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67-451: Subsequent to a 2001 disclosure of a severe design flaw in the algorithm, WEP was never again secure in practice. In the vast majority of cases, Wi-Fi hardware devices relying on WEP security could not be upgraded to secure operation. Some of the design flaws were addressed in WEP2, but WEP2 also proved insecure, and another generation of hardware could not be upgraded to secure operation. In 2003,

134-642: A Pentium-M 1.7 GHz and can additionally be optimized for devices with slower CPUs. The same attack can be used for 40-bit keys with an even higher success probability. In 2008 the Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council (PCI SSC) updated the Data Security Standard (DSS) to prohibit use of WEP as part of any credit-card processing after 30 June 2010, and prohibit any new system from being installed that uses WEP after 31 March 2009. The use of WEP contributed to

201-416: A synchronous stream cipher a stream of pseudorandom digits is generated independently of the plaintext and ciphertext messages, and then combined with the plaintext (to encrypt) or the ciphertext (to decrypt). In the most common form, binary digits are used ( bits ), and the keystream is combined with the plaintext using the exclusive or operation (XOR). This is termed a binary additive stream cipher . In

268-433: A 104-bit WEP key with a probability of 50% using only 40,000 captured packets. For 60,000 available data packets, the success probability is about 80%, and for 85,000 data packets, about 95%. Using active techniques like Wi-Fi deauthentication attacks and ARP re-injection, 40,000 packets can be captured in less than one minute under good conditions. The actual computation takes about 3 seconds and 3 MB of main memory on

335-416: A 104-bit key size (WEP-104). A 64-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 10 hexadecimal (base 16) characters (0–9 and A–F). Each character represents 4 bits, 10 digits of 4 bits each gives 40 bits; adding the 24-bit IV produces the complete 64-bit WEP key (4 bits × 10 + 24-bit IV = 64-bit WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter the key as 5 ASCII characters (0–9, a–z, A–Z), each of which

402-404: A block cipher primitive is used in such a way that it acts effectively as a stream cipher. Stream ciphers typically execute at a higher speed than block ciphers and have lower hardware complexity. However, stream ciphers can be susceptible to security breaches (see stream cipher attacks ); for example, when the same starting state (seed) is used twice. Stream ciphers can be viewed as approximating

469-463: A digit in the ciphertext, they might be able to make predictable changes to the corresponding plaintext bit; for example, flipping a bit in the ciphertext causes the same bit to be flipped in the plaintext. Another approach uses several of the previous N ciphertext digits to compute the keystream. Such schemes are known as self-synchronizing stream ciphers , asynchronous stream ciphers or ciphertext autokey ( CTAK ). The idea of self-synchronization

536-463: A digit is corrupted in transmission, rather than added or lost, only a single digit in the plaintext is affected and the error does not propagate to other parts of the message. This property is useful when the transmission error rate is high; however, it makes it less likely the error would be detected without further mechanisms. Moreover, because of this property, synchronous stream ciphers are very susceptible to active attacks : if an attacker can change

603-467: A new IP header onto them. The access point can then be used to decrypt these packets and relay them on to a buddy on the Internet, allowing real-time decryption of WEP traffic within a minute of eavesdropping the first packet. In 2007, Erik Tews, Andrei Pyshkin, and Ralf-Philipp Weinmann were able to extend Klein's 2005 attack and optimize it for usage against WEP. With the new attack it is possible to recover

670-430: A non-linear filtering function . Instead of a linear driving device, one may use a nonlinear update function. For example, Klimov and Shamir proposed triangular functions ( T-functions ) with a single cycle on n-bit words. For a stream cipher to be secure, its keystream must have a large period , and it must be impossible to recover the cipher's key or internal state from the keystream. Cryptographers also demand that

737-469: A number of certification programs by Wi-Fi alliance: The 802.11 protocols are IEEE standards, identified as 802.11b, 11g, 11n, 11ac, etc. In 2018 The Wi-Fi Alliance created the simpler generation labels Wi-Fi 4 - 6 beginning with Wi-Fi 5, retroactively added Wi-Fi 4 and later added Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-Fi 6E. Wi-Fi 5 had Wave 1 and Wave 2 phases. Wi-Fi 6E extends the 2.4/5 GHz range to 6 GHz, where licensed. Listed in historical and capacity order. See

