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124-628: Vodún teaches the existence of a supreme creator divinity, under whom are lesser spirits called vodúns . Many of these deities are associated with specific areas, but others are venerated widely throughout West Africa; some have been absorbed from other religions, including Christianity and Hinduism . The vodún are believed to physically manifest in shrines and there are provided with offerings, typically including animal sacrifices . There are several all-male secret societies, including Oró and Egúngún , into which individuals receive initiation. Various forms of divination are used to gain information from

248-613: A Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism . An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church , namely James the Just , the brother of Jesus, Peter , and John. Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook , which insisted on close observance of

372-456: A vodún . Although primarily found in West Africa, since the late 20th century the religion has also spread abroad and is practised by people of varied ethnicities and nationalities. Vodún is a religion. The anthropologist Timothy R. Landry noted that, although the term Vodún is commonly used, a more accurate name for the religion was vodúnsínsen , meaning "spirit worship". The spelling Vodún

496-527: A Christian who is a member of both the Catholic Church and the Religious Society of Friends . In some religions such as Judaism , Christianity , and Islam , those who hold to an exclusivist understanding of religion see multiple religious belonging as problematic. This is in contrast with countries such as China , Japan , Korea , Vietnam , India , Nepal and Sri Lanka , whose cultures have

620-657: A cost, for the azě gives the practitioner a propensity for illness and shortens their life. Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, professing that Jesus Christ was raised from the dead and is the Son of God , whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in

744-474: A few months to a few years. It differs among spirit cults; in Benin, Fá initiation usually takes less than a week, whereas initiations into the cults of other vodún may take several weeks or months. Initiation is expensive; especially high sums are generally charged for foreigners seeking initiation or training. Practitioners believe that some spirits embody powers that are too intense for non-initiates. Being initiated

868-539: A few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most Gnostic texts and Gnostic gospels were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians. A gradual splitting off of Gentile Christianity left Jewish Christians continuing to follow the Law of Moses , including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the Jewish–Christian gospels would be largely suppressed by

992-466: A household, others by a village, and certain shrines attract international pilgrims. For adherents, these shrines are deemed to be physical incarnations of the spirits, and not simply images or representations of them. Rosenthal called these shrines "god-objects". A wooden carved statue is referred to as a bòcyɔ . Particular objects are selected for use in building a shrine based on intrinsic qualities they are believed to possess. The constituent parts of

1116-413: A long history of being influenced by different religions. Moreover, in the postmodern period people tend to question their identity, because of the unlimited choices of religions, which leads to the difficulty in defining their identity. Van Bragt showed that 79% of Japanese self-identify as Shintoists and 75% self-identify as Buddhists . The reason for the extremely high percentage of both religions

1240-508: A particular religion but rather, in Cornille's words, "the recognition of one's religious identity by the tradition itself and the disposition to submit to the conditions for membership as delineated by that tradition." For Cornille, the ultimate purpose of a scholarly discussion on multiple religious belonging is to transform one's religion through the understanding of other religions. Based on Van Bragt's study, scholars have tried to investigate

1364-511: A person with the power of a vodún . It results in long-term obligations to the spirits that a person has received; that person is expected to honour their spirits with praise, to feed them, and to supply them with money, while in turn the spirit offers benefits to the initiate, giving them promises of protection, abundance, long-life, and a large family. The typical age of a person being initiated varies between spirit cults; in some cases children are preferred. The process of initiation can last from

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1488-510: A small scale by both Jewish and Roman authorities , with Roman action starting at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the New Testament include the deaths of Saint Stephen and James, son of Zebedee . The Decian persecution was the first empire-wide conflict, when the edict of Decius in 250 AD required everyone in

1612-736: A tradition, Vodún is not doctrinal, with no orthodoxy, and no central text. It is amorphous and flexible, changing and adapting in different situations, and emphasising efficacy over dogma. It is open to ongoing revision, being eclectic and absorbing elements from many cultural backgrounds, including from other parts of Africa but also from Europe, Asia, and the Americas. In West Africa, many individuals draw upon African traditional religions, Christianity, and Islam simultaneously to deal with life's issues. In West Africa, vodúnsɛntó sometimes abandon their religion for Evangelical Christianity , although there are also Christians who convert to Vodún. A common approach

