundreds of homes at the same time", and "a single message can be sent from
7480-453: A surprising victory in the March 26 Michigan primary, defeating Dukakis in a landslide. This made him the front-runner in the race and spurred party officials to actively contemplate that he could be the party's nominee after all. Former Democratic Party chairman Robert S. Strauss said that his Michigan win showed that Jackson "has a kind of power we hadn't expected" and "a real vulnerability" in
7650-515: A very young reporter/engineer Larry Langford and many others. WVON became well known outside the Chicago area as well. Berry Gordy , the president of Motown Records , sent every song he produced immediately to WVON before any other station. Other similar stations across the country took inspiration from WVON's format. The station also had an active role during the Civil Rights Movement , covering it extensively. Rev. Jesse Jackson called into
7820-444: A wide margin, Jackson was seen as having done "well enough to argue that he has expanded his appeal to white voters." In the March 8 Super Tuesday contests, Jackson won Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. Party leaders saw the results as indicating the beginning of a long three-way race between Dukakis, Jackson, and Gore. As the month progressed, Jackson won Alaska, South Carolina, and Puerto Rico. Jackson scored
7990-461: A widespread audience — dates back to the founding period of radio development, even though the earliest radio transmissions, originally known as "Hertzian radiation" and "wireless telegraphy", used spark-gap transmitters that could only transmit the dots-and-dashes of Morse code . In October 1898 a London publication, The Electrician , noted that "there are rare cases where, as Dr. [Oliver] Lodge once expressed it, it might be advantageous to 'shout'
8160-406: Is comparable to or better in audio quality than a standard analog broadcast". Despite the various actions, AM band audiences continued to contract, and the number of stations began to slowly decline. A 2009 FCC review reported that "The story of AM radio over the last 50 years has been a transition from being the dominant form of audio entertainment for all age groups to being almost non-existent to
8330-497: Is largely arbitrary. Listed below are some of the early AM radio broadcasts, which, due to their irregular schedules and limited purposes, can be classified as "experimental": People who weren't around in the Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for
8500-645: Is simpler than later transmission systems. An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone . However, the simplicity of AM transmission also makes it vulnerable to "static" ( radio noise , radio frequency interference ) created by both natural atmospheric electrical activity such as lightning, and electrical and electronic equipment, including fluorescent lights, motors and vehicle ignition systems. In large urban centers, AM radio signals can be severely disrupted by metal structures and tall buildings. As
8670-606: Is straight and our vision is clear." On August 29, Jackson met with Mondale again and afterward declared that he had "embraced the mission and support the Mondale-Ferraro candidacy with great fervor" but also that he would "always reserve the right to challenge" Mondale. By September, Jackson had introduced Mondale to the National Baptist Convention and the Congressional Black Caucus , and had gone from
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#17328701828128840-556: The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) with the intention of helping AM stations, especially ones with musical formats, become more competitive with FM broadcasters by promoting better quality receivers. However, the stereo AM and AMAX initiatives had little impact, and a 2015 review of these events concluded that Initially the consumer manufacturers made
9010-615: The Emergency Alert System (EAS). Some automakers have been eliminating AM radio from their electric vehicles (EVs) due to interference from the electric motors , but the lawmakers argue that this is a safety risk and that car owners should have access to AM radio regardless of the type of vehicle they drive. The proposed legislation would require all new vehicles to include AM radio at no additional charge, and it would also require automakers that have already eliminated AM radio to inform customers of alternatives. AM radio technology
9180-479: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) expressed concerns that this would reduce the effectiveness of emergency communications. In May 2023, a bipartisan group of lawmakers in the United States introduced legislation making it illegal for automakers to eliminate AM radio from their cars. The lawmakers argue that AM radio is an important tool for public safety due to being a component of
9350-577: The Kosovo War and NATO's bombing of Yugoslavia , he traveled to Belgrade to negotiate the release of three U.S. POWs captured on the Macedonian border while patrolling with a UN peacekeeping unit. He met with then-Yugoslav president Slobodan Milošević , who later agreed to release the three men. Jackson's negotiation was not sanctioned by the Clinton administration. His international efforts continued into
9520-540: The Party's National Committee that "Black people need the Republican Party to compete for us so we can have real alternatives ... The Republican Party needs black people if it is ever to compete for national office." In 1983 Jackson and Operation PUSH led a boycott against beer giant Anheuser-Busch , criticizing the company's level of minority employment in their distribution network. August Busch IV , Anheuser-Busch's CEO
9690-471: The Rainbow Coalition and resigned his post as president of Operation PUSH in 1984 to run for president of the United States, though he remained involved as chairman of the board. PUSH's activities were described in 1987 as conducting boycotts of business to induce them to provide more jobs and business to blacks and as running programs for housing, social services and voter registration. The organization
9860-452: The Reagan administration and launched a presidential campaign in 1984 . Initially seen as a fringe candidate, Jackson finished in third place for the Democratic nomination, behind former Vice President Walter Mondale and Senator Gary Hart . He continued his activism for the next three years, and mounted a second bid for president in 1988 . Exceeding expectations once again, Jackson finished as
10030-883: The South Loop , and its transmitter is located at 87th and Kedzie in Chicago's Ashburn community. WVON's origins lie in WHFC, which began in 1926, broadcasting from the Hotel Flanders in Chicago. It was owned by Richard W. Hoffman . Like many stations of the time, WHFC shared time with other stations on its frequency. Its city of license was later changed to Cicero, Illinois , and it studios and transmitter were moved to Cermak Rd. in Cicero. In early years, WHFC aired pop music from singers like Bing Crosby , and aired live band performances from Cicero's Olympic Ballroom. In 1930, WHFC moved to 1420, where it shared time with WEHS and WKBI. Hoffman bought out