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804-462: A practical concern. For example, 64-bit block ciphers like DES can be used to generate a keystream in output feedback (OFB) mode. However, when not using full feedback, the resulting stream has a period of around 2 blocks on average; for many applications, the period is far too low. For example, if encryption is being performed at a rate of 8 megabytes per second, a stream of period 2 blocks will repeat after about an hour. Some applications using

871-416: A secure wireless connection. If a block cipher (not operating in a stream cipher mode) were to be used in this type of application, the designer would need to choose either transmission efficiency or implementation complexity, since block ciphers cannot directly work on blocks shorter than their block size. For example, if a 128-bit block cipher received separate 32-bit bursts of plaintext, three quarters of

938-403: A single packet, an attacker can rapidly bootstrap to be able to transmit arbitrary data. The eavesdropped packet can then be decrypted one byte at a time (by transmitting about 128 packets per byte to decrypt) to discover the local network IP addresses. Finally, if the 802.11 network is connected to the Internet, the attacker can use 802.11 fragmentation to replay eavesdropped packets while crafting

1005-404: A stream cipher, each plaintext digit is encrypted one at a time with the corresponding digit of the keystream, to give a digit of the ciphertext stream. Since encryption of each digit is dependent on the current state of the cipher, it is also known as state cipher . In practice, a digit is typically a bit and the combining operation is an exclusive-or (XOR). The pseudorandom keystream

1072-412: A synchronous stream cipher, the sender and receiver must be exactly in step for decryption to be successful. If digits are added or removed from the message during transmission, synchronisation is lost. To restore synchronisation, various offsets can be tried systematically to obtain the correct decryption. Another approach is to tag the ciphertext with markers at regular points in the output. If, however,

1139-399: Is a 1, otherwise it repeats its previous output. This output is then (in some versions) combined with the output of a third LFSR clocked at a regular rate. The shrinking generator takes a different approach. Two LFSRs are used, both clocked regularly. If the output of the first LFSR is 1, the output of the second LFSR becomes the output of the generator. If the first LFSR outputs 0, however,

1206-417: Is a certification program based on its Multi-Access Point specification for creating Wi-Fi meshes from products by different vendors, based on IEEE 1905.1 . It is intended to address the problem of Wi-Fi systems that need to cover large areas where several routers serve as multiple access points, working together to form a larger/extended and unified network. Formerly known as Carrier Wi-Fi, Wi-Fi Vantage

1273-564: Is a certification program for operators to maintain and manage quality Wi-Fi connections in high usage environment. It includes a number of certification, such as Wi-Fi certified ac (as in 802.11ac), Passpoint, Agile Multiband, and Optimized Connectivity. Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM) or known as Wireless Multimedia Extensions is a Wi-Fi Alliance interoperability certification based on the IEEE 802.11e standard. It provides basic quality of service (QoS) features to IEEE 802.11 networks. Wi-Fi Home Design

1340-458: Is a primary concern, it is more advisable to use Open System authentication for WEP authentication, rather than Shared Key authentication; however, this also means that any WLAN client can connect to the AP. (Both authentication mechanisms are weak; Shared Key WEP is deprecated in favor of WPA/WPA2.) Because RC4 is a stream cipher , the same traffic key must never be used twice. The purpose of an IV, which

1407-425: Is a protocol that would enable easily establishing connections via QR code . Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) is a network security standard to simply create a secure wireless home network , created and introduced by Wi-Fi Alliance in 2006. Miracast , introduced in 2012, is a standard for wireless display connections from devices such as laptops, tablets, or smartphones. Its goal is to replace cables connecting from

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1474-488: Is a security mechanism based on IEEE 802.11i amendment to the standard that the Wi-Fi Alliance started to certify from the year of 2003. IBSS with Wi-Fi Protected Setup would enable the creation of ad hoc network between devices directly without central access point. Wi-Fi Passpoint, alternatively known as Hotspot 2.0 , is a solution for enabling inter-carrier roaming. It utilizes IEEE 802.11u . Wi-Fi Easy Connect

1541-434: Is a set of guidelines released by Wi-Fi alliance for inclusion of wireless network in home design. Wi-Fi HaLow is a standard for low-power wide-area (LPWA) connection standard using sub-1 GHz spectrum for IoT devices. It is based on IEEE 802.11ah . Stream cipher A stream cipher is a symmetric key cipher where plaintext digits are combined with a pseudorandom cipher digit stream ( keystream ). In