1736-520: A tradition, it prioritises action and getting things done. Rosenthal found that, among members of the Gorovodu tradition, people stated that they followed the religion because it helped to heal their children when the latter fell sick. Financial transactions play at important role, with both the vodún and their priests typically expecting payment for their services. Landry described the religion as being "deeply esoteric". A male priest may be referred to with

1860-600: A water source, to not rush through life, to take time to attain tranquility." Her interpretation stems from two area diviners who maintain that its origins lie in the phrase "rest to draw the water", from the Fon verbs vo 'to rest', and dun 'to draw water', the stoic suggestion of "the need for one to be calm and composed" in the face of adversity. Vodún teaches the existence of a single divine creator being. Below this entity are an uncountable number of spirits who govern different aspects of nature and society. The term vodún comes from

1984-405: Is a central element of Vodún. The Fon term bǒ can be translated into English as "charm"; many Francophone Beninese refer to them as gris gris . These are amulets made from zoological and botanical material that is then activated using secret incantations, the latter called bǒgbé ("bǒ's language"). Families or individuals often keep their recipes for creating bǒ a closely guarded secret; there

2108-473: Is a female being. She is an elder woman, and usually a mother who is gentle and forgiving. She is also seen as the god who owns all other gods and even if there is no temple made in her name, the people continue to pray to her, especially in times of distress. In one tradition, she bore seven children. Sakpata: Vodun of the Earth, Xêvioso (or Xêbioso): Vodun of Thunder, also associated with divine justice, Agbe: Vodun of

2232-453: Is a widespread belief that if someone else discovers the precise ingredients they will have power over its maker. Bǒ are often sold; tourists for instance often buy them to aid in attracting love, wealth, or protection while travelling. Bǒ designed for specific functions may have particular names; a zǐn bǒ is alleged to offer invisibility while a fifó bǒ provides the power of translocation. Anthropomorphic figurines produced especially in

2356-515: Is also used by Presbyterians , Methodists , and Congregationalists . This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator . Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period . The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in

2480-666: Is commonly used to distinguish the West African religion from the Haitian religion more usually spelled Vodou ; this in turn is often used to differentiate it from Louisiana Voodoo . An alternative spelling sometimes used for the West African religion is Vodu . The religion's adherents are referred to as vodúnsɛntó or, in a French version, Vodúnisants . Vodún is "the predominant religious system" of southern Benin, Togo, and parts of southeast Ghana. The anthropologist Judy Rosenthal noted that "Fon and Ewe forms of Vodu worship are virtually

2604-700: Is continually open to the incorporation of new spirit deities, while those that are already venerated may change and take on new aspects. Some Vodún practitioners for instance refer to Jesus Christ as the vodún of the Christians. A common belief is that the vodún came originally from the sea. The spirits are thought to dwell in Kútmómɛ ("land of the dead"), an invisible world parallel to that of humanity. The vodún spirits have their own individual likes and dislikes; each also has particular songs, dances, and prayers directed to them. These spirits are deemed to manifest within

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2728-514: Is described as "to find the spirit's depths". Animal sacrifice is a typical feature of initiation. Trainees will often be expected to learn many different types of leaves and respective qualities. Divination plays an important role in Vodún. Different vodún groups often utilise different divinatory methods; the priestesses of Mamíwátá for instance employ mirror gazing , while the priests of Tron use kola nut divination. Across Vodún's practitioners, Fá

2852-427: Is expected to provide solutions to their client's problem, for instance selling them charms, spiritual baths, or ceremonies to alleviate their issue. The fee charged will often vary depending on the client, with the diviner charging a reduced rate for family members and a more expensive rate to either tourists or to middle and upper-class Beninese. Diviners will often recommend that their client seeks initiation. Healing

2976-463: Is for people to practice Christianity while also engaging in Vodún rituals; There are also vodúnsɛntó who reject Christianity, deeming it incompatible with their tradition. The syncretism of Vodun and Christianity was created by connecting the traditional West African Vodun and Christianity in Benin. Syncretism in the religious domain is the merging of two or more originally distinct religious traditions. Similar syncretic religions are also found in