10200-679: The civil rights movement . He was ordained a minister in 1968 and was awarded a Master of Divinity degree by Chicago Theological Seminary in 2000 based on his previous credits earned plus his life experience and subsequent work. Jackson has been known for commanding public attention since he first started working for Martin Luther King Jr. In 1965 he participated in the Selma to Montgomery marches organized by James Bevel , King and other civil rights leaders in Alabama. Impressed by Jackson's drive and organizational abilities, King soon began giving Jackson
10370-431: The electrolytic detector and thermionic diode ( Fleming valve ) were invented by Reginald Fessenden and John Ambrose Fleming , respectively. Most important, in 1904–1906 the crystal detector , the simplest and cheapest AM detector, was developed by G. W. Pickard . Homemade crystal radios spread rapidly during the next 15 years, providing ready audiences for the first radio broadcasts. One limitation of crystals sets
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#173287018281210540-485: The oldies format of Clear Channel-operated WRLL on 1690. The WRLL call letters were assigned to Midway's half of the time-share on 1450 at Cicero, Illinois . In 2007, the station's studios were moved from their longtime home at 3350 S. Kedzie to the former Soft Sheen Products Building on 87th Street in Chicago's Chatham neighborhood. In late 2018, its studios were moved to the South Loop. In May 2019, Todd Stroger ,
10710-423: The second inauguration of Ronald Reagan , Jackson led several hundred supporters in a procession through downtown Washington to the grounds of Washington Monument. He stressed that they needed to "keep alive the hopes of those who have fallen through the safety net" and challenge America "to protect the poor". In April, Jackson led a rally to protest the sale of an elderly farmer's form to Kearney Trust Co. outside
10880-430: The " capture effect " means that the dominant signal needs to only be about twice as strong as the interfering one. To allow room for more stations on the mediumwave broadcast band in the United States, in June 1989 the FCC adopted a National Radio Systems Committee (NRSC) standard that limited maximum transmitted audio bandwidth to 10.2 kHz, limiting occupied bandwidth to 20.4 kHz. The former audio limitation
11050-541: The 12 Southern states that would hold primaries or caucuses in March and led the Democratic field at 27 percent. In November, Jackson announced that Speaker of the California State Assembly Willie Brown would serve as his campaign chairman while political strategist Gerald Austin became his campaign manager. Later that month, Jackson announced he would stop his tour of the Persian Gulf to attend
11220-587: The 1930s, most of the major radio stations in the country were affiliated with networks owned by two companies, NBC and CBS . In 1934, a third national network, the Mutual Radio Network , was formed as a cooperative owned by its stations. A second country which quickly adopted network programming was the United Kingdom, and its national network quickly became a prototype for a state-managed monopoly of broadcasting. A rising interest in radio broadcasting by
11390-660: The 1940s two new broadcast media, FM radio and television , began to provide extensive competition with the established broadcasting services. The AM radio industry suffered a serious loss of audience and advertising revenue, and coped by developing new strategies. Network broadcasting gave way to format broadcasting: instead of broadcasting the same programs all over the country, stations individually adopted specialized formats which appealed to different audiences, such as regional and local news, sports, "talk" programs, and programs targeted at minorities. Instead of live music, most stations began playing less expensive recorded music. In
11560-526: The 2000s. On February 15, 2003, Jackson spoke in front of over an estimated one million people in Hyde Park, London at the culmination of the anti-war demonstration against the imminent invasion of Iraq by the U.S. and the United Kingdom. In November 2004 Jackson visited senior politicians and community activists in Northern Ireland in an effort to encourage better cross-community relations and rebuild
11730-528: The AM radio industry in the United States developed technology for broadcasting in stereo . Other nations adopted AM stereo, most commonly choosing Motorola's C-QUAM, and in 1993 the United States also made the C-QUAM system its standard, after a period allowing four different standards to compete. The selection of a single standard improved acceptance of AM stereo , however overall there was limited adoption of AM stereo worldwide, and interest declined after 1990. With
11900-537: The Atlanta leadership of the SCLC as a job placement agency for blacks. Under Jackson's leadership, a key goal was to encourage massive boycotts by black consumers as a means to pressure white-owned businesses to hire blacks and to purchase goods and services from black-owned firms. T. R. M. Howard , a 1950s proponent of the consumer boycott tactic, soon became a major supporter of Jackson's efforts – donating and raising funds, and introducing Jackson to prominent members of
12070-518: The Black Expo, and then suspended Jackson as leader of Operation Breadbasket for not obtaining permission to form non-profit corporations. Al Sharpton , then youth group leader of the SCLC, left the organization to protest Jackson's treatment and formed the National Youth Movement . Jackson, his entire Breadbasket staff, and 30 of the 35 board members resigned from the SCLC and began planning
12240-521: The British public pressured the government to reintroduce the service, following its suspension in 1920. However, the government also wanted to avoid what it termed the "chaotic" U.S. experience of allowing large numbers of stations to operate with few restrictions. There were also concerns about broadcasting becoming dominated by the Marconi company. Arrangements were made for six large radio manufacturers to form
12410-615: The Clinton County Courthouse, where he called the gathering of farmers, union labor members, ministers and urban blacks from Kansas City "a rainbow coalition for economic justice". In June, Mayor of the District of Columbia Marion Barry introduced Jackson at the Winston Elementary School, where Jackson said that the "number one threat to the development of this generation is drugs". In June 1986, Jackson delivered
12580-450: The D.C. Democratic State Committee Theodis Gay said that Jackson's campaign "puts blacks in particular back in touch with an identity—a feeling of self-worth and of hope." Overall, Jackson received three quarters of the black vote in the Democratic primary. A New York Times /CBS News Poll found that black Democrats preferred Mondale to Jackson as the Democratic nominee by a margin of 5 to 3. In May, Jackson complained that he had won 21% of
12750-449: The Democratic primary season, Jackson had captured 6.9 million votes and won 11 contests: seven primaries (Alabama, the District of Columbia, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Puerto Rico, and Virginia) and four caucuses (Delaware, Michigan, South Carolina, and Vermont). The day after the final primaries, Jackson met with Dukakis and they discussed some of Jackson's platform, such as a universal same-day, on-site voter registration and changing
