Yali ( IAST : Yāḻi ), (Tamil: யாழி) also called Vyala , is a Hindu mythological creature, portrayed with the head and the body of a lion, the trunk and the tusks of an elephant, and sometimes bearing equine features.
83-511: The creature is represented in many South Indian temples , often sculpted onto the pillars. There also exist variations of the creature, with it possessing the appendages of other beasts. It has sometimes been described as a leogryph (part-lion and part- griffin ), with some bird-like features, with the trunk referred to as a proboscis . Descriptions of, and references to, yalis are ancient, but they became prominent in South Indian sculptures in
166-409: A "religious tradition", rather than an "architectural methodology" as taught in historic texts. He says that these consultants include "quacks, priests and astrologers" fuelled by greed and with little knowledge of what the historic Vastu-sastra texts teach. They are said to market false advice and superstition in the name of Vastu Vidya tradition, sometimes under the rubric of "Vedic sciences". Of
249-411: A body of ancient concepts and knowledge to many modern architects, a guideline but not a rigid code. The square-grid mandala is viewed as a model of organisation, not as a ground plan. The ancient Vāstu Śastra texts describe functional relations and adaptable alternate layouts for various rooms or buildings and utilities, but do not mandate a set compulsory architecture. Sachdev and Tillotson state that
332-417: A collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti , worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. Chola style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to
415-646: A conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the " Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra – Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka. Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in
498-754: A fine example of the Pallava style temple. Contrary to popular impression about the succeeding empire of the Cholas pioneering in building large temple complexes, it was the Pallavas who actually pioneered not only in making large temples after starting construction of rock cut temples without using mortar, bricks etc. Examples of such temples are the Thiruppadagam and Thiruooragam temples that have 28 and 35 feet (11 m) high images of Lord Vishnu in his manifestation as Pandavadhoothar and Trivikraman forms of himself. In comparison,
581-573: A new city of Jaipur in early 1700s based on Vāstu Śastra texts, well before any colonial era public projects, was one of many proofs. Other examples include modern public projects designed by Charles Correa such as Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur, and Gandhi Ashram in Ahmedabad. Vastu Shastra remedies have also been applied by Khushdeep Bansal in 1997 to the Parliament complex of India, when he contented that
664-470: A paradigm for cosmic planning, but they did not represent architecture nor a developed practice. The Arthashastra dated to 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, dedicates chapters to domestic architecture, forts and town planning. Vastu sastras are stated by some to have roots in pre-1st-century CE literature, but these views suffer from being a matter of interpretation. For example, the mathematical rules and steps for constructing Vedic yajna square for
747-470: A temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata , texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira
830-515: Is vas "to dwell, live, stay, reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as " doctrine , teaching". Vāstu-Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture. These contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling). Vastu, crafts and architecture are traditionally attributed to the divine Vishwakarma in the Hindu pantheon. Theories tracing links of
913-477: Is a pseudoscience, states Narendra Nayak – the head of Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations . In contemporary India, Vastu consultants "promote superstition in the name of science". Astronomer Jayant Narlikar states that Vastu Shastra has rules about integrating architecture with its ambience but that the dictates of Vastu and alleged harm or benefits being marketed have "no logical connection to environment". He gives examples of Vastu consultants claiming
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#1732868757549996-463: Is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner. A site of any shape can be divided using the Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024) square sites. Examples of mandalas with the corresponding names of sites include: Vāstu Śastra represents
1079-584: Is another Vāstu Śastra. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in the eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India,
1162-505: Is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples. Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non- vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-vedic texts or as pre-vedic compositions. The Agamas are
1245-490: Is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida, and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. The whole of South India was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire from (1343–1565 CE), who built a number of temples and monuments in their hybrid style in their capital Vijayanagara in Karnataka. Their style was a combination of the styles developed in South India in
1328-503: Is said to be a guardian creature, protecting human beings both physically and spiritually. It is regarded to be a fearless beast, possessing supremacy over the animal world. It is also believed to be the symbolic representation of man's struggle with the elemental forces of nature. Descriptions of the yali are featured in ancient Tamil literature , dating back to the Sangam era. Dravidian architecture Dravidian architecture , or
1411-511: Is said to have been built by Periyalvar , the father-in-law of the Lord, with a purse of gold that he won in debates held in the palace of Pandya King Vallabhadeva. The primary landmark of Srivilliputtur is a 12-tiered tower structure dedicated to the Lord of Srivilliputtur, known as Vatapatrasayee. The tower of this temple rises 192 feet (59 m) high. Other significant temples of the Pandyas include