3100-401: Is harvested. Shrines may also include material from endangered species, including leopard hides, bird eggs, parrot feathers, insects, and elephant ivory. Various foreign initiates, while trying to leave West Africa, have found material intended for their shrines confiscated at airport customs. In a ritual that typically incorporates divination, sacrifices, and leaf baths for both the objects and

3224-650: Is in azě , a universal and invisible power, and one which many practitioners regard as the most powerful spiritual force available. In English, azě has sometimes been translated as " witchcraft ". Several vodún , such as Kɛnnɛsi, Mǐnɔna, and Gbădu, are thought to draw their power from azě . Many practitioners draw a distinction between azě wiwi , the destructive and harmful side of this power, and azě wèwé , its protective and benevolent side. People who claim to use this power call themselves azětɔ and typically insist that they employ azě wèwé to protect their families from azě wiwi . In Vodún lore, becoming an azětɔ comes at

3348-403: Is not a new issue in the twenty-first century but rather the common form of life of the first-century Christians recorded in the book of Acts . In Phan's view, the disappearance of this trend was "a tragic loss to both Judaism and Christianity", because it led to a subsequent history of bitter hatred, especially from the side of Christianity. As a comparative theologian , Clooney writes about

3472-475: Is often deemed the best form of divination. Its initiates claim that it is the only system that has sufficient acɛ to be consistently accurate. This is a system adopted from the Yoruba. Fá diviners typically believe that the priests of other spirits do not have the right to read the sacred signs of Fá. A consultation with an initiate is termed a fákínan . In Vodun, a diviner is called a bokónó . A successful diviner

3596-470: Is out of humility that Christians can say that salvation belongs to God, and God only, in Kärkkäinen's view. On the other hand, scholars studying multiple religious belonging such as John B. Cobb see this as an opportunity rather than a threat: "I do not see multiple religious belonging as the primary way into the future. The primary way is the transformation of the particular religious traditions, at least in

3720-430: Is recorded in the canonical gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament , because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include: his baptism , miracles , preaching, teaching, and deeds. Christians consider

3844-424: Is represented by mounds of soil, typically covering leaves and other objects buried within it. There may also be some experimentation in the ingredients used in constructing the shrine, as practitioners hope to make the manifested spirit as efficacious as possible. Plant material is often used in building shrines, with specific leaves being important in the process. Offerings may be given to a tree from which material

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3968-719: Is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of the Messianic prophecy , including the resurrection of the dead , the Last Judgment , and the final establishment of the Kingdom of God . According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke , Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary . Little of Jesus's childhood

4092-590: Is that many Japanese consider themselves as both Shintoist and Buddhist and do not consider it a problem to belong to more than one religion. (Whether this statistic is correct is arguable. ) This phenomenon, according to Van Bragt, is a " division of labour ". Van Bragt argued that the cause of this phenomenon is that, different from the Western concept of religion, Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are defined by their rituals and practices, not by their moral and social authority. Thus,

4216-518: Is the spirit of the crossroads who opens up communication between humanity and the spirit world. Sakpatá is the vodún of earth and smallpox, but over time has come to be associated with new diseases like HIV/AIDS . The Dàn spirits are all serpents; Dàn is a serpent vodún associated with riches and cool breezes. Xɛbyosò or Hɛvioso is the spirit of thunder. Gŭ is the spirit of metal and blacksmithing, and in more recent decades has come to be associated with metal vehicles like cars, trains, and planes. Gbădu

4340-488: Is the wife of Fá. Tron is the spirit of the kola nut ; he was recently introduced to the Vodún pantheon via Ewe speakers from Ghana and Togo. Some Beninese acknowledge that certain Yoruba orisa are more powerful than certain vodún . Also part of the Vodun worldview is the azizǎ , a type of forest spirit. Prayers to the vodún usually include requests for financial wealth. Practitioners seek to gain well-being by focusing on

4464-503: The Annual Customs of Dahomey . Typically, a message to the spirits will be spoken into the animal's ear and its throat will then be cut. The shrine itself will be covered in the victim's blood. This is done to feed the spirit by nourishing its acɛ . Practitioners believe that this act maintains the relationship between humans and the spirits. The meat will be cooked and consumed by the attendees, something believed to bestow blessing from