1608-423: Is a type of Wi-Fi positioning system , and the certification could help providing accuracy to in-door positioning. TDLS , or Tunneled Direct Link Setup, is "a seamless way to stream media and other data faster between devices already on the same Wi-Fi network" based on IEEE 802.11z and added to Wi-Fi Alliance certification program in 2012. Devices using it communicate directly with one another, without involving

1675-630: Is a vendor-specific feature provided by several vendors such as 3Com . The dynamic change idea made it into 802.11i as part of TKIP, but not for the WEP protocol itself. Wi-Fi Alliance The Wi-Fi Alliance is a non-profit organization that owns the Wi-Fi trademark . Manufacturers may use the trademark to brand products certified for Wi-Fi interoperability. It is based in Austin, Texas . Early 802.11 products suffered from interoperability problems because

1742-505: Is documented in the current standard. Standard 64-bit WEP uses a 40- bit key (also known as WEP-40), which is concatenated with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to form the RC4 key. At the time that the original WEP standard was drafted, the U.S. Government's export restrictions on cryptographic technology limited the key size . Once the restrictions were lifted, manufacturers of access points implemented an extended 128-bit WEP protocol using

1809-404: Is insufficient to provide good security. Various schemes have been proposed to increase the security of LFSRs. Because LFSRs are inherently linear, one technique for removing the linearity is to feed the outputs of several parallel LFSRs into a non-linear Boolean function to form a combination generator . Various properties of such a combining function are critical for ensuring the security of

1876-526: Is only completely effective when WEPplus is used at both ends of the wireless connection. As this cannot easily be enforced, it remains a serious limitation. It also does not necessarily prevent replay attacks , and is ineffective against later statistical attacks that do not rely on weak IVs. Dynamic WEP refers to the combination of 802.1x technology and the Extensible Authentication Protocol . Dynamic WEP changes WEP keys dynamically. It

1943-448: Is to switch to WPA2. WPA was an intermediate solution for hardware that could not support WPA2. Both WPA and WPA2 are much more secure than WEP. To add support for WPA or WPA2, some old Wi-Fi access points might need to be replaced or have their firmware upgraded. WPA was designed as an interim software-implementable solution for WEP that could forestall immediate deployment of new hardware. However, TKIP (the basis of WPA) has reached

2010-445: Is transmitted as plaintext, is to prevent any repetition, but a 24-bit IV is not long enough to ensure this on a busy network. The way the IV was used also opened WEP to a related-key attack . For a 24-bit IV, there is a 50% probability the same IV will repeat after 5,000 packets. In August 2001, Scott Fluhrer , Itsik Mantin , and Adi Shamir published a cryptanalysis of WEP that exploits

2077-453: Is turned into 8 bits using the character's byte value in ASCII (8 bits × 5 + 24-bit IV = 64-bit WEP key); however, this restricts each byte to be a printable ASCII character, which is only a small fraction of possible byte values, greatly reducing the space of possible keys. A 128-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 26 hexadecimal characters. 26 digits of 4 bits each gives 104 bits; adding

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2144-432: Is typically generated serially from a random seed value using digital shift registers . The seed value serves as the cryptographic key for decrypting the ciphertext stream. Stream ciphers represent a different approach to symmetric encryption from block ciphers . Block ciphers operate on large blocks of digits with a fixed, unvarying transformation. This distinction is not always clear-cut: in some modes of operation ,

2211-407: Is updated in essentially two ways: if the state changes independently of the plaintext or ciphertext messages, the cipher is classified as a synchronous stream cipher. By contrast, self-synchronising stream ciphers update their state based on previous plaintext or ciphertext digits. A system that incorporates the plaintext into the key is also known as an autokey cipher or autoclave cipher. In

2278-661: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) had no provision for testing equipment for compliance with its standards. In 1999, pioneers of a new, higher-speed variant endorsed the IEEE 802.11b specification to form the Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) and branded the new technology Wi-Fi. The group of companies included 3Com , Aironet (acquired by Cisco ), Harris Semiconductor (now Intersil ), Lucent Technologies (the WLAN part

2345-527: The TJ Maxx parent company network invasion. The Caffe Latte attack is another way to defeat WEP. It is not necessary for the attacker to be in the area of the network using this exploit. By using a process that targets the Windows wireless stack, it is possible to obtain the WEP key from a remote client. By sending a flood of encrypted ARP requests, the assailant takes advantage of the shared key authentication and

