Misplaced Pages

#403596

125-427: Built in two stages during the 13th and 14th century, approximately 3.44 km (2.14 mi) of its original 3.6 km (2.2 mi) still stands. Of the 29 large and 22 smaller towers, 27 large and 9 small remain. A number of houses that predate the wall were incorporated within it during one of the two phases of construction. During the 18th century, fortifications were added to the wall in several places and some of

250-732: A dependent territory . Little evidence remains in the Nordic countries of the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, or the Iron Age with the exception of a limited numbers of tools created from stone, bronze and iron, some jewelry and ornaments and stone burial cairns. However, one important collection that exists is a widespread and rich collection of stone drawings known as petroglyphs . The Goths , who originated in southern Scandinavia and would later divide into Visigoths and Ostrogoths , are known to have been one of

375-630: A retaliatory strike in conjunction with the German attack on the Soviet Union. However, more territory was lost and for many years to come Finnish foreign policy was based on appeasing the Soviet Union , even though Finland was able to retain its democratic form of government. Denmark and Norway were occupied by Germany in 1940. The Allies responded by occupying Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Sweden managed to formally maintain its neutrality in

500-427: A base coat is applied with a common mix of 4 parts sand to one part cement and one part dehydrated lime and water to make a consistent mortar. Render is applied using a hawk and trowel and pushed on about 12 mm thick to begin. For two coat, some plasterers apply two full depth bands of render (one at the base of the wall and one around chest height) which are screeded plumb and square and allowed to dry while applying

625-498: A base, to which a certain proportion of another substance, such as alum , borax or carbonate of soda , is added, and the whole baked or calcined at a low temperature. The plaster they contain causes them to set quickly with a very hard smooth surface, which may be painted or papered within a few hours of its being finished. In Australia , plaster or cement render that is applied to external brickwork on dwellings or commercial buildings can be one or two coats. In two coat render

750-642: A clear day. Even excluding Greenland and the Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen , the remaining part of the Nordic countries covers around 1.3 million square kilometres. This is about the same area as France, Germany and Italy together. To the south, the countries neighbor the Baltic states , Poland, Germany and the United Kingdom, while to the north there is the Arctic Ocean . Notable natural features of

875-418: A coat of well-haired coarse stuff composed either of good hydraulic lime or of Portland cement. This layer is well scratched to give a key for the next coat. The second coat is also composed of coarse stuff knocked up to a smooth and uniform consistency. Two finish two techniques can be used: Sgraffito is the name for scratched ornament in plaster. Scratched ornament is the oldest form of surface decoration, and

1000-406: A fine mist spray to dampen walls when rubbing up (using a wood float to bring a consistent finish). Using a hose brings a superior finish and is more consistent in colour as there is more chance in catching the render before it has a chance to harden too much. After the work area is floated, the surface is finished with a wet sponge using the same method as floating with a wood float, bringing sand to

1125-455: A half ( 1 ⁄ 4  in or 6.4 mm thick), and double ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2  in or 9.5–12.7 mm thick). The thicker laths should be used in ceilings, to stand the extra strain (sometimes they were doubled for extra strength), and the thinner variety in vertical work such as partitions, except where the latter will be subjected to rough usage, in which case thicker laths become necessary. Laths are usually nailed with

1250-488: A hand float on the surface of the rendering, which must first be well wetted. Stucco is a term loosely applied to nearly all kinds of external plastering, whether composed of lime or of cement. At the present time it has fallen into disfavor, but in the early part of the 19th century a great deal of this work was done. Cement has largely superseded lime for this work. The principal varieties of stucco are common, rough, trowelled and bastard. . Roughcast or pebbledash plastering

1375-522: A heavy influence on the weather in the western coastal zones of Iceland, Norway, Denmark and Sweden. The precipitation is high and snow cover during winters is rare. Summers are generally cool. The further away that one gets from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream the colder it gets during the winters. Finland, most of Sweden and the south-eastern part of Norway are influenced by the vast continent to

SECTION 10

#1733085389404

1500-401: A joist or stud. All timbers over 3 inches (76 mm) wide should be counter-lathed, that is, have a fillet or double lath nailed along the centre upon which the laths are then nailed. This is done to preserve a good key for the plaster. Walls liable to damp are sometimes battened and lathed to form an air cavity between the damp wall and the plastering. Lathing in metal, either in wire or in