4588-510: The Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based. Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds . They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. " Jesus is Lord " is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with

4712-740: The Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. In the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem ), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to Islam , including some of the Christian populations in pre-Islamic Arabia , and placing the rest under a separate legal status . Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with Persia . Beginning in

4836-614: The Celtic , the Baltic and some Slavic peoples . Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and Kingdom of Italy culture and Benedict of Nursia set out his Monastic Rule , establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries . Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland , Scotland , and Gaul , contributing to

4960-617: The Church of the East (600,000). Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity ( ecumenism ). In the West , Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence , with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of

5084-507: The Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches. Other reformers like Zwingli , Oecolampadius , Calvin , Knox , and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism , which repudiated the primacy of the pope ,

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5208-516: The Gbé languages of the Niger-Congo language family . It translates as "spirit", "god", "divinity", or "presence". Among Fon-speaking Yoruba communities, the Fon term vodún is regarded as being synonymous with the Yoruba language term òrìs̩à . The art historian Suzanne Preston Blier called these "mysterious forces or powers that govern the world and the lives of those who reside within it". The religion

5332-715: The Inquisition , were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution. The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation , Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses 1517 against the sale of indulgences . Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521

5456-723: The Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation , which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations. Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During

5580-435: The New Testament . It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with over 2.4 billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population . Its adherents, known as Christians , are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories . Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches , and doctrinally diverse concerning justification and

5704-420: The Old Testament . The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept . The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus , sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life . While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over

5828-725: The Oriental Orthodox , taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person . The Athanasian Creed , received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding

5952-829: The Restoration Movement , such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) , the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada , and the Churches of Christ . The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus's coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of

6076-813: The Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire (380). The Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology (5th century), while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East–West Schism (1054). Protestantism split into numerous denominations from

6200-695: The State church of the Roman Empire . As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land. Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Lutheranism , Anglicanism , and many other Protestant churches. Nicaea

6324-531: The World Council of Churches . The Apostles' Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church , Lutheranism , Anglicanism , and Western Rite Orthodoxy . It

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6448-871: The dechristianization of France during the French Revolution , the Spanish Civil War , and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism . Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era . In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with

6572-498: The state religion in Armenia in the early 4th century AD, making Armenia the first officially Christian state. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier. Constantine I was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed. During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians

6696-465: The vodún for the person eating it. The individual who killed the animal will often take ritual precautions to pacify their victim and discourage their spirit from taking vengeance upon them. Among followers in the United States, where butchery skills are far rarer, it is less common for practitioners to eat the meat. Also present in the U.S. are practitioners who have rejected the role of animal sacrifice in Vodun, deeming it barbaric. Initiation bestows

6820-652: The vodún , the most prominent of which is Fá , itself governed by a society of initiates. Amid the Atlantic slave trade of the 16th to the 19th century, vodúnsɛntó were among the enslaved Africans transported to the Americas. There, their traditional religions influenced the development of new religions such as Haitian Vodou , Louisiana Voodoo , and Brazilian Candomblé Jejé . Since the 1990s, there have been growing efforts to encourage foreign tourists to visit West Africa and receive initiation into Vodún. Many vodúnsɛntó practice their traditional religion alongside Christianity, for instance by interpreting Jesus Christ as

6944-415: The 6th century AD. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of

7068-501: The 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom . The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration. In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. In

7192-415: The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade . The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the Latin Church of Western Christianity branch,

7316-657: The Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century). Following the Age of Discovery (15th–17th century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work , evangelism , immigration and extensive trade. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization , particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages . The six major branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (1.3 billion people), Protestantism (625 million-900 million), Eastern Orthodoxy (230 million), Oriental Orthodoxy (60 million), Restorationism (35 million), and

7440-484: The Christian case, through their new encounter with other traditions." For Cobb, engaging in interfaith dialogue helps smooth the tension between Christianity and Judaism and avoid misunderstanding toward Islam . In a 2017 article, sociologist Steve Bruce pointed out that most of the published writings in which multiple religious belonging is studied are purely conceptual and offer "only anecdotes to illustrate theoretical or classificatory discussions". Bruce argued that