12920-514: The Dukakis campaign. Jackson participated in the March 28 debate at Fordham University , where he was the only candidate greeted with applause, and stressed that government intervention could end homelessness. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch supported Gore and attacked Jackson, saying that Jews "would have to be crazy" to support his campaign and claimed Jackson lied about his role in the aftermath of King's assassination. Dukakis defeated Jackson in
13090-522: The February 24 League of Women Voters -sponsored debate, and The New York Times wrote that Jackson "provided the most dramatic exchange of the 90-minute program when Barbara Walters , the ABC News interviewer who was the moderator, asked him if he had made anti-Semitic statements, including referring to Jews as 'Hymies.'" Hart defended Jackson as having "no derogatory feelings in his soul", and went on to win
13260-455: The Jackson campaign". But his past successes made him a more credible candidate, and he was both better financed and better organized than in 1984. The Washington Post wrote that while Jackson's support "continued to flow predominantly from black districts", his support among white voters allowed him to "claim that he is more than a one-race candidate. Perhaps more to the point, no other candidate
13430-491: The New Hampshire primary. As February closed, Jackson announced his supporters would file a lawsuit against state election rules that he deemed racially motivated, specifically targeting "dual registration" and "second primaries". Jackson, Mondale, and Hart took part in the March 28 debate, where Jackson interjected as Mondale and Hart argued over Central American policy. Jackson's reply, according to Howell Raines, "won him
13600-611: The New York primary, and a distant third-place finish led Gore to drop out of the race. Koch later apologized in a letter, expressing regret "if racial or religious friction resulted" from his comments about Jackson. Jackson narrowly lost the Colorado primary to Dukakis, and was defeated handily the next day by Dukakis in the Wisconsin primary. Jackson's showing among white voters in Wisconsin
13770-501: The Reagan administration's economic policies. In July, Jackson met with former Governor of Alabama George Wallace for half an hour, calling the former segregationist "one of the most forward of any governor across the South in terms of the sharing of appointments with blacks and whites and women, and the tone of the administration had changed". The meeting was seen as Jackson testing support for
13940-414: The SCLC. In 1969 The New York Times reported that several black leaders viewed Jackson as King's successor and that Jackson was one of the few black activists who was preaching racial reconciliation. Jackson was also reportedly seeking coalition with whites in order to approach what were considered racial problems as economic and class problems. "When we change the race problem into a class fight between
14110-411: The Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for the first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio. The idea of broadcasting — the unrestricted transmission of signals to
14280-556: The U.S. had come "a mighty long way" since then. In 2005 Jackson was enlisted as part of the United Kingdom 's Operation Black Vote , a campaign Simon Woolley ran to encourage more of Britain's ethnic minorities to vote in political elections ahead of the 2005 General Election . In 2009 Jackson served as a speaker for the International Peace Foundation on the topic "Building a culture of peace and development in
14450-500: The U.S., for example) subject to international agreements. Jesse Jackson Jesse Louis Jackson ( né Burns ; born October 8, 1941) is an American civil rights activist , politician , and ordained Baptist minister . Beginning as a young protégé of Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement , Jackson maintained his status as a prominent civil rights leader throughout his political and theological career for over seven decades. He served from 1991 to 1997 as
14620-662: The United States and France this led to a small market of receiver lines geared for jewelers who needed accurate time to set their clocks, including the Ondophone in France, and the De Forest RS-100 Jewelers Time Receiver in the United States The ability to pick up time signal broadcasts, in addition to Morse code weather reports and news summaries, also attracted the interest of amateur radio enthusiasts. It
14790-523: The antenna wire. This meant that the full transmitter power flowed through the microphone, and even using water cooling, the power handling ability of the microphones severely limited the power of the transmissions. Ultimately only a small number of large and powerful Alexanderson alternators would be developed. However, they would be almost exclusively used for long-range radiotelegraph communication, and occasionally for radiotelephone experimentation, but were never used for general broadcasting. Almost all of
14960-474: The audience has continued to decline. In 1987, the elimination of the Fairness Doctrine requirement meant that talk shows, which were commonly carried by AM stations, could adopt a more focused presentation on controversial topics, without the distraction of having to provide airtime for any contrasting opinions. In addition, satellite distribution made it possible for programs to be economically carried on
15130-402: The black business community in Chicago. Under Jackson's direction, Operation Breadbasket held popular weekly workshops on Chicago's South Side featuring white and black political and economic leaders, and religious services complete with a jazz band and choir. Jackson became involved in SCLC leadership disputes following King's assassination on April 4, 1968. When King was shot, Jackson was in
15300-542: The call letters of 1390 from WVON to WGCI in 1983. Midway Broadcasting immediately filed a request with the FCC to change WXOL's call sign to WVON, and on March 28, 1984, the WVON call letters returned to their former home at 1450. The station experienced a 50% increase in its audience after the call sign change. In 1986, WVON adopted its current black-oriented talk radio format. In 2002, then State Senator Barack Obama filled in for vacationing Cliff Kelley. Roland Martin hosted
15470-448: The campaign did not "have to spend but a moment's time on how to utilize TV, because he understands that better than any of the other candidates and most of their media advisers", his performance was criticized for being "either wrong or uninformed". Neither Jackson or Senator Fritz Hollings campaigned prolifically in Iowa ahead of the Iowa caucuses , which Mondale won. Jackson took part in
15640-404: The characteristics of arc-transmitters . Fessenden attempted to sell this form of radiotelephone for point-to-point communication, but was unsuccessful. Fessenden's work with high-frequency spark transmissions was only a temporary measure. His ultimate plan for creating an audio-capable transmitter was to redesign an electrical alternator , which normally produced alternating current of at most