1494-560: Is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora . The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana , Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. These projects were commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan . The architectural style used
1577-464: Is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit text from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples. These Vāstu Śastras , often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with
1660-433: Is titled "On architecture", and there and elsewhere it discusses elements of vastu sastra such as "planning cities and buildings" and "house structures, orientation, storeys, building balconies" along with other topics. According to Michael Meister, a scholar of Indian architecture, we must acknowledge that Varahamihira does mention his own sources on vastu as older texts and sages. However, these may be mythology and reflect
1743-412: Is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, these texts suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. Six of the most studied, complete and referred to Indian texts on Vastu Vidya that have survived into
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#17328687575491826-621: The Brihadisvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram , completed around 1030, are both fitting memorials to the material and military achievements of the time of the two Chola emperors. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, the Tanjore Brihadisvara is at the apex of South Indian architecture. In fact, two succeeding Chola kings Raja Raja II and Kulothunga III built the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram and
1909-499: The Chera dynasty in the 12th century, and a variety of ground plans have been used, including circular ones. The development of multi-building complexes came relatively late. The culture of Sri Lanka is recognizable in architecture . The city of Jaffna was close to South India and the majority of the inhabitants of Jaffna have a Dravidian origin. In former royal city of Nallur , there are architectural ruins of Jaffna kingdom . From
1992-739: The Kesava Temple in Somanathapura . The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style
2075-512: The Krishna River - Tungabhadra doab in central Karnataka. The Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects. The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of architecture in the Deccan . Their architectural developments acted as
2158-645: The Malaprabha basin. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka . The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , Badami , Aihole and Mahakuta are their most celebrated monuments. Two of
2241-631: The Meenakshi Temple in Madurai , which is the official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu . The Chola kings ruled from 848 CE to 1280 CE and included Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola who built temples such as the three Great Living Chola Temples ( UNESCO World Heritage Site ) and the Kampaheswarar Temple at Thirubuvanam . The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from
2324-534: The Ranganathaswamy Temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu at Srirangam and the Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram which actually is home to the twin deities of Siva and Vishnu (as the reclining Govindarajar) to be their 'Kuladheivams' or tutelary (or family) deities. The Cholas also preferred to call only these two temples which home their tutelary or family deities as Koil or the 'Temple', which denotes
2407-578: The Rashtrakutas , the Chalukyas , the Hoysalas and Vijayanagara Empire among others have made substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture. Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts, which are estimated to have been in circulation by 5th to 7th century CE, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of vastu shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati
2490-508: The Shore Temple . This group includes both excavated pillared halls, with no external roof except the natural rock, and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is entirely cut away and carved to give an external roof. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple also called Rajasimha Pallaveswaram in Kanchipuram built by Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajasimha is
2573-648: The Southern Indian temple style , is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from Southern India , reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. In contrast with North Indian temple styles, Dravidian architecture uses shorter and more pyramidal towers, called vimana , over the garbhagriha or sanctuary, where the north has taller towers, usually curving inwards as they rise, called shikharas . Larger modern Dravidian style temples, however, include one or more high gopura or gatehouse entrances to
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2656-557: The 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present-day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells ( Pushkarni ) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries. Srivilliputhur Andal temple Rajagopuram
2739-500: The 16th century. Yalis were described to be more powerful than the lion, the tiger, or the elephant. In its iconography, the yali has a cat-like graceful body, but the head of a lion with the tusks of an elephant ( gaja ), and the tail of a serpent. Sometimes, they have been shown standing on the back of a makara , another mythical creature and considered to be the vahana of Budha (Mercury). Some images look like three-dimensional representation of yalis. Images or icons have been found on
2822-602: The 18th century, Dravidian architecture was heavily adopted by Tamil-speaking populations of Sri Lanka for the construction of Hindu religious sites. Traditional Vastu shastra Traditional Originating in ancient India, Vastu Shastra ( Sanskrit : वास्तु शास्त्र , vāstu śāstra – literally "science of architecture" ) is a traditional Hindu system of architecture based on ancient texts that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry . The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature,