2412-520: The Wi-Fi Alliance announced that WEP and WEP2 had been superseded by Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). In 2004, with the ratification of the full 802.11i standard (i.e. WPA2), the IEEE declared that both WEP-40 and WEP-104 have been deprecated. WPA retained some design characteristics of WEP that remained problematic. WEP was the only encryption protocol available to 802.11a and 802.11b devices built before

2479-1102: The "Wi-Fi Certified" logo , a registered trademark , which is permitted only on equipment which has passed testing. Purchasers relying on that trademark may have greater chances of interoperation than otherwise. Testing involves not only radio and data format interoperability, but security protocols , as well as optional testing for quality of service and power management protocols. Wi-Fi Certified products have to demonstrate that they can perform well in networks with other Wi-Fi Certified products, running common applications, in situations similar to those encountered in everyday use. Certification employs 3 principles: The Wi-Fi Alliance definition of interoperability demands that products have to show satisfactory performance levels in typical network configurations and have to support both established and emerging applications. The Wi-Fi Alliance certification process includes three types of tests to ensure interoperability. Wi-Fi Certified products are tested for: The Wi-Fi Alliance provides certification testing in two levels: Mandatory: Optional: There are

2546-577: The 24-bit IV produces the complete 128-bit WEP key (4 bits × 26 + 24-bit IV = 128-bit WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter it as 13 ASCII characters (8 bits × 13 + 24-bit IV = 128-bit WEP key). 152-bit and 256-bit WEP systems are available from some vendors. As with the other WEP variants, 24 bits of that is for the IV, leaving 128 or 232 bits for actual protection. These 128 or 232 bits are typically entered as 32 or 58 hexadecimal characters (4 bits × 32 + 24-bit IV = 152-bit WEP key, 4 bits × 58 + 24-bit IV = 256-bit WEP key). Most devices also allow

2613-456: The Alliance began to certify Wi-Fi Direct , that allows Wi-Fi-enabled devices to communicate directly with each other by setting up ad-hoc networks, without going through a wireless access point or hotspot. Since 2009 when it was first announced, some suggested Wi-Fi Direct might replace the need for Bluetooth on applications that do not rely on Bluetooth low energy. Wi-Fi Protected Access

2680-470: The RC4 stream cipher. Klein showed that there are more correlations between the RC4 keystream and the key than the ones found by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir, which can additionally be used to break WEP in WEP-like usage modes. In 2006, Bittau, Handley , and Lackey showed that the 802.11 protocol itself can be used against WEP to enable earlier attacks that were previously thought impractical. After eavesdropping

2747-567: The WPA standard, which was available for 802.11g devices. However, some 802.11b devices were later provided with firmware or software updates to enable WPA, and newer devices had it built in. WEP was ratified as a Wi-Fi security standard in 1999. The first versions of WEP were not particularly strong, even for the time they were released, due to U.S. restrictions on the export of various cryptographic technologies. These restrictions led to manufacturers restricting their devices to only 64-bit encryption. When

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2814-414: The access point and then attempt to associate. In effect, no authentication occurs. Subsequently, WEP keys can be used for encrypting data frames. At this point, the client must have the correct keys. In Shared Key authentication, the WEP key is used for authentication in a four-step challenge–response handshake: After the authentication and association, the pre-shared WEP key is also used for encrypting

2881-447: The action of a proven unbreakable cipher, the one-time pad (OTP). A one-time pad uses a keystream of completely random digits. The keystream is combined with the plaintext digits one at a time to form the ciphertext. This system was proven to be secure by Claude E. Shannon in 1949. However, the keystream must be generated completely at random with at least the same length as the plaintext and cannot be used more than once. This makes

2948-489: The cipher but indicate that the cipher might have other weaknesses. Securely using a secure synchronous stream cipher requires that one never reuse the same keystream twice. That generally means a different nonce or key must be supplied to each invocation of the cipher. Application designers must also recognize that most stream ciphers provide not authenticity but privacy : encrypted messages may still have been modified in transit. Short periods for stream ciphers have been

3015-544: The data frames using RC4. At first glance, it might seem as though Shared Key authentication is more secure than Open System authentication since the latter offers no real authentication. However, it is quite the reverse. It is possible to derive the keystream used for the handshake by capturing the challenge frames in Shared Key authentication. Therefore, data can be more easily intercepted and decrypted with Shared Key authentication than with Open System authentication. If privacy