15810-403: The commission estimated that fewer than 250 AM stations were transmitting hybrid mode signals. On October 27, 2020, the FCC voted to allow AM stations to eliminate their analog transmissions and convert to all-digital operation, with the requirement that stations making the change had to continue to make programming available over "at least one free over-the-air digital programming stream that
15980-475: The continued migration of AM stations away from music to news, sports, and talk formats, receiver manufacturers saw little reason to adopt the more expensive stereo tuners, and thus radio stations have little incentive to upgrade to stereo transmission. In countries where the use of directional antennas is common, such as the United States, transmitter sites consisting of multiple towers often occupy large tracts of land that have significantly increased in value over
16150-437: The continuous wave AM transmissions made prior to 1915 were made by versions of the arc converter transmitter, which had been initially developed by Valdemar Poulsen in 1903. Arc transmitters worked by producing a pulsating electrical arc in an enclosed hydrogen atmosphere. They were much more compact than alternator transmitters, and could operate on somewhat higher transmitting frequencies. However, they suffered from some of
16320-537: The convention continued, Jackson's proposals to ban runoff primaries, decrease defense spending, and pledge the U.S. would not use nuclear weapons first were voted down from the party platform. In spite of this, Jackson reiterated his support for the Democrats, saying that while they could afford to lose the vote, they could not afford to "avoid raising the right questions. Our self-respect and our moral integrity were at stake. Our heads are perhaps bloody, but unbowed. Our back
16490-434: The decades, to the point that the value of land exceeds that of the station itself. This sometimes results in the sale of the transmitter site, with the station relocating to a more distant shared site using significantly less power, or completely shutting down operations. The ongoing development of alternative transmission systems, including Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio, and HD (digital) radio, continued
16660-567: The decline of the popularity of the traditional broadcast technologies. These new options, including the introduction of Internet streaming, particularly resulted in the reduction of shortwave transmissions, as international broadcasters found ways to reach their audiences more easily. In 2022 it was reported that AM radio was being removed from a number of electric vehicle (EV) models, including from cars manufactured by Tesla, Audi, Porsche, BMW and Volvo, reportedly due to automakers concerns that an EV's higher electromagnetic interference can disrupt
16830-569: The demonstration witnesses, which stated "[Radio] Telephony is admirably adapted for transmitting news, stock quotations, music, race reports, etc. simultaneously over a city, on account of the fact that no wires are needed and a single apparatus can distribute to ten thousand subscribers as easily as to a few. It is proposed to erect stations for this purpose in the large cities here and abroad." However, other than two holiday transmissions reportedly made shortly after these demonstrations, Fessenden does not appear to have conducted any radio broadcasts for
17000-756: The early 1900s. However, widespread AM broadcasting was not established until the 1920s, following the development of vacuum tube receivers and transmitters. AM radio remained the dominant method of broadcasting for the next 30 years, a period called the " Golden Age of Radio ", until television broadcasting became widespread in the 1950s and received much of the programming previously carried by radio. Later, AM radio's audiences declined greatly due to competition from FM ( frequency modulation ) radio, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio , HD (digital) radio , Internet radio , music streaming services , and podcasting . Compared to FM or digital transmissions , AM transmissions are more expensive to transmit due to
17170-645: The expectation is that listeners will primarily be tuning into the FM signal rather than the nominally "primary" AM station. A 2020 review noted that "for many owners, keeping their AM stations on the air now is pretty much just about retaining their FM translator footprint rather than keeping the AM on the air on its own merits". In 2018 the FCC, led by then-Commission Chairman Ajit Pai , proposed greatly reducing signal protection for 50 kW Class A " clear channel " stations. This would allow co-channel secondary stations to operate with higher powers, especially at night. However,
17340-622: The expectations of black voters," Raines wrote before noting that his support was based "almost entirely on a minority vote" and pondering whether Jackson had the ability to reach white voters and whether whites were willing to vote for black candidates. The Washington Post credited Jackson with drawing "thousands of black Americans into the political process for the first time", shaking the Democratic Party's status quo, and "inspiring black pride generally by his strong showing in many primaries and his performances in candidate debates." Chairman of
17510-445: The fall of 1900, he successfully transmitted speech over a distance of about 1.6 kilometers (one mile), which appears to have been the first successful audio transmission using radio signals. However, at this time the sound was far too distorted to be commercially practical. For a time he continued working with more sophisticated high-frequency spark transmitters, including versions that used compressed air, which began to take on some of
17680-425: The finance committee. At its inception, Jackson planned to orient Operation PUSH toward politics and to pressure politicians to work to improve economic opportunities for blacks and poor people of all races. SCLC officials reportedly felt the new organization would help black businesses more than it would help the poor. In 1978 Jackson called for a closer relationship between blacks and the Republican Party, telling
17850-401: The first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio. Following World War I, the number of stations providing a regular broadcasting service greatly increased, primarily due to advances in vacuum-tube technology. In response to ongoing activities, government regulators eventually codified standards for which stations could make broadcasts intended for
18020-432: The following year Combined Communications merged with Gannett Co. In 1982, Yvonne Daniels joined WVON as morning drive host. The FCC process of assigning a license for the vacant 1450 AM frequency resulted in a shared-time arrangement, as applicants Midway Broadcasting Corporation and Migala Communications reached an agreement to split the broadcast day. Two former WVON personalities, Pervis Spann and Wesley South, were
18190-474: The funeral of his friend, Mayor of Chicago Harold Washington , before changing his mind. Jackson's campaign platform included a call for a single-payer system of universal health care ; higher taxes on the wealthy and defense spending cuts intended to reduce federal budget deficits and increase education, housing, welfare, and childcare spending; ratifying the Equal Rights Amendment ; reducing