2905-728: The Chola empire. These include 40 of the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desams out of which 77 are found spread most of South India and others in Andhra and North India. In fact, the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam , which is the biggest temple in India and the Chidambaram Natarajar Temple (though originally built by the Pallavas but possibly seized from the Cholas of the pre-Christian era when they ruled from Kanchi) were two of
2988-741: The Indian tradition to credit mythical sages and deities. There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. Among early known example is the Arthashastra dated to 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, with chapters dedicated to domestic architecture, forts and town planning. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit texts for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastras include chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it
3071-551: The Kampahareswarar Siva Temple at Tribhuvanam respectively, both temples being on the outskirts of Kumbakonam around 1160 CE and 1200 CE. All the four temples were built over a period of nearly 200 years reflecting the glory, prosperity and stability under the Chola emperors. Contrary to popular impression, the Chola emperors patronized and promoted construction of a large number of temples that were spread over most parts of
3154-707: The Rajaraja Temple at Thanjur after his own name. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. He also proclaimed himself as Gangaikonda. In a small portion of the Kaveri belt between Tiruchy-Tanjore-Kumbakonam, at the height of their power, the Cholas have left over 2300 temples, with the Tiruchy-Thanjavur belt itself boasting of more than 1500 temples. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur built by Raja Raja I in 1009 as well as
3237-655: The Siva Lingams in the Royal Temples of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapurams are 17 and 18 feet (5.5 m) high. Considering that the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were among the first emperors in India to build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols Many of Vishnu temples at Kanchi built by
3320-468: The Vastu vidya architectures. The use of Vastu shastra and Vastu consultants in modern home and public projects is controversial. Some architects, particularly during India's colonial era, considered it arcane and superstitious. Other architects state that critics have not read the texts and that most of the text is about flexible design guidelines for space, sunlight, flow and function. Vastu Shastra
3403-502: The age in which they were executed: Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or Pushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience. In Southern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times: From 300 BCE to 300 CE,
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3486-494: The ancient Vastu sastra were viewed with prejudice as superstitious and rigid about a square grid or traditional materials of construction. Sachdev and Tillotson state that these prejudices were flawed, as a scholarly and complete reading of the Vāstu Śastra literature amply suggests the architect is free to adapt the ideas to new materials of construction, local layout constraints and into a non-square space. The design and completion of
3569-520: The building of those syncretic latter styles of Dravidian architecture seen across the continent pictured. Of course, the two Brihadisvara Temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram as well as the other two Siva temples, namely the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva )Temple which is also popular as the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam , both on
3652-648: The colonial rule period of India, town planning officials of the British Raj did not consider Vastu Vidya, but largely grafted Islamic Mughal era motifs and designs such as domes and arches onto Victorian-era style buildings without overall relationship layout. This movement, known as Indo-Saracenic architecture , is found in chaotically laid out, but externally grand structures in the form of currently used major railway stations, harbours, tax collection buildings, and other colonial offices in South Asia . Vāstu Śastra Vidya
3735-493: The compound as their dominating feature; large temples have several dwarfing the vimana, although these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features, such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha . Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in early texts on vastu shastra or Hindu temple architecture ,
3818-841: The core of Hanamakonda and Warangal of which Thousand Pillar Temple , Ramappa Temple , Ramappa Lake , Warangal Fort and Kota Gullu are prominent. Ramappa Temple, also known as the Rudreswara temple, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Mulugu . The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami , Karnataka in the period 543–753 CE and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture . The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal , Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in
3901-493: The development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses
3984-409: The entrance walls of the temples, and the graceful mythical lion is believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading to the temple. They usually have the stylised body of a lion and the head of some other beast, most often an elephant (gaja-vyala). Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha-vyala), horse- (ashva-vyala), human- (nir-vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana-vyala) ones. The yali
4067-499: The existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi , and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in
4150-519: The famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them. This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style. The Rashtrakutas who ruled the Deccan from Manyakheta , Karnataka in the period 753–973 CE built some of the finest Dravidian monuments at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple ), in
4233-676: The feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa . Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types. Sanskrit texts for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, planning and building