3082-403: The data transmitted would be padding . Block ciphers must be used in ciphertext stealing or residual block termination mode to avoid padding, while stream ciphers eliminate this issue by naturally operating on the smallest unit that can be transmitted (usually bytes). Another advantage of stream ciphers in military cryptography is that the cipher stream can be generated in a separate box that

3149-612: The device to the display. Wi-Fi Aware is an interoperability certification program announced in January 2015 that enables device users, when in the range of a particular access point or another compatible device, to receive notifications of applications or services available in the proximity. Later versions of this standard included new features such as the capability to establish a peer-to-peer data connection for file transfer. Fears were voiced immediately in media that it would be predominantly used for proximity marketing . Wi-Fi Location

3216-489: The end of its designed lifetime, has been partially broken, and has been officially deprecated with the release of the 802.11-2012 standard. This stopgap enhancement to WEP was present in some of the early 802.11i drafts. It was implementable on some (not all) hardware not able to handle WPA or WPA2, and extended both the IV and the key values to 128 bits. It was hoped to eliminate the duplicate IV deficiency as well as stop brute-force key attacks . After it became clear that

3283-417: The field show that, with proper equipment, it is practical to eavesdrop on WEP-protected networks from distances of a mile or more from the target. " They also reported two generic weaknesses: In 2005, a group from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation gave a demonstration where they cracked a WEP-protected network in three minutes using publicly available tools. Andreas Klein presented another analysis of

3350-433: The individual 802.11 articles for version details or 802.11 for a composite summary. WiGig refers to 60 GHz wireless local area network connection. It was initially announced in 2013 by Wireless Gigabit Alliance , and was adopted by the Wi-Fi Alliance in 2013. They started certifying in 2016. The first version of WiGig is IEEE 802.11ad , and a newer version IEEE 802.11ay was released in 2021. In October 2010,

3417-522: The keystream be free of even subtle biases that would let attackers distinguish a stream from random noise, and free of detectable relationships between keystreams that correspond to related keys or related cryptographic nonces . That should be true for all keys (there should be no weak keys ), even if the attacker can know or choose some plaintext or ciphertext . As with other attacks in cryptography, stream cipher attacks can be certificational so they are not necessarily practical ways to break

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3484-479: The message modification flaws in 802.11 WEP. The attacker uses the ARP responses to obtain the WEP key in less than 6 minutes. Use of encrypted tunneling protocols (e.g., IPsec , Secure Shell ) can provide secure data transmission over an insecure network. However, replacements for WEP have been developed with the goal of restoring security to the wireless network itself. The recommended solution to WEP security problems

3551-437: The network and thereby stimulate reply packets, which can then be inspected to find the key. The attack was soon implemented, and automated tools have since been released. It is possible to perform the attack with a personal computer, off-the-shelf hardware, and freely available software such as aircrack-ng to crack any WEP key in minutes. Cam-Winget et al. surveyed a variety of shortcomings in WEP. They wrote " Experiments in

3618-399: The output of the second is discarded, and no bit is output by the generator. This mechanism suffers from timing attacks on the second generator, since the speed of the output is variable in a manner that depends on the second generator's state. This can be alleviated by buffering the output. Another approach to improving the security of an LFSR is to pass the entire state of a single LFSR into

3685-433: The overall WEP algorithm was deficient (and not just the IV and key sizes) and would require even more fixes, both the WEP2 name and original algorithm were dropped. The two extended key lengths remained in what eventually became WPA's TKIP . WEPplus, also known as WEP+, is a proprietary enhancement to WEP by Agere Systems (formerly a subsidiary of Lucent Technologies ) that enhances WEP security by avoiding "weak IVs". It

3752-400: The plaintext digits in a similar fashion to the one-time pad. However, this comes at a cost. The keystream is now pseudorandom and so is not truly random. The proof of security associated with the one-time pad no longer holds. It is quite possible for a stream cipher to be completely insecure. A stream cipher generates successive elements of the keystream based on an internal state. This state

3819-407: The registers decides which of the other two is to be used; for instance, if LFSR2 outputs a 0, LFSR0 is clocked, and if it outputs a 1, LFSR1 is clocked instead. The output is the exclusive OR of the last bit produced by LFSR0 and LFSR1. The initial state of the three LFSRs is the key. The stop-and-go generator (Beth and Piper, 1984) consists of two LFSRs. One LFSR is clocked if the output of a second

