AM broadcasting is radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation (AM) transmissions. It was the first method developed for making audio radio transmissions, and is still used worldwide, primarily for medium wave (also known as "AM band") transmissions, but also on the longwave and shortwave radio bands.
166-545: WLAC (1510 AM ) is a commercial radio station in Nashville, Tennessee . Owned by iHeartMedia , it broadcasts a talk radio format . The studios are in Nashville's Music Row district. It identifies itself as "TalkRadio 98.3 and 1510 WLAC" using the dial position of its FM translator at 98.3 MHz , as well as its AM frequency. WLAC operates around the clock at 50,000 watts, the highest power authorized for AM stations in
332-556: A Top 40 format, competing against ratings leader WMAK (1300 AM) for the Nashville-area teenage audience. This move, in particular, is believed to have prompted Richbourg and Nobles to retire, as they had no interest in conforming to a predetermined, pop-oriented playlist arranged by an outside consultant. In addition to this, most markets in WLAC's night-time coverage area now had black-oriented stations of their own, most of which attracted
498-465: A "chain". The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), General Electric , and Westinghouse organized a competing network around its own flagship station, RCA's WJZ (now WABC) in New York City, but were hampered by AT&T's refusal to lease connecting lines or allow them to sell airtime. In 1926 AT&T sold its radio operations to RCA, which used them to form the nucleus of the new NBC network. By
664-841: A 10 shilling receiver license fee. Both highbrow and mass-appeal programmes were carried by the National and Regional networks. The period from the early 1920s through the 1940s is often called the "Golden Age of Radio". During this period AM radio was the main source of home entertainment, until it was replaced by television. For the first time entertainment was provided from outside the home, replacing traditional forms of entertainment such as oral storytelling and music from family members. New forms were created, including radio plays , mystery serials, soap operas , quiz shows , variety hours , situation comedies and children's shows . Radio news, including remote reporting, allowed listeners to be vicariously present at notable events. Radio greatly eased
830-590: A big business in the late 1940s, WLAC added early-morning and Saturday-afternoon country shows in an attempt to steal some of WSM's thunder. Otherwise, the station prided itself as a pillar of the community and placed emphasis on general full-service programs. In 1941, with the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA), WLAC moved to a "Clear Channel" assignment of 1510 kHz, and received permission to increase its power to 50,000 watts. WLAC thus became
996-557: A bit later the Columbia Broadcasting System ) (CBS) — that were in the process of dominating broadcasting, other than a statement in section 3 that "The Commission shall have the authority to make special regulations applicable to stations engaged in chain broadcasting". In early 1928 it became clear that the FRC needed more than a single year to perform its tasks, and its tenure was extended for an additional year. In December 1929
1162-557: A central station to all parts of the United States", he was unable to overcome the inherent distance limitations of this technology. The earliest public radiotelegraph broadcasts were provided as government services, beginning with daily time signals inaugurated on January 1, 1905, by a number of U.S. Navy stations. In Europe, signals transmitted from a station located on the Eiffel Tower were received throughout much of Europe. In both
1328-440: A check on the commission's power, "censorship" of station programming was not allowed, although extreme language was prohibited: "Sec. 29. Nothing in this Act shall be understood or construed to give the licensing authority the power of censorship over the radio communications or signals transmitted by any radio station, and no regulation or condition shall be promulgated or fixed by the licensing authority which shall interfere with
1494-510: A common expression of that day. Other regular sponsors of the four shows included Randy's Record Shop of Gallatin, Tennessee , Ernie's Record Mart, and Buckley's Record Shop, the latter two of Nashville, all of which conducted mail-order business selling the recordings featured on the shows, and had affiliations with record companies in Middle Tennessee . Buckley's Record Shop folded in the early 1970s; Randy's Record Shop ceased operations in
1660-596: A concerted attempt to specify performance of AM receivers through the 1993 AMAX standard, a joint effort of the EIA and the NAB, with FCC backing... The FCC rapidly followed up on this with codification of the CQUAM AM stereo standard, also in 1993. At this point, the stage appeared to be set for rejuvenation of the AM band. Nevertheless, with the legacy of confusion and disappointment in the rollout of
1826-617: A consortium, the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), established on 18 October 1922, which was given a monopoly on broadcasting. This enterprise was supported by a tax on radio sets sales, plus an annual license fee on receivers, collected by the Post Office. Initially the eight stations were allowed regional autonomy. In 1927, the original broadcasting organization was replaced by a government chartered British Broadcasting Corporation . an independent nonprofit supported solely by
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#17330935739621992-552: A continuous-wave (CW) transmitter. Fessenden began his research on audio transmissions while doing developmental work for the United States Weather Service on Cobb Island, Maryland. Because he did not yet have a continuous-wave transmitter, initially he worked with an experimental "high-frequency spark" transmitter, taking advantage of the fact that the higher the spark rate, the closer a spark-gap transmission comes to producing continuous waves. He later reported that, in
2158-434: A different audience, for many years after WLAC changed to news and talk, the station abruptly switched, without any warning to unacquainted listeners, at 8 p.m. Central Time (when the clear-channel signal settled into place) to a Christian talk and teaching format. The nighttime line-up included paid broadcasts of many evangelical , fundamentalist , and Pentecostal preachers , seeking donations for their ministries, with
2324-424: A fast-changing environment. To aid decision-making, he sponsored a series of four national conferences from 1922 to 1925, where invited industry leaders participated in setting standards for radio in general. During his tenure Hoover was aware that some of his actions were on shaky legal ground, given the limited powers assigned to him by the 1912 Act. In particular, in 1921 the department had tried to refuse to issue
2490-568: A few " telephone newspaper " systems, most of which were established in Europe, beginning with the Paris Théâtrophone . With this in mind, most early radiotelephone development envisioned that the device would be more profitably developed as a "wireless telephone" for personal communication, or for providing links where regular telephone lines could not be run, rather than for the uncertain finances of broadcasting. The person generally credited as
2656-463: A few hundred ( Hz ), to increase its rotational speed and so generate currents of tens-of-thousands Hz, thus producing a steady continuous-wave transmission when connected to an aerial. The next step, adopted from standard wire-telephone practice, was to insert a simple carbon microphone into the transmission line, to modulate the carrier wave signal to produce AM audio transmissions. However, it would take many years of expensive development before even
2822-512: A home audio device prior to the introduction of the high-fidelity , long-playing record in the late 1940s. Listening habits changed in the 1960s due to the introduction of the revolutionary transistor radio (Regency TR-1, the first transistor radio released December 1954), which was made possible by the invention of the transistor in 1948. (The transistor was invented at Bell labs and released in June 1948.) Their compact size — small enough to fit in
2988-469: A listening site at Plymouth, Massachusetts. An American Telephone Journal account of the December 21 alternator-transmitter demonstration included the statement that "It is admirably adapted to the transmission of news, music, etc. as, owing to the fact that no wires are needed, simultaneous transmission to many subscribers can be effected as easily as to a few", echoing the words of a handout distributed to
3154-479: A majority of early broadcasting stations operated on mediumwave frequencies, whose limited range generally restricted them to local audiences. One method for overcoming this limitation, as well as a method for sharing program costs, was to create radio networks , linking stations together with telephone lines to provide a nationwide audience. In the U.S., the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)
3320-503: A national scale. The introduction of nationwide talk shows, most prominently Rush Limbaugh 's beginning in 1988, was sometimes credited with "saving" AM radio. However, these stations tended to attract older listeners who were of lesser interest to advertisers, and AM radio's audience share continued to erode. In 1961, the FCC adopted a single standard for FM stereo transmissions, which was widely credited with enhancing FM's popularity. Developing