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#17328687575494316-617: The form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. The Hoysala kings ruled southern India during the period (1100–1343 CE) from their capital Belur and later Halebidu in Karnataka and developed a unique idiom of architecture called the Hoysala architecture in Karnataka state. The finest examples of their architecture are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur , Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu , and
4399-755: The great Pallava emperors and indeed their incomparable Rathas and the Arjuna's penance Bas Relief (also called descent of the Ganga) are proposed UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The continuous Chola, Pallava and Pandiyan belt temples (along with those of the Adigaimans near Karur and Namakkal ) like the Narasimhaswamy Temple, Namakkal , as well as the Sathyamurthi Perumal Temple in Pudukottai uniformly represent
4482-630: The greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early Chola , Chera and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities Vishnu , Kartikeya , Shiva , and Amman . Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur , Kaveripoompuharpattinam and Mahabalipuram , and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems of Sangam literature . There are 3 temples which date around 5 CE to 5 BCE, The Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple which has inscriptions dating around 100 BCE to 100 CE. Hence, "making it one of
4565-456: The library being built next to the building is responsible for political instability in the country. German architect Klaus-Peter Gast states that the principles of Vāstu Śastras is witnessing a major revival and wide usage in the planning and design of individual homes, residential complexes, commercial and industrial campuses, and major public projects in India, along with the use of ancient iconography and mythological art work incorporated into
4648-900: The majority of existing structures are in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Kerala , Tamil Nadu , Telangana , some parts of Maharashtra , Odisha and Sri Lanka . Various kingdoms and empires such as the Satavahanas , the Vakatakas of Vidarbha, the Cholas , the Cheras , the Kakatiyas , the Reddis , the Pandyas , the Pallavas , the Gangas , the Kadambas ,
4731-442: The mandala is a guideline, and employing the mandala concept of Vāstu Śastra does not mean every room or building has to be square. The basic theme is around core elements of central space, peripheral zones, direction with respect to sunlight, and relative functions of the spaces. The pink city Jaipur in Rajasthan was master planned by architect Vidyadhar Bhattacharya (1693–1751) who was approached by Rajput king Jai Singh and
4814-405: The modern age, states Tillotson, are – the Mayamata , the Manasara , the Samarangana Sutradhara , the Rajavallabha , the Vishvakarmaprakasha and the Aparajitaprccha . Numerous other important texts contain sections or chapters on aspects of architecture and design. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in ninth or tenth century CE,
4897-423: The most important places of worship for them. The above-named temples are being proposed to be included among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites , which will elevate them to the exacting and exalting standards of the Great Living Chola Temples . The temple of Gangaikondacholapuram , the creation of Rajendra Chola I , was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030, only two decades after
4980-470: The most important temples patronized and expanded by the Cholas and from the times of the second Chola King Aditya I, these two temples have been hailed in inscriptions as the tutelary deities of the Chola Kings. Temple shrine on the Koneswaram temple promontory extremity and the Ketheeswaram temple and Munneswaram temple compounds contained tall gopuram towers by Chola rule of Trincomalee , Mannar , Puttalam and Chidambaram 's expansion that escalated
5063-489: The name of Vastu-sastras. They have little knowledge of what the historic Vastu-sastra texts actually teach, and they frame it in terms of a "religious tradition", rather than ground it in any "architectural theory" therein. The Sanskrit word vāstu means a dwelling or house with a corresponding plot of land. The vrddhi , vāstu , takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root
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#17328687575495146-452: The need to align the house to magnetic axis for "overall growth, peace and happiness, or that "parallelogram-shaped sites can lead to quarrels in the family", states Narlikar. He says this is pseudoscience. Vibhuti Chakrabarti, a scholar of Architecture and Sanskrit literature has critically translated historic Vastu literature, and states that in contemporary India, some are offering their services as Vastu consultants where they project it as
5229-407: The oldest surviving active temple complexes in South India". Another such temple is the Subrahmanya Temple, Saluvankuppam , unearthed in 2005, consists of three layers. The lowest layer, consisting of a brick shrine, is one of the oldest of its kind in South India, and is the oldest shrine found dedicated to Murukan. It is one of only two brick shrine pre Pallava Hindu temples to be found in the state,
5312-696: The organisation of space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and the overall fabric of the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir ( Hindu temples ) and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops, and other public areas. The Pandit or Architects of Vastu Shastra are Sthapati , Sūtragrāhin(Sutradhar) , Vardhaki , and Takṣhaka . In contemporary India, states Chakrabarti, consultants that include "quacks, priests and astrologers" fueled by greed are marketing pseudoscience and superstition in
5395-440: The other being the Veetrirundha Perumal Temple at Veppathur dedicated to Lord Vishnu . The dynasties of early medieval Tamilakkam expanded and erected structural additions to many of these brick shrines. Sculptures of erotic art, nature and deities from the Ranganathaswamy Temple and Kallazhagar Temple date from the Sangam period. The Pallavas ruled from 275 CE to 900 CE, and their greatest constructed accomplishments are