18360-620: The general public, for example, in the United States formal recognition of a "broadcasting service" came with the establishment of regulations effective December 1, 1921, and Canadian authorities created a separate category of "radio-telephone broadcasting stations" in April 1922. However, there were numerous cases of entertainment broadcasts being presented on a regular schedule before their formal recognition by government regulators. Some early examples include: Because most longwave radio frequencies were used for international radiotelegraph communication,
18530-417: The general public, or to have even given additional thought about the potential of a regular broadcast service, and in a 1908 article providing a comprehensive review of the potential uses for his radiotelephone invention, he made no references to broadcasting. Because there was no way to amplify electrical currents at this time, modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in
18700-456: The haves and the have-nots, then we are going to have a new ball game", he said. In the 21st century, some public school systems are working on an approach for affirmative action that deals with family income rather than race, recognizing that some minority members have been very successful. The Times also indicated that Jackson was being criticized as too involved with middle-class blacks, and for having an unattainable goal of racial unity. In
18870-541: The isolation of rural life. Political officials could now speak directly to millions of citizens. One of the first to take advantage of this was American president Franklin Roosevelt , who became famous for his fireside chats during the Great Depression . However, broadcasting also provided the means to use propaganda as a powerful government tool, and contributed to the rise of fascist and communist ideologies. In
19040-411: The lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On December 21, 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. As part of the demonstration, speech was transmitted 18 kilometers (11 miles) to
19210-419: The late 1960s and 1970s, top 40 rock and roll stations in the U.S. and Canada such as WABC and CHUM transmitted highly processed and extended audio to 11 kHz, successfully attracting huge audiences. For young people, listening to AM broadcasts and participating in their music surveys and contests was the social media of the time. In the late 1970s, spurred by the exodus of musical programming to FM stations,
19380-399: The marketplace decide" which was best. The lack of a common standard resulted in consumer confusion and increased the complexity and cost of producing AM stereo receivers. In 1993, the FCC again revised its policy, by selecting C-QUAM as the sole AM stereo implementation. In 1993, the FCC also endorsed, although it did not make mandatory, AMAX broadcasting standards that were developed by
19550-432: The message, spreading it broadcast to receivers in all directions". However, it was recognized that this would involve significant financial issues, as that same year The Electrician also commented "did not Prof. Lodge forget that no one wants to pay for shouting to the world on a system by which it would be impossible to prevent non-subscribers from benefiting gratuitously?" On January 1, 1902, Nathan Stubblefield gave
19720-539: The most black support of any candidate in the Georgia, Alabama and Florida primaries, where massive registration drives targeted at black voters led to a 69 percent increase in voter turnout from 1980 in Georgia and Alabama. A March 1984 Washington Post-ABC News poll found Jackson in third place with 20 percent support, behind Mondale and Hart with 39 and 32 percent. "By achieving unexpected success in some early primaries and caucuses, Mr. Jackson has apparently unified and raised
19890-448: The multiple incompatible AM stereo systems, and failure of the manufacturers (including the auto makers) to effectively promote AMAX radios, coupled with the ever-increasing background of noise in the band, the general public soon lost interest and moved on to other media. On June 8, 1988, an International Telecommunication Union (ITU)-sponsored conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil adopted provisions, effective July 1, 1990, to extend
20060-537: The necessity of having to transmit a high power carrier wave to overcome ground losses, and the large antenna radiators required at the low broadcast frequencies, but can be sent over long distances via the ionosphere at night; however, they are much more susceptible to interference, and often have lower audio fidelity. Thus, AM broadcasters tend to specialize in spoken-word formats, such as talk radio , all-news radio and sports radio , with music formats primarily for FM and digital stations. People who weren't around in
20230-405: The new frequencies. It was now estimated that the expanded band could accommodate around 300 U.S. stations. However, it turned out that the number of possible station reassignments was much lower, with a 2006 accounting reporting that, out of 4,758 licensed U.S. AM stations, only 56 were now operating on the expanded band. Moreover, despite an initial requirement that by the end of five years either
20400-428: The new policy, by 2011 there were approximately 500 in operation, and as of 2020 approximately 2,800 of the 4,570 licensed AM stations were rebroadcasting on one or more FM translators. In 2009 the FCC stated that "We do not intend to allow these cross-service translators to be used as surrogates for FM stations". However, based on station slogans, especially in the case of recently adopted musical formats, in most cases
20570-597: The only bursts of applause from an audience of 200 people at the Low Memorial Library who witnessed what was almost certainly the most tense of the debates." Jackson won the April 15 primary in his home state of South Carolina with 34.4 percent of the vote, receiving twice as many delegates as Mondale and Hart. At the start of May, Jackson won the District of Columbia and Louisiana primaries. More Virginia caucus-goers supported Jackson than any other candidate, but Mondale won more Virginia delegates. Jackson received
20740-480: The opening of 1988 Democratic National Convention . After Dukakis was nominated, Jackson appeared with Bentsen and Dukakis at a loyalty breakfast where Dukakis told Jackson's supporters that he needed them. By September, former members of Jackson's campaign became involved in a dispute with the Dukakis campaign and the Michigan Democratic Party to "obtain additional jobs, power and money". According to
20910-411: The original station or its expanded band counterpart had to cease broadcasting, as of 2015 there were 25 cases where the original standard band station was still on the air, despite also operating as an expanded band station. HD Radio is a digital audio broadcasting method developed by iBiquity . In 2002 its "hybrid mode", which simultaneously transmits a standard analog signal as well as a digital one,