3486-399: A policy allowing AM stations to simulcast over FM translator stations. Translators had previously been available only to FM broadcasters, in order to increase coverage in fringe areas. Their assignment for use by AM stations was intended to approximate the station's daytime coverage, which in cases where the stations reduced power at night, often resulted in expanded nighttime coverage. Although
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#17330935739623652-482: A prototype alternator-transmitter would be ready, and a few years beyond that for high-power versions to become available. Fessenden worked with General Electric 's (GE) Ernst F. W. Alexanderson , who in August 1906 delivered an improved model which operated at a transmitting frequency of approximately 50 kHz, although at low power. The alternator-transmitter achieved the goal of transmitting quality audio signals, but
3818-650: A renewal license to a point-to-point radiotelegraph station in New York City, operated by the Intercity Radio Company, on the grounds that it was causing excessive interference to earlier radiotelegraph stations operating nearby. Intercity appealed, and in 1923 the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia sided with Intercity, stating the 1912 Act did not provide for licensing decisions at "the discretion of an executive officer". The Department of Commerce planned to request
3984-423: A result, AM radio tends to do best in areas where FM frequencies are in short supply, or in thinly populated or mountainous areas where FM coverage is poor. Great care must be taken to avoid mutual interference between stations operating on the same frequency. In general, an AM transmission needs to be about 20 times stronger than an interfering signal to avoid a reduction in quality, in contrast to FM signals, where
4150-544: A review by the Supreme Court, but the case was rendered moot when Intercity decided to shut down the New York City station. Still, it had raised significant questions about the extent of Hoover's authority. A secord, ultimately successful, challenge occurred in 1926. The Zenith Radio Corporation in late 1925 established a high-powered radio station, WJAZ , with a transmitter site outside Chicago, Illinois. After being informed that there might not be an available frequency for
4316-417: A schedule of just two hours per week, his tone soon changed. At this time the United States had an informal agreement with Canada that six designated AM band frequencies would be used exclusively by Canadian stations. In early January 1926, McDonald directed WJAZ to move from its 930 kHz assignment to 910 kHz, one of the restricted Canadian frequencies, and begin expanded hours of operation. Invoking
4482-452: A shirt pocket — and lower power requirements, compared to vacuum tubes, meant that for the first time radio receivers were readily portable. The transistor radio became the most widely used communication device in history, with billions manufactured by the 1970s. Radio became a ubiquitous "companion medium" which people could take with them anywhere they went. The demarcation between what is considered "experimental" and "organized" broadcasting
4648-427: A short-range "wireless telephone" demonstration, that included simultaneously broadcasting speech and music to seven locations throughout Murray, Kentucky. However, this was transmitted using induction rather than radio signals, and although Stubblefield predicted that his system would be perfected so that "it will be possible to communicate with hundreds of homes at the same time", and "a single message can be sent from
4814-461: A widespread audience — dates back to the founding period of radio development, even though the earliest radio transmissions, originally known as "Hertzian radiation" and "wireless telegraphy", used spark-gap transmitters that could only transmit the dots-and-dashes of Morse code . In October 1898 a London publication, The Electrician , noted that "there are rare cases where, as Dr. [Oliver] Lodge once expressed it, it might be advantageous to 'shout'
4980-402: Is a legally qualified candidate for any public office to use a broadcasting station, he shall afford equal opportunities to all other such candidates for that office in the use of such broadcasting station, and the licensing authority shall make rules and regulations to carry this provision into effect: Provided, That such licensee shall have no power of censorship over the material broadcast under
5146-406: Is comparable to or better in audio quality than a standard analog broadcast". Despite the various actions, AM band audiences continued to contract, and the number of stations began to slowly decline. A 2009 FCC review reported that "The story of AM radio over the last 50 years has been a transition from being the dominant form of audio entertainment for all age groups to being almost non-existent to
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5312-497: Is largely arbitrary. Listed below are some of the early AM radio broadcasts, which, due to their irregular schedules and limited purposes, can be classified as "experimental": People who weren't around in the Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for
5478-497: Is not censorship." Denied this station, Brinkley moved his operations to a series of powerful Mexican outlets located on the U.S. border, which helped to lead to implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement in 1941. KGEF was a broadcasting station first licensed in late 1926 to Trinity Methodist Church, South, in downtown Los Angeles. Its programming was dominated by long denunciations made by pastor Robert "Fighting Bob" Shuler , who stated that he operated
5644-541: Is still required to conform its nighttime signal. Even with this restriction, it reaches parts of 28 states and three Canadian provinces at night, including most of the eastern half of the continent. Even at 50,000 watts, WLAC provides only secondary coverage of several inner-ring suburbs, such as Murfreesboro . In contrast, WSM's lower frequency allows it to be heard at city-grade strength in all of Middle Tennessee, with secondary coverage of five states. WLAC's simulcasts on HD Radio serve in part to alleviate this shortfall. In
5810-597: The CBS Radio Network , WLAC-TV took the CBS TV affiliation from WSIX-TV (channel 8, now WKRN-TV on channel 2). WLAC-TV was sold to the Hobby Family of Houston in 1975, changing the call sign to WTVF , and is now owned by the E. W. Scripps Company . On February 7, 1979, the station, under the direction of Jim Ward, station manager, and Robert H. Ruark, veteran talk show host and newly appointed program manager, pulled
5976-527: The Carolina Lowcountry , Louisiana , Chicago , and Detroit , people whom practically no other radio stations were serving. Gradually phasing in artists like Amos Milburn , Chuck Berry , and Fats Domino in the early 1950s to supplement the big-band artists of the era such as Tommy Dorsey and Glenn Miller , the WLAC announcers presided over the development of what became "rhythm and blues" music. They did this mainly to attract advertisers who serviced
6142-556: The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) with the intention of helping AM stations, especially ones with musical formats, become more competitive with FM broadcasters by promoting better quality receivers. However, the stereo AM and AMAX initiatives had little impact, and a 2015 review of these events concluded that Initially the consumer manufacturers made
6308-657: The Emergency Alert System (EAS). Some automakers have been eliminating AM radio from their electric vehicles (EVs) due to interference from the electric motors , but the lawmakers argue that this is a safety risk and that car owners should have access to AM radio regardless of the type of vehicle they drive. The proposed legislation would require all new vehicles to include AM radio at no additional charge, and it would also require automakers that have already eliminated AM radio to inform customers of alternatives. A proper solution would be to switch to DRM30 as indicated in
6474-479: The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) expressed concerns that this would reduce the effectiveness of emergency communications. In May 2023, a bipartisan group of lawmakers in the United States introduced legislation making it illegal for automakers to eliminate AM radio from their cars. The lawmakers argue that AM radio is an important tool for public safety due to being a component of
6640-691: The Federal Radio Commission 's General Order 40 , WLAC moved to 1490 kHz, operating with 5,000 watts on a timesharing basis with the Waldrum Drug Co.'s WBAW. The next year WBAW's call letters were changed to WTNT, after that station had been taken over by The Tennessean newspaper. In early 1930 WLAC and WTNT were reassigned from 1490 kHz to 1470 kHz. ( WCKY , on 1480 kHz in Covington, Kentucky, had been encountering mutual interference over much of Kentucky and Tennessee with WLAC, and
6806-473: The U.S. Court of Appeals denied his appeal, stating "This contention is without merit. There has been no attempt on the part of the commission to subject any part of appellant's broadcasting matter to scrutiny prior to its release. In considering the question whether the public interest, convenience, or necessity will be served by a renewal of appellant's license, the commission has merely exercised its undoubted right to take note of appellant's past conduct, which