5478-422: The outskirts of Kumbakonam were the royal temples of the Cholas to commemorate their innumerable conquests and subjugation of their rivals from other parts of South India, Deccan Ilangai or Sri Lanka and the Narmada-Mahanadi-Gangetic belts. But the Chola emperors underlined their non-partisan approach to religious iconography and faith by treating the presiding deities of their other two peerless creations, namely
5561-431: The pillars is a mark of their work. At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished example. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took several decades to complete during
5644-429: The pinnacle of the South Indian Style of Architecture that surpasses any other form of architecture prevalent between the Deccan Plateau and Kanyakumari. In the Telugu country the style was more or less uniformly conforming to the South Indian or Dravidian idiom of architecture. Kakatiya architecture was a notable Vesara temple building architecture developed during the rule of the Kakatiya dynasty (1163–1323 CE), in
5727-539: The previous centuries. In addition, the Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution. King Krishna Deva Raya and others built many famous temples all over South India in Vijayanagara Architecture style. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya , Hoysala , Rashtrakuta , Pallava , Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced
5810-426: The principles of composition in Vastu Shastra and the Indus Valley civilization have been made, but scholar Kapila Vatsyayan considers this speculation since the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered. According to Chakrabarti, Vastu Vidya is as old as the Vedic period and linked to the ritual architecture. According to Michael W. Meister , the Atharvaveda contains verses with mystic cosmogony which provide
5893-484: The region comprising present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh states of India. The Kakatiya architecture is more significant in Hanamakonda — their first capital and Warangal being their second capital. Most of the Kakatiya architecture is influenced from Chalukya architecture . It is a fusion of Dravidian architecture and Nagara Bhumija styles in which sandbox technology is used to construct Vimana —horizontal stepped tower. There are hundreds of monuments in
5976-588: The reign of the Tuluva kings. The version of Dravidian architecture found in Kerala in the far south-west is significantly different. Very large temples are rare, and sloping roofs with projecting eaves dominate the outline, often arranged in a number of tiers. As in Bengal , this is an adaption to the heavy monsoon rainfall. There is usually a stone core below a timber superstructure. The architecture of Kerala goes back to
6059-465: The relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns ( yantra ), symmetry, and directional alignments. Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya – the broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for
6142-605: The rock-cut architecture idiom, with a style showing influences from both north and south India. Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day Maharashtra . It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all
6225-517: The sacrificial fire are in the Sulba-sutras dated to 4th-century BCE. However, these are ritual artifacts and they are not buildings or temples or broader objects of a lasting architecture. Varahamihira 's Brihat Samhita dated to about the sixth century CE is among the earliest known Indian texts with dedicated chapters with principles of architecture. For example, Chapter 53 of the Brihat Samhita
6308-528: The single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram , now located in Tamil Nadu . The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples between 690 and 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram at Mahabalipuram , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , including
6391-560: The temple at Thanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. This temple has a larger Siva linga than the one at Thanjavur but the Vimana of this temple is smaller in height than the Thanjavur vimana. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among
6474-741: The temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana . Mandala "circle-circumference" or "completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9) and Upapitha (25). it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine square modules. The Pitha
6557-529: The times of the first king Vijayalaya Chola after whom the eclectic chain of Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near Narttamalai exists. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions. Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Aditya I Parantaka I , Sundara Chola , Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I . Rajendra Chola 1 built
6640-518: The vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later incorporated dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture. The varied and intricate ornamentation of
6723-612: Was built by 1727 CE, in part around Vastu Shilpa Sastra principles. Similarly, modern-era projects such as the architect Charles Correa 's designed Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad , Vidhan Bhavan in Bhopal , and Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur adapt and apply concepts from the Vastu Shastra Vidya. In the design of Chandigarh city, Le Corbusier incorporated modern architecture theories with those of Vastu Shastra. During
6806-422: Was ignored, during colonial era construction, for several reasons. These texts were viewed by 19th and early 20th century architects as archaic, the literature was inaccessible being in an ancient language not spoken or read by the architects, and the ancient texts assumed space to be readily available. In contrast, public projects in the colonial era were forced into crowded spaces and local layout constraints, and
6889-730: Was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. The Western Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas ruled the deccan from 973 to 1180 CE from their capital Kalyani in modern Karnataka and further refined the Chalukyan style, called the Western Chalukya architecture . Over 50 temples exist in
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