7564-489: The Creator and other vodus are known by different names, such as Sakpo-Disa (Mawu), Aholu (Sakpata), and Anidoho (Da), Gorovodu. Among the Fon, a common belief is that the head is the seat of a person's soul. The head is thus of symbolic importance in Vodún. Some Vodún traditions specifically venerate spirits of deceased humans. The Mama Tchamba tradition for instances honours slaves from the north who are believed to have become ancestors of contemporary Ewe people. Similarly,

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7688-452: The Fon and Ayizo area of southern Benin are commonly called bǒciɔ ("bǒ cadaver"). These bǒciɔ are often kept within a shrine or house—sometimes concealed in the rafters or under a bed—although in some places have also been situated outside, in public spaces. Although bǒciɔ are not intended as representations of vodún , early European travellers who encountered these objects labelled them " idols " and " fetishes ". Another belief in Vodún

7812-493: The Fon word hùngán . These practitioners may advertise their ritual services using radio, television, billboard adverts, and the internet. There are individuals who claim the title of the "supreme child of Vodún in Benin", however there are competing claimants to the title and it is little recognised outside Ouidah. The forest is a major symbol in Vodún. Vodun practitioners believe that many natural materials contain supernatural powers, including leaves, meteorites, kaolin, soil from

7936-525: The Gorovodu tradition also venerates enslaved northerners, who are described as being from the Hausa, Kaybe, Mossi, and Tchamba ethnicities. An important concept in Vodún is acɛ , a notion also shared by Yoruba religion and various African diasporic religions influenced by them. Landry defined acɛ as "divine power". It is the acɛ of an object that is deemed to provide it with its power and efficacy. The anthropologist Dana Rush noted that Vodun "permeates virtually all aspects of life for its participants". As

8060-426: The Japanese can belong to several religions that do not conflict with each other in terms of social and ethical issues. Scholars such as Catherine Cornille , Peter C. Phan , Francis Xavier Clooney , Jan Van Bragt , Aloysius Pieris and Devaka Premawardhana have questioned the possibility of defining oneself into multiple religions. For these scholars, "religious belonging" is not an individual's subjective sense of

8184-468: The Jewish commandments. Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ , and participation in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed. At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles , and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in

8308-413: The Netherlands and Frisia . Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War , the English Civil War , and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration . In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite

8432-452: The Persons nor dividing the Substance ". Most Christians ( Catholic , Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox , and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above. Certain Evangelical Protestants , though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in

8556-421: The Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where

8680-498: The Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods. The Diocletianic Persecution beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan . While Proto-orthodox Christianity was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs. Gnostic Christianity developed a duotheistic doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin. With only

8804-489: The Sea, Gû: Vodun of Iron and War, Agê: Vodun of Agriculture and Forests, Jo: Vodun of Air, and Lêgba: Vodun of the Unpredictable. The Creator embodies a dual cosmogonic principle of which Mawu the moon and Lisa the sun are respectively the female and male aspects, often portrayed as the twin children of the Creator. In other stories, Mawu-Lisa is depicted as a single hermaphroditic person capable of impregnating herself, with two faces rather than being twins. In other branches,

8928-663: The West , the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo 's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals . The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While Arianists instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the Massacre of Verden , for example), Catholicism also spread among the Hungarians , the Germanic ,

9052-801: The West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance. The later rise of Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa and the Nubian Church in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia). With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in

9176-589: The ancestors. Some people also make these masks, but do not consecrate or use them, for sale on the international art market, but other members of the society disapprove of this practice. Possession is part of most Vodún cults. Rosenthal noted, from her ethnographic research in Togo, that females were more often possessed than males. Her research also found children as young as 10 being possessed, although most were over 15. In some vodún groups, priests will rarely go into possession trance as they are responsible for overseeing

9300-587: The assymmetricality in which Jesus is the Logos made flesh and the climax of God dealing with humankind. In an attempt to resonate with one's cultural identity and tradition, Phan explained that multiple religious belonging is necessary in order for practitioners of multiple belonging to treat other religions as a qualifier of their identity. This approach, according to Phan, does not deny one's Christian identity, which functions as substantive in relation to non-Christian religion. Phan noted that multiple religious belonging