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6972-594: The Vol Network moved its Nashville affiliation to WGFX-FM . Since 2012, WLAC serves as the flagship of the Vanderbilt Commodores IMG Sports Network ; the station has carried Vanderbilt games at various times in past years as well. On September 21, 2018, translator station W252CM dropped its classic country format, branded as The Big Legend, and began to simulcast WLAC on FM, with the station's branding changing to TalkRadio 98.3 . Along with
7138-431: The electrolytic detector and thermionic diode ( Fleming valve ) were invented by Reginald Fessenden and John Ambrose Fleming , respectively. Most important, in 1904–1906 the crystal detector , the simplest and cheapest AM detector, was developed by G. W. Pickard . Homemade crystal radios spread rapidly during the next 15 years, providing ready audiences for the first radio broadcasts. One limitation of crystals sets
7304-543: The flagship station for The Clay Travis and Buck Sexton Show . Weekend shows include Rich DiMuro on Tech , The Weekend with Michael Brown and The Ben Ferguson Show . WLAC carries Vanderbilt University Commodores football and basketball games. WLAC has traditionally traced its founding to November 24, 1926. That was the day the station made its first broadcast under the WLAC call sign . However, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records list WLAC's "Date first licensed" as September 11, 1925, reflecting
7470-430: The " capture effect " means that the dominant signal needs to only be about twice as strong as the interfering one. To allow room for more stations on the mediumwave broadcast band in the United States, in June 1989 the FCC adopted a National Radio Systems Committee (NRSC) standard that limited maximum transmitted audio bandwidth to 10.2 kHz, limiting occupied bandwidth to 20.4 kHz. The former audio limitation
7636-464: The "call letters WDAD will be discontinued and the station operated only under the call letters WLAC in the future". The November 30, 1928, issue of the Radio Service Bulletin therefore instructed its readers that, for the current WDAD-WLAC station list entry, to "strike-out call WDAD, as Dad's Auto Accessories (Inc.) is no longer joint licensee". On November 11, 1928, under the provisions of
7802-492: The 1927 Act included a general declaration about the need to equitably distribute station assignments, stating: "In considering applications for licenses and renewals of licenses, when and in so far as there is a demand for the same, the licensing authority shall make such a distribution of licenses, bands of frequency of wave lengths, periods of time for operation, and of power among the different States and communities as to give fair, efficient, and equitable radio service to each of
7968-587: The 1930s, most of the major radio stations in the country were affiliated with networks owned by two companies, NBC and CBS . In 1934, a third national network, the Mutual Radio Network , was formed as a cooperative owned by its stations. A second country which quickly adopted network programming was the United Kingdom, and its national network quickly became a prototype for a state-managed monopoly of broadcasting. A rising interest in radio broadcasting by
8134-660: The 1940s two new broadcast media, FM radio and television , began to provide extensive competition with the established broadcasting services. The AM radio industry suffered a serious loss of audience and advertising revenue, and coped by developing new strategies. Network broadcasting gave way to format broadcasting: instead of broadcasting the same programs all over the country, stations individually adopted specialized formats which appealed to different audiences, such as regional and local news, sports, "talk" programs, and programs targeted at minorities. Instead of live music, most stations began playing less expensive recorded music. In
8300-457: The 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, WLAC was legendary for its quartet of nighttime rhythm and blues shows hosted by Gene Nobles , " John R. " (John Richbourg), Herman Grizzard , and Bill "Hossman" (or simply "Hoss") Allen . Thanks to the station's clear channel designation, the signal reached most of the Northeast and Midwestern United States . WLAC described itself as the nighttime station for half
8466-575: The 1970s to obtain Arbitron ratings improvements from local listeners, despite frequent promotional events staged throughout the Nashville area. Only Hoss Allen kept his program, which he converted to an urban gospel format, by moving it to the overnight/early morning hours. In 1964, WLAC added an FM adjunct by purchasing WFMB on 105.9 MHz, changing its call sign to WLAC-FM. A decade earlier, in 1954, it had started Nashville's third television station, WLAC-TV (Channel 5); owing to WLAC's affiliation with
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#17330935739628632-528: The AM radio industry in the United States developed technology for broadcasting in stereo . Other nations adopted AM stereo, most commonly choosing Motorola's C-QUAM, and in 1993 the United States also made the C-QUAM system its standard, after a period allowing four different standards to compete. The selection of a single standard improved acceptance of AM stereo , however overall there was limited adoption of AM stereo worldwide, and interest declined after 1990. With
8798-521: The African-American community, such as hair-care products like Royal Crown Hair Pomade or chicken hatcheries, which packaged baby scrub roosters and other undesirable stock in large quantities for sale. The disc jockeys developed a reputation for colorfully pitching those products on air; some product slogans lent themselves to sexually suggestive double entendres , which only increased the announcers' popularity among teen listeners. The deejays conducted
8964-596: The April 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Whitehead started in the nighttime slot, announcing the news at the top of the hour. He traveled around WLAC's listening area to promote the historically black colleges and universities and played a big role in increasing enrollment of African-Americans attending college. Performers of later years, such as Johnny Winter , and the Allman brothers , Duane and Gregg, have credited
9130-521: The British public pressured the government to reintroduce the service, following its suspension in 1920. However, the government also wanted to avoid what it termed the "chaotic" U.S. experience of allowing large numbers of stations to operate with few restrictions. There were also concerns about broadcasting becoming dominated by the Marconi company. Arrangements were made for six large radio manufacturers to form
9296-401: The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia ruled that restricting WGY's hours "was unreasonable and not in the public interest, convenience or necessity" The U.S. Supreme Court agreed to take the FRC's appeal, but following oral arguments declined to issue a ruling, after deciding that under current legislation it did not have oversight, thus allowing the lower court ruling to stand. KFKB
9462-612: The FRC decisions reviewed by the courts were upheld, however a notable exception involved WGY in Schenectady, New York, a long established high-powered station owned by General Electric. Under the November 11, 1928, reassignment plan, WGY was limited to daytime hours plus evening hours until sunset in Oakland, California, where KGO, transmitting on the same frequency, was located. Previously, WGY had operated with unlimited hours. On February 25, 1929,
9628-729: The FRC issued General Order 32, which notified 164 stations that the initial review had found their justification for receiving a license insufficient, and they would have to attend a hearing in Washington, D.C. Moreover, "At this hearing, unless you can make an affirmative showing that public interest, convenience, or necessity will be served by the granting of your application, it will be finally denied." Many low-powered independent stations were eliminated, although eighty-one stations did survive, most with reduced power. Educational stations fared particularly poorly. They were usually required to share frequencies with commercial stations and operate during
9794-485: The FRC to crack down on "vulgar" language — for example the profanity-filled rants of William K. Henderson on KWKH in Shreveport, Louisiana. But it also led to First Amendment free speech disputes over the appropriateness of some FRC actions. A forerunner of the FCC's later " equal-time rule " required stations to give equal opportunities for political candidates: "Sec 18. If any licensee shall permit any person who
9960-454: The Government, through agencies established by Congress, may not refuse a renewal license to one who has abused it to broadcast defamatory and untrue matter. In that case there is not a denial of the freedom of speech but merely the application of the regulatory power of Congress in a field within the scope of its legislative authority". The court also ruled that denying license renewal as not in
10126-578: The Intercity Radio Company case rulings, Zenith ignored the Commerce Department's order to return WJAZ to its assigned frequency. On January 20, 1926, a federal court suit, United States versus Zenith Radio Corporation and E. F. McDonald , was filed in Chicago. McDonald expected a narrow ruling in his favor, claiming that only a small number of stations, including WJAZ, held the "Class D Developmental" licenses that were free from normal restrictions. However,
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#173309357396210292-541: The R&;B/Soul shows. To replace the retiring jocks, the station recruited young Spider Harrison, a native New Yorker who at the time was an afternoon urban air personality and program director at WTLC-FM in Indianapolis . Harrison steered the nighttime format into a blend of soul and rock, in an attempt to target an entire new generation of young night-time listeners throughout the country. However, WLAC struggled for most of