1625-518: A layer of sponge or expanded polystyrene. Traditionally, plaster was laid onto laths, rather than plasterboard as is more commonplace nowadays. Wooden laths are narrow strips of straight-grained wood depending on availability of species in lengths of from two to four or five feet to suit the distances at which the timbers of a floor or partition are set. Laths are about an inch wide, and are made in three thicknesses; single ( 1 ⁄ 8 to 3 ⁄ 16  in or 3.2 to 4.8 mm thick), lath and

1750-434: A long history of political unions and other close relations but do not form a singular entity today. The Scandinavist movement sought to unite Denmark, Norway and Sweden into one country in the 19th century. With the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden (Norwegian independence), the independence of Finland in the early 20th century and the 1944 Icelandic constitutional referendum , this movement expanded into

1875-891: A major role in the establishment of the early-modern states in Denmark–Norway and Sweden. Sweden was very successful during the Thirty Years' War , while Denmark was a failure. Sweden saw an opportunity of a change of power in the region. Denmark–Norway had a threatening territory surrounding Sweden and the Sound Dues were a continuing irritation for the Swedes. In 1643, the Swedish Privy Council determined Swedish territorial gain in an eventual war against Denmark–Norway to have good chances. Not long after this, Sweden invaded Denmark–Norway. The war ended as foreseen with Swedish victory and with

2000-542: A political dimension in the joint official bodies called the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers. The Helsinki Treaty , signed on 23 March 1962 entered into force on 1 July 1962 and is the political agreement which sets the framework for Nordic cooperation. 23 March is celebrated as the "Nordic Day" as the treaty is sometimes referred to as the constitution of the Nordic cooperation. Several aspects of

2125-453: A product he introduced in 1818. In 1822, in the UK, James Frost patented (another?) process, similar to Vicat's, producing what he called "British cement". Portland cement, patented in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin , was called so because it was supposed to resemble Portland stone. Aspdinís son William, and later Isaac Johnson, improved the production process. A product, very similar to modern Portland cement,

2250-658: A series of plateaux and gently undulating plains . The western parts of the mountains are cut by fjords, producing a dramatic landscape. The landscape of Sweden can be described as a mixture of that of Norway, Finland and Denmark. Except at the High Coast the coastal areas of Sweden form lowlands. Sweden has three highland areas, the South Swedish Highlands , the Scandinavian Mountains and the Norrland terrain which

2375-410: A space of about 3 ⁄ 8 inch (9.5 mm) between them to form a key for the plaster. Laths were formerly all made by hand. Most are now made by machinery and are known as sawn laths, those made by hand being called rent or riven laths. Rent laths give the best results, as they split in a line with the grain of the wood, and are stronger and not so liable to twist as machine-made laths, some of

2500-404: A sponge, the second coat is left rough and sometimes will be scored by nails inserted in the float. After drying, the surface is then scraped to remove loose grains of sand before plastering. If the walls are concrete, a splash coat is needed to ensure bonding. A splash coat is a very wet mix of two parts cement to one part sand that is "splashed" on the wall using the plasterers brush until the wall

2625-497: A variety of cements , and various ingredients to form color washes . While most tools have remained unchanged over the centuries, developments in modern materials have led to some changes. Trowels, originally constructed from steel, are now available in a polycarbonate material that allows the application of certain new, acrylic-based materials without staining the finish. Floats, traditionally made of timber (ideally straight-grained, knot-free, yellow pine), are often finished with

SECTION 20

#1733085389404

2750-416: A veneer and became a more integral part of the building structure. Early 19th century rendered façades were colour-washed with distemper ; oil paint for external walls was introduced around 1840. The 19th century also saw the revival of the use of oil mastics. In the UK, patents were obtained for "compositions" in 1803 (Thomas Fulchner), 1815 (Christopher Dihl) and 1817 (Peter Hamelin). These oil mastics, as

2875-508: A very large boxwood mould collection. In 1774, in France, a mémoire was published on the composition of ancient mortars. This was translated into English as "A Practical Essay on a Cement, and Artificial Stone, justly supposed to be that of the Greeks and Romans" and was published in the same year. Following this, and as a backlash to the disappointment felt due to the repeated failure of oil mastics, in

3000-485: Is construction or ornamentation done with plaster , such as a layer of plaster on an interior or exterior wall structure, or plaster decorative moldings on ceilings or walls. This is also sometimes called pargeting . The process of creating plasterwork, called plastering or rendering , has been used in building construction for centuries. For the art history of three-dimensional plaster, see stucco . The earliest plasters known to us were lime-based. Around 7500 BC,