3886-448: The restrictions were lifted, the encryption was increased to 128 bits. Despite the introduction of 256-bit WEP, 128-bit remains one of the most common implementations. WEP was included as the privacy component of the original IEEE 802.11 standard ratified in 1997. WEP uses the stream cipher RC4 for confidentiality , and the CRC-32 checksum for integrity . It was deprecated in 2004 and

3953-543: The resultant scheme, for example, in order to avoid correlation attacks . Normally LFSRs are stepped regularly. One approach to introducing non-linearity is to have the LFSR clocked irregularly, controlled by the output of a second LFSR. Such generators include the stop-and-go generator , the alternating step generator and the shrinking generator . An alternating step generator comprises three LFSRs, which we will call LFSR0, LFSR1 and LFSR2 for convenience. The output of one of

4020-662: The stream cipher RC4 are attackable because of weaknesses in RC4's key setup routine; new applications should either avoid RC4 or make sure all keys are unique and ideally unrelated (such as generated by a well-seeded CSPRNG or a cryptographic hash function ) and that the first bytes of the keystream are discarded. The elements of stream ciphers are often much simpler to understand than block ciphers and are thus less likely to hide any accidental or malicious weaknesses. Stream ciphers are often used for their speed and simplicity of implementation in hardware, and in applications where plaintext comes in quantities of unknowable length like

4087-421: The system cumbersome to implement in many practical applications, and as a result the one-time pad has not been widely used, except for the most critical applications. Key generation, distribution and management are critical for those applications. A stream cipher makes use of a much smaller and more convenient key such as 128 bits. Based on this key, it generates a pseudorandom keystream which can be combined with

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4154-407: The user to enter it as 16 or 29 ASCII characters (8 bits × 16 + 24-bit IV = 152-bit WEP key, 8 bits × 29 + 24-bit IV = 256-bit WEP key). Two methods of authentication can be used with WEP: Open System authentication and Shared Key authentication. In Open System authentication, the WLAN client does not provide its credentials to the access point during authentication. Any client can authenticate with

4221-410: The way the RC4 ciphers and IV are used in WEP, resulting in a passive attack that can recover the RC4 key after eavesdropping on the network. Depending on the amount of network traffic, and thus the number of packets available for inspection, a successful key recovery could take as little as one minute. If an insufficient number of packets are being sent, there are ways for an attacker to send packets on

4288-560: The wireless network's router. The certification of Wi-Fi Agile Multiband indicate devices can automatically connect and maintain connection in the most suitable way. It covers the IEEE 802.11k standard about access point information report, the IEEE 802.11v standard that enable exchanging information about state of network, IEEE 802.11u standard about additional information of a Wi-Fi network, IEEE 802.11r about fast transition roaming between different access points, as well as other technologies specified by Wi-Fi alliance. Wi-Fi EasyMesh

4355-666: Was patented in 1946 and has the advantage that the receiver will automatically synchronise with the keystream generator after receiving N ciphertext digits, making it easier to recover if digits are dropped or added to the message stream. Single-digit errors are limited in their effect, affecting only up to N plaintext digits. An example of a self-synchronising stream cipher is a block cipher in cipher feedback (CFB) mode . Binary stream ciphers are often constructed using linear-feedback shift registers (LFSRs) because they can be easily implemented in hardware and can be readily analysed mathematically. The use of LFSRs on their own, however,

4422-436: Was renamed as Orinoco, become part of Avaya , then acquired by Extreme Networks ), Nokia and Symbol Technologies (acquired by Motorola , Zebra Technologies , and now Extreme Networks ). The alliance lists Apple , Comcast , Samsung , Sony , LG , Intel , Dell , Broadcom , Cisco , Qualcomm , Motorola , Microsoft , Texas Instruments , and T-Mobile as key sponsors. The charter for this independent organization

4489-497: Was to perform testing, certify interoperability of products, and to promote the technology. WECA renamed itself the Wi-Fi Alliance in 2002. Most producers of 802.11 equipment became members, and as of 2012, the Wi-Fi Alliance included over 550 member companies. The Wi-Fi Alliance extended Wi-Fi beyond wireless local area network applications into point-to-point and personal area networking and enabled specific applications such as Miracast . The Wi-Fi Alliance owns and controls

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