10458-411: The Twenties when radio exploded can't know what it meant, this milestone for mankind. Suddenly, with radio, there was instant human communication. No longer were our homes isolated and lonely and silent. The world came into our homes for the first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio. The idea of broadcasting — the unrestricted transmission of signals to
10624-662: The United States and France this led to a small market of receiver lines geared for jewelers who needed accurate time to set their clocks, including the Ondophone in France, and the De Forest RS-100 Jewelers Time Receiver in the United States The ability to pick up time signal broadcasts, in addition to Morse code weather reports and news summaries, also attracted the interest of amateur radio enthusiasts. It
10790-516: The United States by the end of the year. The number of reserved transmitting frequencies also expanded, and by 1925, the "broadcast band" consisted of the frequencies from 550 kHz to 1500 kHz, in ten kHz steps. Herbert Hoover became the Secretary of Commerce in March 1921, and thus assumed primary responsibility for shaping radio broadcasting during its earliest days, which was a difficult task in
10956-646: The United States. It is one of two clear-channel stations in Tennessee, the other being WSM , also in Nashville. A single tower radiates the transmitter's full power during the day to most of Middle Tennessee . At night, it uses a directional pattern that limits its signal toward the west to originally protect KGA in Spokane (which has since downgraded its night signal) and to the northeast to protect WMEX in Boston . Even with these restrictions, it can be heard across much of
11122-452: The WLAC job. Also, former WSM, WSMV and WKRN-TV personality Teddy Bart launched his critically acclaimed "Roundtable" interview program on WLAC's morning schedule in 1985. The show, which featured newsmakers in Tennessee politics, later moved to several other Nashville stations before discontinuing production in 2005. Bart is now deceased. Much in the same manner as in years past when network programming gave way at sunset to R&B music for
11288-420: The absence of federal regulation, stations were taking their individual disputes to the courts, which began to render decisions favoring incumbent stations. This effectively was granting established stations "property rights" in the use of their assignments, which the government wanted to avoid, because it generally considered the radio spectrum to be a public resource. Despite the recognition that new legislation
11454-429: The actual outcome was sweeping. On April 16, 1926, Judge James H. Wilkerson 's ruling stated that, under the 1912 Act, the Commerce Department in fact could not limit the number of broadcasting licenses issued, or designate station frequencies. The government reviewed whether to try to appeal this decision, but Acting Attorney General William J. Donovan's analysis concurred with the court's decision. The immediate result
11620-418: The advertising sales on a "per inquiry", or commission, basis, meaning that the station did not rely on traditional ratings to gauge the programs' successes. WLAC sales manager E.G. Blackman sought to hire the nation's first African-American news radio broadcaster employed by a major, white-owned radio station, Don Whitehead. Whitehead, a graduate of Tennessee State University , began his career shortly after
11786-523: The antenna wire. This meant that the full transmitter power flowed through the microphone, and even using water cooling, the power handling ability of the microphones severely limited the power of the transmissions. Ultimately only a small number of large and powerful Alexanderson alternators would be developed. However, they would be almost exclusively used for long-range radiotelegraph communication, and occasionally for radiotelephone experimentation, but were never used for general broadcasting. Almost all of
11952-474: The audience has continued to decline. In 1987, the elimination of the Fairness Doctrine requirement meant that talk shows, which were commonly carried by AM stations, could adopt a more focused presentation on controversial topics, without the distraction of having to provide airtime for any contrasting opinions. In addition, satellite distribution made it possible for programs to be economically carried on
12118-476: The average listener is difficult to judge, but the term "chaos" started to appear in discussions. Prior to the early 1926 adverse ruling on the Commerce Department's regulatory authority, there had been numerous efforts in the U.S. Congress to replace the Radio Act of 1912 with a more comprehensive bill, but none of these efforts made much headway. The need for new legislation gained additional importance because, in
12284-443: The careers of artists like James Brown , Ray Charles , B. B. King , Otis Redding , Jackie Wilson , Aretha Franklin ; Nobles helped the likes of Little Richard . Other than the famous late-night shows, WLAC followed a fairly conventional news/talk (relatively middle-of-the-road politically, unlike today [see below]) and middle of the road music format in the daytime until the early 1970s, when new management attempted to program
12450-404: The characteristics of arc-transmitters . Fessenden attempted to sell this form of radiotelephone for point-to-point communication, but was unsuccessful. Fessenden's work with high-frequency spark transmissions was only a temporary measure. His ultimate plan for creating an audio-capable transmitter was to redesign an electrical alternator , which normally produced alternating current of at most
12616-403: The commission estimated that fewer than 250 AM stations were transmitting hybrid mode signals. On October 27, 2020, the FCC voted to allow AM stations to eliminate their analog transmissions and convert to all-digital operation, with the requirement that stations making the change had to continue to make programming available over "at least one free over-the-air digital programming stream that
12782-438: The commission had to monitor whether in heavily populated areas a decision would cause a zone or state to exceed its calculated quota. In cases where two or more stations shared a common frequency on a timesharing basis, a station could petition the FRC to have its hours of operation increased by having the other stations deleted. A prominent example under the FRC's jurisdiction occurred when a Gary, Indiana station, WJKS, proposed
12948-513: The commission's mandate was extended indefinitely. The FRC's regulatory activities, and the public's knowledge of its work, primarily focused on broadcasting stations. However, in 1932, in addition to 625 broadcasting stations, the commission oversaw numerous other station classifications, including approximately thirty thousand amateur radio stations, two thousand ship stations, and one thousand fixed-point land stations. On February 25, 1928, Charles Jenkins Laboratories of Washington, DC , became
13114-480: The conservative news website "The Tennessee Star." WLAC, since 2021, has become the flagship of the EIB Network, featuring The Clay Travis and Buck Sexton Show . AM broadcasting The earliest experimental AM transmissions began in the early 1900s. However, widespread AM broadcasting was not established until the 1920s, following the development of vacuum tube receivers and transmitters. AM radio remained
13280-475: The continued migration of AM stations away from music to news, sports, and talk formats, receiver manufacturers saw little reason to adopt the more expensive stereo tuners, and thus radio stations have little incentive to upgrade to stereo transmission. In countries where the use of directional antennas is common, such as the United States, transmitter sites consisting of multiple towers often occupy large tracts of land that have significantly increased in value over
13446-437: The continuous wave AM transmissions made prior to 1915 were made by versions of the arc converter transmitter, which had been initially developed by Valdemar Poulsen in 1903. Arc transmitters worked by producing a pulsating electrical arc in an enclosed hydrogen atmosphere. They were much more compact than alternator transmitters, and could operate on somewhat higher transmitting frequencies. However, they suffered from some of
13612-443: The control of the United States over all the channels of interstate and foreign radio transmission; and to provide for the use of such channels, but not the ownership thereof, by individuals, firms, or corporations, for limited periods of time, under licenses granted by Federal authority, and no such license shall be construed to create any right, beyond the terms, conditions, and periods of the license." Some technical duties remained
13778-541: The daytime, which was considered of limited value for adult education. With the roster of stations now reduced to a somewhat more manageable level, the FRC next embarked on a major reorganization of broadcasting station frequency assignments. On August 30, 1928, the Commission issued General Order 40, which defined a "broadcast band" consisting of 96 frequencies from 550 to 1500 kHz. Six frequencies were restricted for exclusive use Canadian stations, leaving 90 available for
13944-434: The decades, to the point that the value of land exceeds that of the station itself. This sometimes results in the sale of the transmitter site, with the station relocating to a more distant shared site using significantly less power, or completely shutting down operations. The ongoing development of alternative transmission systems, including Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio, and HD (digital) radio, continued