9424-413: The broader ceremony. The possessed person is often referred to as the vodún itself. Once the person has received the spirit, they will often be dressed in attire suitable for that possessing entity. The possessed will address other attendees, offering them advice on illnesses, conduct, and making promises. When a person is possessed, they may be cared for by another individual. Those possessed often enjoy

9548-465: The churches of Rome. Its points include: The Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism , at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. The Chalcedonian Definition , or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by

9672-446: The conservative segment of Christianity tends to question the inclusivistic view of multiple religious belonging because it implies that salvation can be found from somewhere else other than Jesus Christ. In a 2010 article, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen , a systematic theologian, questioned the approach of "othering" those that have traditions different from Christians' because God is the one who offers salvation; Christians only witness it. It

9796-686: The contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of Renaissance art . Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution . Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus , Galileo Galilei , Johannes Kepler , Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle . In

9920-429: The crossroads, the feathers of African grey parrots, turtle shells, and dried chameleons. Landry stated that a connection to the natural environment was "a dominant theme" in the religion. The forest in particular is important in Vodun cosmology, and learning the power of the forest and of particular leaves that can be found there is a recurring theme among practitioners. Leaves, according to Landry, are "building blocks for

10044-502: The decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches . In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death . Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews

10168-429: The distinctive disciplines of theology and Hinduism are "mutually enriching". By applying this approach, according to Clooney, one can start within his or her "home" tradition, enter a different tradition and return to his or her tradition, which is enriched and reformulated after crossing boundaries. While scholars studying multiple religious belonging attempt to appreciate other religions' traditions besides their own,

10292-624: The diversity in the world nowadays, especially with respect to the flourishing of different religions. For Clooney, reflecting on one's religion in this pluralistic world is necessary, so that we can "see the others in light of our own, and our own in light of the other." Focusing on the study of scriptural and theological texts, Clooney compares them between Christian traditions and non-Christian religions, to "cross boundaries" to other traditions, so that one would re-think their own theology, which would thus shape their identity. After more than 40 years of studying Hinduism, Clooney concluded that he finds

10416-689: The division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. Lutheranism spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, Livonia , and Scandinavia. Anglicanism was established in England in 1534. Calvinism and its varieties, such as Presbyterianism , were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. Arminianism gained followers in

10540-529: The dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity. Christianity spread to Aramaic -speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire , including Mesopotamia , which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in

10664-400: The earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and " true God and true man " (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human , suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin . As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the New Testament , he rose from the dead, ascended to heaven,

10788-533: The early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny . In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools became universities (see, for example, University of Oxford , University of Paris and University of Bologna ). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools ( Scholae monasticae ), led by monks and nuns . Evidence of such schools dates back to

10912-682: The early Christian tradition, with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background. Christianity began in the 1st century , after the death of Jesus, as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence in the Roman province of Judaea . The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution . The inclusion of Gentiles led Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism (2nd century). Emperor Constantine I decriminalized Christianity in

11036-514: The era known as the Great Divergence , when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies , such as versions of socialism and liberalism . Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as

11160-712: The establishment of Christianity as an independent religion. This formative period was followed by the early bishops , whom Christians consider the successors of Christ's apostles . From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers , and the study of them is called patristics . Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch , Polycarp , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , Tertullian , Clement of Alexandria and Origen . Persecution of Christians occurred intermittently and on

11284-402: The few attempts to gather empirical data on the phenomenon have conflated a variety of different attitudes that should not be given the label of "multiple religious belonging", attitudes such as: universalistic re-interpretation of multiple religions, multiple religious association through family ties, multiple religious interest or sympathies, ancillary religious respect for a specific aspect of

11408-519: The following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe,

11532-547: The health and remembrance of their families. There may be restrictions on who can venerate the deity; practitioners believe that women must be kept apart from Gbădu's presence, for if they get near her they may be struck barren or die. Devotion to a particular deity may be marked in different ways; devotees of the smallpox spirit Sakpatá for instance scar their bodies to resemble smallpox scars. Patterns of Vodun worship follow various dialects, spirits, practices, songs, and rituals. The divine Creator , called variously Mawu or Mahu ,