21080-500: The other two stations, and by 1936 it operated on 1420 full-time. WHFC's frequency was changed to 1450 in 1941, as a result of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement . In the early 1950s, WHFC's studios and transmitter were moved to 3350 S. Kedzie, in Chicago's South Lawndale community. In the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, WHFC aired ethnic and African-American programming. Ernie Banks hosted
21250-433: The overheating issues of needing to insert microphones directly in the transmission antenna circuit. Vacuum tube transmitters also provided high-quality AM signals, and could operate on higher transmitting frequencies than alternator and arc transmitters. Non-governmental radio transmissions were prohibited in many countries during World War I, but AM radiotelephony technology advanced greatly due to wartime research, and after
21420-474: The parking lot one floor below. Jackson told reporters he was the last person to speak to King, and that King died in his arms – an account that several King aides disputed. In the wake of King's death, Jackson worked on SCLC's Poor People's Crusade in Washington, D.C., and was credited with managing its 15-acre tent city – but he began to increasingly clash with Ralph Abernathy , King's successor as chairman of
21590-557: The peace process and restore the governmental institutions of the Belfast Agreement . In August 2005 Jackson traveled to Venezuela to meet Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez , following controversial remarks by televangelist Pat Robertson that implied that Chávez should be assassinated. Jackson condemned Robertson's remarks as immoral. After meeting with Chávez and addressing the Venezuelan Parliament, Jackson said there
21760-414: The popular vote but was awarded only 9% of the delegates. He said afterward that he had been handicapped by party rules. While Mondale (in the words of his aides) was determined to establish a precedent with his vice-presidential candidate by picking a woman or visible minority, Jackson criticized the screening process as a " p.r. parade of personalities". He also mocked Mondale, saying that Hubert Humphrey
21930-492: The population; the crowd responded with chants for him to "Run". Jackson's address to the National Congress of American Indians and touring of southern Texas to test his appeal among Hispanics fueled speculation he would run for president. On November 3, 1983, Jackson announced his campaign for president of the United States in the 1984 election, becoming the second African American (after Shirley Chisholm ) to mount
22100-441: The primary early developer of AM technology is Canadian-born inventor Reginald Fessenden . The original spark-gap radio transmitters were impractical for transmitting audio, since they produced discontinuous pulses known as " damped waves ". Fessenden realized that what was needed was a new type of radio transmitter that produced steady "undamped" (better known as " continuous wave ") signals, which could then be "modulated" to reflect
22270-422: The principals of Midway Broadcasting. They accepted the random issue call sign WXOL, while Migala chose WCEV ("We're Chicagoland's Ethnic Voice") as their call sign. Jan Under the agreement, WCEV would operate from 1 p.m. to 10 p.m. Monday through Friday, with WXOL taking the rest of the hours. Both stations were on the air by October 1979 and shared a transmitting tower. The 317-foot (97 m) tower
22440-680: The race after most prominent Democrats, such as Senator Gary Hart , and former Vice President Walter Mondale . In December, he was endorsed by National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. chairman T. J. Jemison , and lost the endorsement of the Alabama Democratic Conference , the largest black political organization in Alabama , to Mondale. In January, Jackson participated in the first Democratic debate in Hanover, New Hampshire . Although Jackson campaign issues coordinator Frank Watkins said
22610-637: The reception of AM transmissions and hurt the listening experience, among other reasons. However the United States Congress has introduced a bill to require all vehicles sold in the US to have an AM receiver to receive emergency broadcasts. The FM broadcast band was established in 1941 in the United States, and at the time some suggested that the AM band would soon be eliminated. In 1948 wide-band FM's inventor, Edwin H. Armstrong , predicted that "The broadcasters will set up FM stations which will parallel, carry
22780-614: The release of 22 Americans being held in Cuba after an invitation by Cuban president Fidel Castro . On the eve of the 1991 Persian Gulf War , Jackson made a trip to Iraq to plead with Saddam Hussein for the release of foreign nationals held there as a "human shield", securing the release of several British and 20 American individuals. In 1997, Jackson traveled to Kenya to meet with Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi as United States President Bill Clinton 's special envoy for democracy to promote free and fair elections. In April 1999, during
22950-528: The right to use an approach "making a strategic move to solidify his organization" and that his strategy was to "keep hope alive, to keep focus in our campaign, to keep our delegates and supporters, disciplined detail and full of hope, to put forth the very best expression we can of support on Wednesday, July 20, at nomination time." The dispute between Jackson and Dukakis led Jackson to suggest former President Jimmy Carter would have to mediate their conflict, and they did not reach an agreement until shortly before
23120-510: The rules for the winner-take-all delegate allocation. Jackson reasoned that he deserved Dukakis's consideration as a running mate. Dukakis agreed, but added that Jackson was of no "special or greater consideration" simply for coming in second place in the contests. Polling in April found a Dukakis-Jackson ticket would defeat Vice President George H. W. Bush , but that either alone would lose to Bush. Dukakis picked Senator Lloyd Bentsen as his running mate, and Jackson responded that Dukakis had
23290-570: The runner-up to Governor of Massachusetts Michael Dukakis . Jackson never sought the presidency again, but was elected to the United States Senate in 1990 for the District of Columbia , for which he would serve one term as a shadow delegate during the Bush and Clinton administrations. Initially a critic of President Bill Clinton , he became a supporter. Jackson hosted Both Sides with Jesse Jackson on CNN from 1992 to 2000. He has been
23460-799: The same deficiencies. The lack of any means to amplify electrical currents meant that, like the alternator transmitters, modulation was usually accomplished by a microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire, which again resulted in overheating issues, even with the use of water-cooled microphones. Thus, transmitter powers tended to be limited. The arc was also somewhat unstable, which reduced audio quality. Experimenters who used arc transmitters for their radiotelephone research included Ernst Ruhmer , Quirino Majorana , Charles "Doc" Herrold , and Lee de Forest . Advances in vacuum tube technology (called "valves" in British usage), especially after around 1915, revolutionized radio technology. Vacuum tube devices could be used to amplify electrical currents, which overcame