14110-567: The decline of the popularity of the traditional broadcast technologies. These new options, including the introduction of Internet streaming, particularly resulted in the reduction of shortwave transmissions, as international broadcasters found ways to reach their audiences more easily. In 2022 it was reported that AM radio was being removed from a number of electric vehicle (EV) models, including from cars manufactured by Tesla, Audi, Porsche, BMW and Volvo, reportedly due to automakers concerns that an EV's higher electromagnetic interference can disrupt
14276-476: The deletion of its two timeshare partners, WIBO and WPCC, both located in Chicago, Illinois. A major justification was that Indiana was currently under-quota based on the Davis Amendment provisions, while Illinois had exceeded its allocation. The commission ruled in favor of WJKS, however the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia reversed the decision, calling it "arbitrary and capricious". The FRC appealed
14442-464: The demographic groups that formerly listened to Allen, Richbourg, and Nobles' shows as their only source for R&B and soul music (as it was known by the 1960s). Furthermore, musical tastes among younger listeners in particular changed as the 1970s approached, as white youth began to prefer the hard rock that initially modeled itself on the blues (especially on the upstart FM stations that began playing it), while African-American kids gravitated toward
14608-569: The demonstration witnesses, which stated "[Radio] Telephony is admirably adapted for transmitting news, stock quotations, music, race reports, etc. simultaneously over a city, on account of the fact that no wires are needed and a single apparatus can distribute to ten thousand subscribers as easily as to a few. It is proposed to erect stations for this purpose in the large cities here and abroad." However, other than two holiday transmissions reportedly made shortly after these demonstrations, Fessenden does not appear to have conducted any radio broadcasts for
14774-687: The diagram above. AM radio technology is simpler than later transmission systems. An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone . However, the simplicity of AM transmission also makes it vulnerable to "static" ( radio noise , radio frequency interference ) created by both natural atmospheric electrical activity such as lightning, and electrical and electronic equipment, including fluorescent lights, motors and vehicle ignition systems. In large urban centers, AM radio signals can be severely disrupted by metal structures and tall buildings. As
14940-577: The dominant method of broadcasting for the next 30 years, a period called the " Golden Age of Radio ", until television broadcasting became widespread in the 1950s and received much of the programming previously carried by radio. Later, AM radio's audiences declined greatly due to competition from FM ( frequency modulation ) radio, Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), satellite radio , HD (digital) radio , Internet radio , music streaming services , and podcasting . Compared to FM or digital transmissions , AM transmissions are more expensive to transmit due to
15106-679: The eastern and central North America with a good radio. It has a three- tower array in the city's Northside neighborhood. WLAC broadcasts an HD Radio signal utilizing the in-band on-channel standard. Programming is simulcast over a digital subchannel of 97.9 WSIX-FM and on FM translator W252CM at 98.3 FM. WLAC carries nationally syndicated conservative talk shows, including The Glenn Beck Radio Program , The Sean Hannity Show , The Ramsey Show with Dave Ramsey , The Michael Berry Show , The Dr. Asa Show with Asa Andrew , Coast to Coast AM with George Noory and This Morning, America's First News with Gordon Deal . In 2021, WLAC became
15272-645: The expectation is that listeners will primarily be tuning into the FM signal rather than the nominally "primary" AM station. A 2020 review noted that "for many owners, keeping their AM stations on the air now is pretty much just about retaining their FM translator footprint rather than keeping the AM on the air on its own merits". In 2018 the FCC, led by then-Commission Chairman Ajit Pai , proposed greatly reducing signal protection for 50 kW Class A " clear channel " stations. This would allow co-channel secondary stations to operate with higher powers, especially at night. However,
15438-445: The fall of 1900, he successfully transmitted speech over a distance of about 1.6 kilometers (one mile), which appears to have been the first successful audio transmission using radio signals. However, at this time the sound was far too distorted to be commercially practical. For a time he continued working with more sophisticated high-frequency spark transmitters, including versions that used compressed air, which began to take on some of
15604-553: The first holder of a television license. The most critical issue the FRC faced at the time of its creation was an excess of broadcasting stations, which now numbered 732, all on the AM band. (The FM broadcast band would not be created until 1941). There were some significant technical restraints on the number of stations that could operate simultaneously. At night, a change in the ionosphere allows radio signals, especially from more powerful stations, to travel hundreds of kilometers. In addition, at this time transmitter frequency stability
15770-477: The first meeting of the commission created by this Act, all the powers and authority vested in the commission under the terms of this Act, except as to the revocation of licenses, shall be vested in and exercised by the Secretary of Commerce; except that thereafter the commission shall have power and jurisdiction to act upon and determine any and all matters brought before it under the terms of this section." Acting as
15936-401: The first time. Music came pouring in. Laughter came in. News came in. The world shrank, with radio. Following World War I, the number of stations providing a regular broadcasting service greatly increased, primarily due to advances in vacuum-tube technology. In response to ongoing activities, government regulators eventually codified standards for which stations could make broadcasts intended for
16102-572: The general public, for example, in the United States formal recognition of a "broadcasting service" came with the establishment of regulations effective December 1, 1921, and Canadian authorities created a separate category of "radio-telephone broadcasting stations" in April 1922. However, there were numerous cases of entertainment broadcasts being presented on a regular schedule before their formal recognition by government regulators. Some early examples include: Because most longwave radio frequencies were used for international radiotelegraph communication,
16268-417: The general public, or to have even given additional thought about the potential of a regular broadcast service, and in a 1908 article providing a comprehensive review of the potential uses for his radiotelephone invention, he made no references to broadcasting. Because there was no way to amplify electrical currents at this time, modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in
16434-511: The general public, which began to be developed early 1920s, was not foreseen by this legislation. The first Commerce Department regulations specifically addressing broadcasting were adopted on December 1, 1921, when two wavelengths were set aside for stations making broadcasts intended for a general audience: 360 meters (833 kHz) for "entertainment", and 485 meters (619 kHz) for "market and weather reports". The number of broadcasting stations grew tremendously in 1922, numbering over 500 in
16600-443: The granting thereof was in the public interest ; that the programs broadcast by its principal speaker were sensational rather than instructive and in two instances he had been convicted of attempting over the radio to obstruct orderly administration of public justice". The Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia affirmed the Commission's decision and held that, despite First Amendment protections: "...this does not mean that
16766-572: The grittier edges of funk or early disco and, eventually, rap . This made the Motown , Muscle Shoals , and Memphis sounds favored by the DJ trio (Grizzard died in 1971) seem passé, and the hosts' audience, unsurprisingly, began to age, something that advertisers, focusing by then on youth rather ethnicity, almost always react adversely against. Changing tastes also brought about the end to record labels such as Stax , which were major suppliers of music heard on
16932-510: The grounds that it should have been given a full-time authorization, but lost. Even though the station was government owned, the Federal Radio Commission said that city ownership did not give the station any special standing under the "public interest, convenience, and necessity" standard. However, the case was viewed as representative of the preferences given to commercial interests above those of non-commercial stations. Section 9 of
17098-535: The initial license date for station WDAD, which was consolidated with WLAC in 1927. WDAD was first licensed in September 1925 to "Dad's Auto Accessories (Inc.)" at 160 Eighth Avenue North in Nashville. It initially transmitted on 1330 kHz. It made its debut broadcast on September 14. WLAC was first authorized in November 1926, owned by the Life & Casualty Insurance Co. , with its call letters chosen as an acronym of