11656-497: The idea that individuals can belong to more than one religious tradition. While this is often seen as a common reality in regions such as Asia with its many non-exclusionary religions (such as Hinduism , Buddhism , Taoism , and Confucianism ), religious scholars have begun to discuss multiple religion belonging with respect to religious traditions such as Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . Those who practice double belonging claim to be an adherent of two different religions at

11780-709: The last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians , most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon . While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of

11904-647: The middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage . Mark the Evangelist is claimed to have started the Church of Alexandria in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church . Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian , Clement of Alexandria , Origen of Alexandria , Cyprian , Athanasius , and Augustine of Hippo . King Tiridates III made Christianity

12028-677: The monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans , founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic , respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the Cistercians , whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in

12152-418: The natural world. When kings introduced new deities to the Fon people, it was often believed that these enhanced the king's power. The cult of each vodún has its own particular beliefs and practices. It may also have its own restrictions on membership, with some groups only willing to initiate family members. People may venerate multiple vodún , sometimes also attending services at a Christian church. Lɛgbà

12276-534: The nature of salvation , ecclesiology , ordination , and Christology . The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God —the Logos incarnated —who ministered , suffered , and died on a cross , but rose from the dead for the salvation of humankind; and referred to as the gospel , meaning the "good news". The four canonical gospels of Matthew , Mark , Luke and John describe Jesus's life and teachings as preserved in

12400-482: The now-Catholic Church, and an Eastern , largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church ). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy . The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement

12524-559: The orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the desire to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished. From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II , the First Crusade was launched. These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from

12648-675: The papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council , and in Germany would lead directly to the Kulturkampf . Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own, particularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia , while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over

12772-402: The peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization , and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture. There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy , as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek. Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on

12896-590: The possibility for adherents of a religion such as Christianity to belong to multiple religions. The approach to Christian multiple religious belonging, according to Devaka Premawardhana, can be divided into two trends: Peter Phan 's approach based on a Christological ground, in which he emphasises on Christ's "asymmetrically superior status", and Francis Clooney 's approach rooted in a methodological ground, which tries to cross boundaries into another religion just as religions must have discrete entities. These two approaches are summarised below. Phan's approach emphasised

13020-461: The practitioner, the spirit is installed within these shrines. It is the objects added, and the rituals performed while adding them, that are deemed to give the spirit its earthly power. An animal will usually be sacrificed to ensure the spirit manifests within the shrine; it is believed that the animal charges the spirit's acɛ, which gives the shrine life. For shrines to Lɛgbà, for instance, a rooster force-fed red palm oil will often by buried alive at

13144-453: The prestige of having hosted their deities. Vodun involves animal sacrifices to both ancestors and other spirits, a practice called vɔ in Fon. Animal species commonly used for sacrifice include birds, dogs, cats, goats, rams, and bulls. There is ample evidence that in parts of West Africa, human sacrifice was also performed prior to European colonisation, such as in the Dahomey kingdom during

13268-588: The resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15 ) and the most important event in history. Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified , died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. Multiple religious belonging Multiple religious belonging , also known as double belonging , refers to

13392-417: The role of tradition, the seven sacraments , and other doctrines and practices. The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England . Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved . Thomas Müntzer , Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of

13516-478: The same time or incorporate the practices of another religion into their own faith life. It is increasing with globalisation. One such example is a person attending a Christian church but also finding meaning in yoga and in forms of meditation inspired by Eastern traditions, and enjoying attending a Jewish Seder at Passover . The phenomenon of double belonging can occur within the same religion, where people hold membership in more than one denomination, for example

13640-472: The same". It is part of the same network of religions that include Yoruba religion as well as African diasporic tradition like Haitian Vodou, Cuban Santería , and Brazilian Candomblé . As a result of centuries of interaction between Fon and Yoruba peoples, Landry noted that Vodún and Yoruba religion were "at times, indistinguishable or at least, blurry". Vodún is a fragmented religion divided into "independent small cult units" devoted to particular spirits. As