23630-400: The same program, as over their AM stations... eventually the day will come, of course, when we will no longer have to build receivers capable of receiving both types of transmission, and then the AM transmitters will disappear." However, FM stations actually struggled for many decades, and it was not until 1978 that FM listenership surpassed that of AM stations. Since then the AM band's share of
23800-427: The second most listened to Chicago station during evening hours by early 1964. WEHS's call sign was changed to WHFC, and simulcast WVON's programming until 1965, when 97.9 adopted a jazz format as WSDM. WVON ran 1,000 watts during the day and 250 watts at night. Though the station was initially geared strictly to a black audience, by 1968 its playlist had expanded to include songs by white artists that were compatible with
23970-410: The sounds being transmitted. Fessenden's basic approach was disclosed in U.S. Patent 706,737, which he applied for on May 29, 1901, and was issued the next year. It called for the use of a high-speed alternator (referred to as "an alternating-current dynamo") that generated "pure sine waves" and produced "a continuous train of radiant waves of substantially uniform strength", or, in modern terminology,
24140-602: The spring of 1971 Abernathy ordered Jackson to move the national office of Operation Breadbasket from Chicago to Atlanta and sought to place another person in charge of local Chicago activities, but Jackson refused to move. He organized the October 1971 Black Expo in Chicago, a trade and business fair to promote black capitalism and grass roots political power. The five-day event was attended by black businessmen from 40 states, as well as politicians such as Cleveland Mayor Carl Stokes , and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley . Daley's presence
24310-468: The station and debuted WVON, with its programming of soul , and rhythm and blues music becoming very popular throughout the 1960s. The station's news and commentary also played an active role during the Civil Rights Movement during this era. Its present African-American-oriented talk format began in 1986. The station served as a springboard for Barack Obama during the early days of his political career. Licensed to Berwyn, Illinois , WVON has studios in
24480-646: The station to report the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. After Leonard Chess died in 1969, the Chess family decided to sell WVON to Globetrotter Communications, owned by George N. Gillett Jr. and Potter Palmer for $ 9 million. The sale was consummated in 1970. In 1975, Globetrotter bought WNUS-AM-FM from the McLendon interests for $ 4,450,000; they moved WVON from 1450 to the 5,000-watt former WNUS signal on 1390 on February 5 of that year at 3:30 p.m., which increased WVON's coverage area significantly. The 1450 frequency
24650-525: The station's sound, in an effort to reach a wider audience. WVON was a "heritage" station to Chicago's black community featuring great Black air personalities like Moses "Lucky" Cordell, Bruce Brown, Herb Kent "The Cool Gent", E. Rodney Jones, Cecil Hale, Joe "Youngblood" Cobb, Ed "Nassau Daddy" Cook, Bill "Butterball" Crane, Pervis Spann , Don Cornelius , Sid McCoy (who would accompany Cornelius when he formed Soul Train ), Richard Pegue, Bernadine C. Washington, Jay Johnson, newsmen Roy Wood and Jim Moloney,
24820-599: The supply and flow of drugs into communities; the creation of a domestic version of the World Bank called the "American Investment Bank" that would have the authority to sell government bonds to rebuild American infrastructure; suspending the development of new nuclear weapons in order to eventually ban them altogether; and "a very different relationship with the Soviet Union" involving a constructive partnership. In 1987, The New York Times called Jackson "a classic liberal in
24990-411: The technology for AM broadcasting in stereo was challenging due to the need to limit the transmissions to a 20 kHz bandwidth, while also making the transmissions backward compatible with existing non-stereo receivers. In 1990, the FCC authorized an AM stereo standard developed by Magnavox, but two years later revised its decision to instead approve four competing implementations, saying it would "let
25160-632: The tradition of the New Deal and the Great Society". Jackson participated in the January 24 University of New Hampshire debate, where he was noted as the "one candidate who stayed away from most of the bitter exchanges" as he assailed the Reagan administration. In the February 8 Iowa caucus, Jackson came in fourth place behind Gephardt, Simon, and Dukakis, though he had quadrupled his support there from his 1984 bid. After losing in New Hampshire to Dukakis by
25330-401: The translator stations are not permitted to originate programming when the "primary" AM station is broadcasting, they are permitted to do so during nighttime hours for AM stations licensed for daytime-only operation. Prior to the adoption of the new policy, as of March 18, 2009, the FCC had issued 215 Special Temporary Authority grants for FM translators relaying AM stations. After creation of
25500-492: The upper end of the Region 2 AM broadcast band, by adding ten frequencies which spanned from 1610 kHz to 1700 kHz. At this time it was suggested that as many as 500 U.S. stations could be assigned to the new frequencies. On April 12, 1990, the FCC voted to begin the process of populating the expanded band, with the main priority being the reduction of interference on the existing AM band, by transferring selected stations to
25670-548: The war the availability of tubes sparked a great increase in the number of amateur radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. Vacuum tubes remained the central technology of radio for 40 years, until transistors began to dominate in the late 1950s, and are still used in the highest power broadcast transmitters. Unlike telegraph and telephone systems, which used completely different types of equipment, most radio receivers were equally suitable for both radiotelegraph and radiotelephone reception. In 1903 and 1904
25840-404: The youngest demographic groups. Among persons aged 12–24, AM accounts for only 4% of listening, while FM accounts for 96%. Among persons aged 25–34, AM accounts for only 9% of listening, while FM accounts for 91%. The median age of listeners to the AM band is 57 years old, a full generation older than the median age of FM listeners." In 2009, the FCC made a major regulatory change, when it adopted
26010-565: Was 15 kHz resulting in bandwidth of 30 kHz. Another common limitation on AM fidelity is the result of receiver design, although some efforts have been made to improve this, notably through the AMAX standards adopted in the United States. AM broadcasts are used on several frequency bands. The allocation of these bands is governed by the ITU 's Radio Regulations and, on the national level, by each country's telecommunications administration (the FCC in
26180-460: Was able to generate anything like the total support that Mr. Jackson did." Jackson once again exceeded expectations as he more than doubled his previous results, prompting R.W. Apple of The New York Times to call 1988 "the Year of Jackson". Although Jackson was one of the most liberal members of the Democratic Party, his position on abortion was originally more in line with pro-life views. Less than