17264-541: The isolation of rural life. Political officials could now speak directly to millions of citizens. One of the first to take advantage of this was American president Franklin Roosevelt , who became famous for his fireside chats during the Great Depression . However, broadcasting also provided the means to use propaganda as a powerful government tool, and contributed to the rise of fascist and communist ideologies. In
17430-411: The lack of any way to amplify the signals meant they were somewhat weak. On December 21, 1906, Fessenden made an extensive demonstration of the new alternator-transmitter at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, showing its utility for point-to-point wireless telephony, including interconnecting his stations to the wire telephone network. As part of the demonstration, speech was transmitted 18 kilometers (11 miles) to
17596-419: The late 1960s and 1970s, top 40 rock and roll stations in the U.S. and Canada such as WABC and CHUM transmitted highly processed and extended audio to 11 kHz, successfully attracting huge audiences. For young people, listening to AM broadcasts and participating in their music surveys and contests was the social media of the time. In the late 1970s, spurred by the exodus of musical programming to FM stations,
17762-579: The late 1990s, although as of January 2019, its former building still stands. Allen and Richbourg also had financial interests in recording companies, artist management, and recording studios at varying points in their careers. Each deejay's program lasted from one to two hours per evening Mondays through Saturdays, occupying roughly (with adjustments over the years) the period between 8 p.m. and 2 a.m. Central Time . On Sunday nights, Richbourg or Allen hosted programs featuring black gospel recordings. Richbourg and Allen took credit for helping to start or boost
17928-427: The limitations of the 1912 act, the FRC was given the power to grant and deny licenses, assign station frequencies and power levels, and issue fines for violations. The opening paragraph of the Radio Act of 1927 summarized its objectives as: "...this Act is intended to regulate all forms of interstate and foreign radio transmissions and communications within the United States, its Territories and possessions; to maintain
18094-525: The lower court decision to the Supreme Court, stating that the issue impacted 116 separate cases pending before it. A unanimous Supreme Court overturned the District Court, and ruled in FRC's favor, upholding the validity of the Davis Amendment provisions. WIBO made a final attempt to convince the FRC that the expression of strong ties to Indiana by WJKS was fraudulent, and WJKS's owners were really attempting to establish another Chicago station. This appeal
18260-399: The marketplace decide" which was best. The lack of a common standard resulted in consumer confusion and increased the complexity and cost of producing AM stereo receivers. In 1993, the FCC again revised its policy, by selecting C-QUAM as the sole AM stereo implementation. In 1993, the FCC also endorsed, although it did not make mandatory, AMAX broadcasting standards that were developed by
18426-432: The message, spreading it broadcast to receivers in all directions". However, it was recognized that this would involve significant financial issues, as that same year The Electrician also commented "did not Prof. Lodge forget that no one wants to pay for shouting to the world on a system by which it would be impossible to prevent non-subscribers from benefiting gratuitously?" On January 1, 1902, Nathan Stubblefield gave
18592-448: The multiple incompatible AM stereo systems, and failure of the manufacturers (including the auto makers) to effectively promote AMAX radios, coupled with the ever-increasing background of noise in the band, the general public soon lost interest and moved on to other media. On June 8, 1988, an International Telecommunication Union (ITU)-sponsored conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil adopted provisions, effective July 1, 1990, to extend
18758-557: The nation with African-American listeners, especially in the Deep South as the intended audience of the programs. Further, several foreign countries, particularly islands in the Caribbean and southern Canada , were within range of the station's nighttime signal; the music heard on WLAC played a notable role in the development of ska music as a result. WLAC was also popular with some young white teenagers. Radio historians believe that
18924-537: The necessity of having to transmit a high power carrier wave to overcome ground losses, and the large antenna radiators required at the low broadcast frequencies, but can be sent over long distances via the ionosphere at night; however, they are much more susceptible to interference, and often have lower audio fidelity. Thus, AM broadcasters tend to specialize in spoken-word formats, such as talk radio , all-news radio and sports radio , with music formats primarily for FM and digital stations. People who weren't around in
19090-405: The new frequencies. It was now estimated that the expanded band could accommodate around 300 U.S. stations. However, it turned out that the number of possible station reassignments was much lower, with a 2006 accounting reporting that, out of 4,758 licensed U.S. AM stations, only 56 were now operating on the expanded band. Moreover, despite an initial requirement that by the end of five years either
19256-428: The new policy, by 2011 there were approximately 500 in operation, and as of 2020 approximately 2,800 of the 4,570 licensed AM stations were rebroadcasting on one or more FM translators. In 2009 the FCC stated that "We do not intend to allow these cross-service translators to be used as surrogates for FM stations". However, based on station slogans, especially in the case of recently adopted musical formats, in most cases
19422-584: The new programming, Hoss Allen was able to keep his early-morning gospel music program and continued with it until his 1993 retirement from the station. Eventually, it became the only music featured on WLAC by the early 1980s. In 1986, WLAC pioneered sports talk in Middle Tennessee, when it began a two-hour-long afternoon drive-time sports show hosted by record company executive and sports fan Rick Baumgartner, along with former WSMV-TV sportscaster Charlie McAlexander, who resigned from WSMV specifically to take
19588-561: The news/talk format resuming at daybreak (after the Hoss Allen show). This practice was discontinued shortly after the station's purchase by AMFM, Inc. in 1999. AMFM was later merged into San Antonio -based Clear Channel Communications, which became iHeartMedia in 2014. For many years, WLAC was the Nashville home of the University of Tennessee Volunteers , bringing Vols football and men's basketball to much of North America at night. In 2010,
19754-479: The nightly " Rhythm and blues " WLAC shows, in part, laid the foundational audience for the rock and roll phenomenon that began in the late 1950s. Nobles began the move, in 1946, to play what were considered at the time "race" records , a euphemism intended to deter supposedly respectable audiences. But he and the others reached large numbers of African-American listeners in places like the Mississippi Delta ,
19920-411: The original station or its expanded band counterpart had to cease broadcasting, as of 2015 there were 25 cases where the original standard band station was still on the air, despite also operating as an expanded band station. HD Radio is a digital audio broadcasting method developed by iBiquity . In 2002 its "hybrid mode", which simultaneously transmits a standard analog signal as well as a digital one,
20086-433: The overheating issues of needing to insert microphones directly in the transmission antenna circuit. Vacuum tube transmitters also provided high-quality AM signals, and could operate on higher transmitting frequencies than alternator and arc transmitters. Non-governmental radio transmissions were prohibited in many countries during World War I, but AM radiotelephony technology advanced greatly due to wartime research, and after
20252-512: The owner's name. Studios were located on the fifth floor of the Life and Casualty building in downtown Nashville. WLAC initially operated on a timesharing basis with WDAD on 1330 kHz. In mid-1927 Dad's Auto and Life & Casualty formed a partnership for joint operation of their combined stations, as WDAD-WLAC. The following November Life & Casualty purchased WDAD's interest in the combined stations, and announced that, effective November 21, 1927,
20418-548: The plug on its unsuccessful run as a Top 40 outlet and changed formats to news and talk in daytime hours, making it one of the first stations in the Southern U.S. to adopt that format for at least a preponderance of its programming lineup. The new schedule, (as reported in The Nashville Tennessean newspaper's "Sunday Showcase") included news coverage weekdays from 6 to 9:30 a.m., Noon to 1 p.m., and 4:30 to 7 p.m., when
20584-441: The primary early developer of AM technology is Canadian-born inventor Reginald Fessenden . The original spark-gap radio transmitters were impractical for transmitting audio, since they produced discontinuous pulses known as " damped waves ". Fessenden realized that what was needed was a new type of radio transmitter that produced steady "undamped" (better known as " continuous wave ") signals, which could then be "modulated" to reflect