13764-457: The shrine are dependent on the identity of the spirit being enshrined there. Fá for instance is enshrined in 16 palm nuts, while Xɛbyosò's shrines require sò kpɛn ("thunderstones') believed to have been created where lightning struck the earth. Gbǎdù, as the "mother of creation," often requires that her shrines incorporate a vagina, either of a deceased family matriarch or of an animal, along with camwood, charcoal, kaolin, and mud. Lɛgbà, meanwhile,

13888-449: The shrine as a means of revitalising its power. At many shrines, years of dried blood and palm oil have left a patina across the shrine and offering vessels. Some have been maintained for hundreds of years. Shrines may also be adorned and embellished with new objects gifted by devotees. Shrines of Yalódè for instance may be adorned in brass bracelets, and those of Xɛbyosò with carved wooden axes. Although these objects are not seen as part of

14012-548: The spirit world with the help of a Vodun priest ( vodunon ). In Vodún, belief is centred around efficacy rather than Christian notions of faith . There is also an underlying philosophical framing underpinning Vodun which, according to Suzanne Preston Blier, who undertook a year of research in 1985–86 in Abomey and the nearby area, highlights the importance of remaining calm in contexts of difficulty and in life more generally. According to Blier, Vodun means, "the idea of staying close to

14136-536: The spirit's material body itself, they are thought to carry the deity's divine essence. The Oró and Egúngún groups are all-male secret societies. In Beninese society, these groups command respect through fear. In contemporary Benin, it is common for a young man to be initiated into both societies on the same day. A culture of secrecy surrounds the Egúngún society. Once initiated, a man will be expected to have his own Egúngún mask made; these masks are viewed as embodiments of

14260-468: The spirits' power and material presence on earth". Leaves will often be immersed in water to create vodùnsin (vodun water), which is used to wash both new shrines and new initiates. The spirit temple is often referred to as the vodúnxɔ or the hunxɔ . This may be located inside a practitioner's home, in a publicly accessible communal area, or hidden in a part of the forest accessible only to initiates. Its location impacts who uses it; some are used only be

14384-435: The spot where the shrine is to be built. When praying at a shrine, it is customary for a worshipper to leave a gift of money for the spirits. There are often also pots around it in which offerings may be placed. Wooden stakes may be impaled into the floor around the shrine as part of an individual's petition. In this material form, the spirits must be maintained, fed, and cared for. Offerings and prayers will be directed towards

14508-402: The state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church. The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism , especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent, often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically

14632-598: The state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg , looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland,

14756-1048: The surrounding countries, where it is a connection between the Yoruba religion and Christianity, the Odinala religion and Christianity, the Bori religion and Islam , or the Bwiti religion and Christianity. In Benin, in addition to the followers of syncretism, there is a large group of people who profess Vodun and Christianity without mixing. This is a – common in Africa – multiple religious belonging . Various syncretisms and eclecticisms are common in West Africa . In addition to Christian services (mostly, but not exclusively, in Benin), believers also visit Vodun initiates, use traditional household protection fetishes and personal protective gris-gris amulets. They cultivate respect for deceased ancestors and communicate with

14880-537: The world, particularly in the Middle East , North Africa , East Asia , and South Asia . Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' ( Koinē Greek : τῆς ὁδοῦ , romanized:  tês hodoû ), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3 , "prepare the way of the Lord". According to Acts 11:26 , the term "Christian" ( Χρῑστῐᾱνός , Khrīstiānós ), meaning "followers of Christ" in reference to Jesus's disciples ,

15004-460: Was ended with the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population. Influenced by his adviser Mardonius , Constantine's nephew Julian unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity. On 27 February 380, Theodosius I , Gratian , and Valentinian II established Nicene Christianity as

15128-407: Was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" ( Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός , Khrīstiānismós ) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100  AD . The name Jesus comes from Ancient Greek : Ἰησοῦς Iēsous , likely from Hebrew / Aramaic : יֵשׁוּעַ Yēšūaʿ. Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as

15252-400: Was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290 , the first of many such expulsions in Europe. Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly referred to as

15376-457: Was the first of a series of ecumenical councils , which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology . The Church of the East did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors ( Assyrian Church of the East ). In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of

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