26350-474: Was approved by the FCC for use by AM stations, initially only during daytime hours, due to concerns that during the night its wider bandwidth would cause unacceptable interference to stations on adjacent frequencies. In 2007 nighttime operation was also authorized. The number of hybrid mode AM stations is not exactly known, because the FCC does not keep track of the stations employing the system, and some authorized stations have later turned it off. But as of 2020
26520-548: Was clean and said he would have been eligible to re-enroll at any time. At A&T, Jackson played quarterback and was elected student body president. He became active in local civil rights protests against segregated libraries, theaters, and restaurants. He graduated with a B.S. in sociology in 1964, then attended the Chicago Theological Seminary on a scholarship. He dropped out in 1966, three classes short of earning his master's degree, to focus full-time on
26690-485: Was elected student class president, finished tenth in his class, and earned letters in baseball, football, and basketball. Upon graduating from high school in 1959, he rejected a contract from a minor league professional baseball team so that he could attend the University of Illinois on a football scholarship. After his second semester at the predominantly white college, Jackson transferred to North Carolina A&T ,
26860-547: Was entitled to help choose both Mondale's running mate and his cabinet in the event he defeated Reagan in November. On July 4, Jackson and Mondale met at the Radisson Muehlebach Hotel for over two hours. Mondale called the meeting "successful" while Jackson said it was "not complete because there are unresolved matters", though he said that he expected to support Mondale if he was the nominee. Mondale ruled out Jackson as
27030-472: Was funded by contributions from businesses and individuals. In early 1987 the continued existence of Operation PUSH was imperiled by debt, a fact that Jackson's political opponents used during his race for the 1988 Democratic Party nomination. In 1996 the Operation PUSH and Rainbow Coalition organizations were merged. On July 16, 1960, while home from college, Jackson joined seven other African Americans in
27200-400: Was immediately recognized that, much like the telegraph had preceded the invention of the telephone, the ability to make audio radio transmissions would be a significant technical advance. Despite this knowledge, it still took two decades to perfect the technology needed to make quality audio transmissions. In addition, the telephone had rarely been used for distributing entertainment, outside of
27370-422: Was introduced in 1996 to Yusef Jackson, Jesse's son, by Jackson family friend Ron Burkle . In 1998 Yusef and his brother Jonathan were chosen by Anheuser-Busch to head River North Sales, a Chicago beer distribution company, leading to controversy. "There is no causal connection between the boycott in 1983 and me meeting in the middle '90s and me buying this company in 1998," said Yusef. In 1984 Jackson organized
27540-539: Was left silent for a time. On August 24, 1976, FM classical music station WFMT was allowed to simulcast on 1450 as an interim operator while the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) evaluated applications for a new license for the frequency. WVON reduced its news and community programming beginning in 1974, but continued to air a weekly broadcast by Jesse Jackson. In 1977, Combined Communications Corporation purchased Globetrotter Communications, and
27710-510: Was located at the old WVON site at 3350 South Kedzie Avenue. WXOL broadcast from studios at that location, while WCEV built its own facilities on the northwest side of Chicago. WXOL aired a blues oriented format, and its appearance on the dial sparked an immediate increase in the sales of blues records in the Chicago area. WGCI (107.5 FM) was also programmed to appeal to black audiences, and it and other FM stations won away many of WVON's listeners. WGCI became so successful that Gannett changed
27880-545: Was no evidence that Venezuela posed a threat to the U.S. He also met representatives from the Venezuelan African and indigenous communities. In 2013, Jackson attended Chávez's funeral. He told Wolf Blitzer that "democracies mature" and incorrectly said that the first 15 U.S. presidents owned slaves ( John Adams , John Quincy Adams , Millard Fillmore , Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan did not). He ended by saying that
28050-412: Was seen as a testament to the growing political and economic power of blacks. In December 1971 Jackson and Abernathy had a complete falling out, with the split described as part of a leadership struggle between Jackson, who had a national profile, and Abernathy, whose prominence from the Civil Rights Movement was beginning to wane. The break began when Abernathy questioned the handling of receipts from
28220-411: Was significantly better than in 1984, but was also noticeably lower than pre-primary polling had predicted. The back-to-back victories established Dukakis as the front-runner. Jackson and Dukakis debated each other one-on-one for the first time in the April 23 debate. Throughout May, Dukakis won more contests, and Jackson's own staff admitted he no longer could win the nomination. At the conclusion of
28390-508: Was the "last significant politician out of the St. Paul–Minneapolis" area. In the June 5 primaries, Jackson ran third behind Mondale and Hart in each state, and Mondale's victories left him with enough delegates to be considered the presumptive nominee. Mondale signaled his desire to telephone both Hart and Jackson for party unity. In an address to supporters at the Operation PUSH headquarters, Jackson said that fairness had not been achieved and that he
28560-468: Was the first organization to create a radio network, and also to promote commercial advertising, which it called "toll" broadcasting. Its flagship station, WEAF (now WFAN) in New York City, sold blocks of airtime to commercial sponsors that developed entertainment shows containing commercial messages . AT&T held a monopoly on quality telephone lines, and by 1924 had linked 12 stations in Eastern cities into
28730-406: Was the lack of amplifying the signals, so listeners had to use earphones , and it required the development of vacuum-tube receivers before loudspeakers could be used. The dynamic cone loudspeaker , invented in 1924, greatly improved audio frequency response over the previous horn speakers, allowing music to be reproduced with good fidelity. AM radio offered the highest sound quality available in
28900-474: Was unable to persuade him, and Henry was executed on September 20. Jackson's influence extended to international matters in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1983, he traveled to Syria to secure the release of a captured American pilot, Navy Lt. Robert Goodman , who was being held by the Syrian government. Goodman had been shot down over Lebanon while on a mission to bomb Syrian positions in that country. After Jackson made
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