20750-507: The provisions of this paragraph. No obligation is hereby imposed upon any licensee to allow the use of its station by any such candidate." The Radio Act of 1927 did not authorize the Federal Radio Commission to make any rules regulating advertising , although section 19 required advertisers to properly identify themselves. There was almost no mention of the radio networks — notably the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and,
20916-473: The public interest did not violate the Fifth Amendment's prohibition of "taking of property" without due process of law. This ruling became final after a petition for writ of certiorari requesting review by United States Supreme Court was denied. Under the November 11, 1928, reorganization, WNYC , the municipal station of New York City, was given a half-time, low-power assignment. The station appealed on
21082-559: The public interest, convenience, or necessity". Although radio communication (originally known as "wireless telegraphy") was developed in the late 1890s, it was largely unregulated in the United States until the passage of the Radio Act of 1912 . This law set up procedures for the Department of Commerce to license radio transmitters, which initially consisted primarily of maritime and amateur stations. The broadcasting of news and entertainment to
21248-637: The reception of AM transmissions and hurt the listening experience, among other reasons. However the United States Congress has introduced a bill to require all vehicles sold in the US to have an AM receiver to receive emergency broadcasts. The FM broadcast band was established in 1941 in the United States, and at the time some suggested that the AM band would soon be eliminated. In 1948 wide-band FM's inventor, Edwin H. Armstrong , predicted that "The broadcasters will set up FM stations which will parallel, carry
21414-471: The regular nighttime "ethnic music" programming began. The mid-morning and mid-afternoon talk show programming featured debate-type discussions with local or national figures via telephone and listeners calling in to ask questions or join in the discussions. Weekends followed the same basic format, and on Saturday mornings, a guest host was featured. Roger Frazier and J. Paul Robinson debuted the new programming as featured newscasters and talk show hosts. Despite
21580-519: The responsibility of the Radio Division of the Department of Commerce, and because Congress failed to provide funding for a staff, during the FRC's first year the commission was heavily dependent on support from Commerce personnel. Moreover, most of the FRC's work was expected to be completed within one year, and the original intention was that a majority of its functions would then revert to the Secretary of Commerce: "Sec 5. From and after one year after
21746-454: The right of free speech by means of radio communications. No person within the jurisdiction of the United States shall utter any obscene, indecent, or profane language by means of radio communication." However, the "public interest, convenience, or necessity" standard allowed the Commission to take into consideration program content when renewing licenses, and the ability to take away a license provided some degree of content control. This allowed
21912-799: The same deficiencies. The lack of any means to amplify electrical currents meant that, like the alternator transmitters, modulation was usually accomplished by a microphone inserted directly in the antenna wire, which again resulted in overheating issues, even with the use of water-cooled microphones. Thus, transmitter powers tended to be limited. The arc was also somewhat unstable, which reduced audio quality. Experimenters who used arc transmitters for their radiotelephone research included Ernst Ruhmer , Quirino Majorana , Charles "Doc" Herrold , and Lee de Forest . Advances in vacuum tube technology (called "valves" in British usage), especially after around 1915, revolutionized radio technology. Vacuum tube devices could be used to amplify electrical currents, which overcame
22078-400: The same program, as over their AM stations... eventually the day will come, of course, when we will no longer have to build receivers capable of receiving both types of transmission, and then the AM transmitters will disappear." However, FM stations actually struggled for many decades, and it was not until 1978 that FM listenership surpassed that of AM stations. Since then the AM band's share of
22244-670: The same." The 1928 reauthorization strengthened this mandate, by including a provision, known as the " Davis Amendment " after its sponsor Representative Ewin L. Davis (D-Tennessee), that required "a fair and equitable allocation of licenses, wave lengths, time for operation, and station power to each of the States, the District of Columbia, the Territories and possessions of the United States within each zone, according to population". This resulted in an additional degree of complexity, for in addition to stations being judged on their individual merits,
22410-446: The second clear-channel station in Tennessee, after WSM. While WSM was a Class I-A station, using a non-directional antenna at all times, WLAC shared its clear channel assignment with KGA in Spokane, Washington . Since WLAC and KGA were designated as co-equal Class I-B stations, both were required to use a directional antenna at night to mutually protect each other's signals. KGA has since given up its clear-channel status, but WLAC
22576-409: The slightly fewer than 600 U.S. stations. The new assignments went into effect on November 11, 1928. Forty of the available frequencies were reserved for high-powered "clear channel" stations, which in most cases had only a single station with an exclusive nationwide assignment. Although generally accepted as being successful on a technical level of reducing interference and improving reception, there
22742-410: The sounds being transmitted. Fessenden's basic approach was disclosed in U.S. Patent 706,737, which he applied for on May 29, 1901, and was issued the next year. It called for the use of a high-speed alternator (referred to as "an alternating-current dynamo") that generated "pure sine waves" and produced "a continuous train of radiant waves of substantially uniform strength", or, in modern terminology,
22908-433: The standard of transmitting on frequencies evenly divided by 10 kHz. The FRC conducted a review and census of the existing stations, then notified them that if they wished to remain on the air they had to file a formal license application by January 15, 1928, as the first step in determining whether they met the new "public interest, convenience, or necessity" standard. After reviewing the applications, on May 25, 1928,
23074-756: The station as being a valuable source of inspiration for their artistic development. According to Levon Helm , Robbie Robertson (both members of The Band , a 1970s roots rock group) listened to WLAC at night while in Toronto . As a teenager, Robertson would stay up all night to hear blues from deejay John R. A strange irony about the phenomenon was unknown to most listeners of that time: all four disc jockeys were in fact middle-aged white men , not African-Americans , as their Southern , gravelly, drawling voices suggested. Richbourg and Allen in particular made frequent use of colloquialisms most familiar to their audience, thereby convincing many that they were "soul brothers," as
23240-456: The station in order to "make it hard for the bad man to do wrong in the community", but his strident broadcasts soon became very controversial. After a 1931 evaluation of the station's renewal application, chief examiner Ellis A. Yost expressed misgivings about Shuler's "extremely indiscreet" broadcasts, but recommended approval. However, a review by the Commission concluded that the station should be deleted, because it "...could not determine that
23406-466: The station to use, company president E. F. McDonald proposed that, because they only wanted to broadcast two hours a week, they would be happy with an assignment on 930 kHz that was limited to 10:00 p.m. to midnight Central time on Thursday nights, when the only other station on the frequency, KOA in Denver, Colorado, was normally off the air. Despite McDonald's initial expression of satisfaction with
23572-401: The station was primarily being run as "a mere adjunct of a particular business". (In one of Brinkley's programs he read listener mail describing medical issues, then recommended medication of dubious value, identified by numbers, over the air. Listeners had to visit a Brinkley "kick back" pharmacy to purchase these items.) Brinkley appealed on the grounds that this was prohibited censorship, but
23738-411: The technology for AM broadcasting in stereo was challenging due to the need to limit the transmissions to a 20 kHz bandwidth, while also making the transmissions backward compatible with existing non-stereo receivers. In 1990, the FCC authorized an AM stereo standard developed by Magnavox, but two years later revised its decision to instead approve four competing implementations, saying it would "let
23904-401: The translator stations are not permitted to originate programming when the "primary" AM station is broadcasting, they are permitted to do so during nighttime hours for AM stations licensed for daytime-only operation. Prior to the adoption of the new policy, as of March 18, 2009, the FCC had issued 215 Special Temporary Authority grants for FM translators relaying AM stations. After creation of
24070-503: The translator, WLAC is also simulcast on WSIX-FM-HD2 . In 2018, the station announced the addition of a new morning show, The Tennessee Star Report with Steve Gill , beginning September 24. Gill ran into legal problems the following year; according to The Tennessean , Gill failed to pay $ 170,000 in child support, resulting in his arrest. He spent more than a week in the Williamson County Jail and resigned his position with
24236-492: The upper end of the Region 2 AM broadcast band, by adding ten frequencies which spanned from 1610 kHz to 1700 kHz. At this time it was suggested that as many as 500 U.S. stations could be assigned to the new frequencies. On April 12, 1990, the FCC voted to begin the process of populating the expanded band, with the main priority being the reduction of interference on the existing AM band, by transferring selected stations to
24402-548: The war the availability of tubes sparked a great increase in the number of amateur radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. Vacuum tubes remained the central technology of radio for 40 years, until transistors began to dominate in the late 1950s, and are still used in the highest power broadcast transmitters. Unlike telegraph and telephone systems, which used completely different types of equipment, most radio receivers were equally suitable for both radiotelegraph and radiotelephone reception. In 1903 and 1904
24568-404: The youngest demographic groups. Among persons aged 12–24, AM accounts for only 4% of listening, while FM accounts for 96%. Among persons aged 25–34, AM accounts for only 9% of listening, while FM accounts for 91%. The median age of listeners to the AM band is 57 years old, a full generation older than the median age of FM listeners." In 2009, the FCC made a major regulatory change, when it adopted
24734-497: Was 15 kHz resulting in bandwidth of 30 kHz. Another common limitation on AM fidelity is the result of receiver design, although some efforts have been made to improve this, notably through the AMAX standards adopted in the United States. Federal Radio Commission The Federal Radio Commission ( FRC ) was a government agency that regulated United States radio communication from its creation in 1927 until 1934, when it
24900-401: Was a popular Milford, Kansas broadcasting station, licensed to an organization controlled by John R. Brinkley, known as "The Goat Gland Doctor" due to his promotion of "sexual rejuvenation" surgery that included implantation of slivers of goat testes. In 1930 the Federal Radio Commission denied his request for renewal, primarily on the grounds that, instead of being operated as a public service,
25066-460: Was affiliated with the NBC Red Network . In the early years of the station, WLAC provided local news, studio-orchestra musical features (accompanied by an in-studio pipe organ), farm reports, and some educational programming. Its main competitor in that era, WSM, became known as the radio station where country music essentially developed and became a national phenomenon. When country music became
25232-475: Was also a perception that large companies and their stations had received the best assignments. Commissioner Ira E. Robinson publicly dissented, stating that: "Having opposed and voted against the plan and the allocations made thereunder, I deem it unethical and improper to take part in hearings for the modification of same". Some later economic analysis has concluded that the early radio regulation policies reflected regulatory capture and rent-seeking . Most of
25398-474: Was approved by the FCC for use by AM stations, initially only during daytime hours, due to concerns that during the night its wider bandwidth would cause unacceptable interference to stations on adjacent frequencies. In 2007 nighttime operation was also authorized. The number of hybrid mode AM stations is not exactly known, because the FCC does not keep track of the stations employing the system, and some authorized stations have later turned it off. But as of 2020
25564-529: Was brought to the Senate floor on January 28, 1927, and, as a compromise, specified that a five member commission would be given the power to reorganize radio regulation, but most of its duties would end after one year. After a month of debates this bill was passed on February 18, 1927, as the Radio Act of 1927, and signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on February 23, 1927. The Commission's organizational meeting
25730-402: Was deferred, so they initially participated without pay. In October 1927 Dillon died and Bellows resigned. During the next month Bullard died, and Harold Lafount and Sam Pickard were appointed. It was not until March 1928, after Caldwell was approved by a one vote margin and Ira E. Robinson was appointed as chairman, that all five commissioner posts were filled with confirmed members. To rectify
25896-711: Was held on March 15. The Radio Act of 1927 subdivided the country into five geographical zones, and specified that one commissioner would be appointed who resided within each zone. Terms were initially for up to six years, although this was later reduced to one year, and no more than three commissioners could be members of the same political party. The FRC's commissioners, by zone, from 1927 to 1934 were: The five initial appointments, made by President Coolidge on March 2, 1927, were: Admiral William H. G. Bullard as chairman, Colonel John F. Dillon, Eugene O. Sykes, Henry A. Bellows, and Orestes H. Caldwell. Bullard, Dillon and Sykes were confirmed on March 4, but action on Bellows and Caldwell
26062-400: Was immediately recognized that, much like the telegraph had preceded the invention of the telephone, the ability to make audio radio transmissions would be a significant technical advance. Despite this knowledge, it still took two decades to perfect the technology needed to make quality audio transmissions. In addition, the telephone had rarely been used for distributing entertainment, outside of
26228-501: Was limiting the number of stations operating concurrently, which meant restricting some stations to daytime-only operation, and in many cases requiring time-sharing, where up to four stations in a given region had to divide up the hours each used on a single frequency. On May 3, 1927, the FRC made the first of a series of temporary frequency assignments, which served to reassign the stations operating on Canadian frequencies, and also eliminate "split-frequency" operations that fell outside of
26394-408: Was moved to 1490 kHz at the same time). On December 16, 1930, WTNT was taken over by Life & Casualty. The next day WTNT, which previously had been allotted 1/3rd time on the shared frequency, ceased broadcasting, allowing WLAC to again operate a fulltime schedule, and WTNT was subsequently deleted. In 1928, WLAC became Nashville's CBS Radio Network affiliate . Its main competitor, WSM ,
26560-559: Was needed, there was a lack of consensus whether it should increase the authority of the Secretary of Commerce, which opponents argued would create a too-powerful "Radio Czar", or if an independent regulatory body was needed, which some disputed was unneeded and overly expansive. The legislation ultimately passed was known as the Dill-White Bill, which was proposed and sponsored by Senator Clarence Dill (D-Washington) and Representative Wallace H. White Jr. (R-Maine) on December 21, 1926. It
26726-446: Was often limited, which meant that stations broadcasting on nominally the same frequency often were actually slightly offset from each other, which produced piercing high-pitched "heterodyne" interference at even greater distances than the mixing of their audio. Another tool that was not yet available was directional antennas that could restrict signals to specified directions. Overall, the main tools available for insuring quality reception
26892-507: Was succeeded by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) . The FRC was established by the Radio Act of 1927 , which replaced the Radio Act of 1912 after the earlier law was found to lack sufficient oversight provisions, especially for regulating broadcasting stations. In addition to increased regulatory powers, the FRC introduced the standard that, in order to receive a license, a radio station had to be shown to be "in
27058-425: Was that, until Congress passed new legislation, the Commerce Department could not limit the number of new broadcasting stations, which were now free to operate on any frequency and use any power they wished. Many stations showed restraint, while others took the opportunity to increase powers and move to new frequencies (derisively called "wave jumping"). The extent to which this new environment resulted in disruption for
27224-468: Was the first organization to create a radio network, and also to promote commercial advertising, which it called "toll" broadcasting. Its flagship station, WEAF (now WFAN) in New York City, sold blocks of airtime to commercial sponsors that developed entertainment shows containing commercial messages . AT&T held a monopoly on quality telephone lines, and by 1924 had linked 12 stations in Eastern cities into
27390-406: Was the lack of amplifying the signals, so listeners had to use earphones , and it required the development of vacuum-tube receivers before loudspeakers could be used. The dynamic cone loudspeaker , invented in 1924, greatly improved audio frequency response over the previous horn speakers, allowing music to be reproduced with good fidelity. AM radio offered the highest sound quality available in
27556-453: Was unsuccessful, and both WIBO and WPCC had to cease broadcasting. In 1934 the Davis Amendment provisions were carried over to the FCC, but they were repealed on June 5, 1936. In 1944 WJKS, after changing its call letters to WIND , moved from Gary to Chicago. The Communications Act of 1934 abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to the new Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Title III of
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