3125-496: Is a little lower than the United States, but higher than Canada. In round figures, Iceland's population density resembles Canada's. This list includes dependent territories within their sovereign states (including uninhabited territories), but does not include claims on Antarctica . EEZ+TIA is exclusive economic zone (EEZ) plus total internal area (TIA) which includes land and internal waters. The Kingdom of Denmark includes

3250-400: Is a rough form of external plastering in much use for country houses. In Scotland it is termed " harling ". It is one of the oldest forms of external plastering. In Tudor times it was employed to fill in between the woodwork of half-timbered framing. When well executed with good material this kind of plastering is very durable. Roughcasting is performed by first rendering the wall or laths with

3375-404: Is a strong consensus about keeping to the general concept. A central theme in the Nordic model is the "universalist" welfare state aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, promoting social mobility and ensuring the universal provision of basic human rights, as well as for stabilising the economy. In this model welfare is not just aid to those who are in need of it, but a central part of

3500-410: Is applied to about 5 mm thick and when the render hardens is screeded off straight. A wood float or plastic float is used to rub down the walls. Traditionally, water is splashed on walls using a coarse horsehair plasterers brush followed by immediately rubbing the float in a circular or figure 8 motion although a figure of 8 can leave marks. Many modern plasterers use a hose with a special nozzle with

3625-403: Is composed of lime, sand, hair and water in proportions varying according to the nature of the work to be done. The lime mortar principally used for internal plastering is that calcined from chalk , oyster shells or other nearly pure limestone , and is known as fat, pure, chalk or rich lime. Hydraulic limes are also used by the plasterer, but chiefly for external work. Perfect slaking of

3750-416: Is generally used where quality of finish is at a premium. The second method is quicker but can be several millimetres out of plumb. The second coat can be a slightly weaker mix 5/1/1, or the same as the base coat with maybe a water- proofer in the mix added to the water to minimize efflorescence (rising of salts). Some plasterers used lime putty in second coat instead of dehydrated lime in the render. The mortar

3875-568: Is hardly any wild nature left. Most of the scarce forests are plantations and nearly 60 per cent of Denmark's total area is cultivated or zoned as gardens or parks. On the other hand, in the other Nordic countries there is much wild nature left. Only between 0 and 9 per cent of the land in the other Nordic countries is cultivated. Around 17 per cent of the land area in Iceland is used for permanent meadows and pastures and both Finland, Norway as well as Sweden have large forest areas. The Nordic region has

Visby City Wall - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-483: Is much used on the continent of Europe, especially in Germany and Italy, in both external and internal situations. Properly treated, the work is durable, effective and inexpensive. A first coat or rendering of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion of one to three, is laid on about an inch thick; then follows the color coat, sometimes put on in patches of different tints as required for the finished design. When this coat

4125-423: Is nearly dry, it is finished with a smooth-skimming, 1 ⁄ 12 to 1 ⁄ 8 inch (2.1 to 3.2 mm) thick, of Parian, selenitic or other fine cement or lime, only as much as can be finished in one day being laid on. Then by pouncing through the pricked cartoon, the design is transferred to the plastered surface. Broad spaces of background are now exposed by removing the finishing coat, thus revealing

4250-735: Is not represented in the territory concerned, according to the Helsinki Treaty. Since 25 March 2001, the Schengen acquis has fully applied to the five countries of the Nordic Passport Union (except for the Faroe Islands). There are some areas in the Nordic Passport Union that give extra rights for Nordic citizens, not covered by Schengen, such as less paperwork if moving to a different Nordic country and fewer requirements for naturalisation . Plasterwork#Lime plastering Plasterwork

4375-442: Is not so strong as ox-hair. The quantity used in good work is one pound of hair to two or three cubic feet of coarse stuff (in the UK up to 12 kg per metric cube). Hair reinforcement in lime plaster is common and many types of hair and other organic fibres can be found in historic plasters [4]. However, organic material in lime will degrade in damp environments particularly on damp external renders.[5] This problem has given rise to

4500-481: Is reputed to be the oldest working parliament in the world. However, it was dissolved for much of the first half of the 19th century. In Denmark, Iceland and Sweden elections are held at least once every four years. Finland, Åland and Norway have fixed four-year election periods. Elections in the Faroe Islands and Greenland follow the Danish system of elections. The Danish Folketing has 179 seats, including two seats each for

4625-426: Is sometimes substituted or mixed with the ox-hair in the lower qualities. Good hair should be long (In the UK cow and horse hair of short and long lengths is used), and left greasey (lanolin grease) because this protects against some degradation when introduced into the very high alkaline plaster. Before use it must be well beaten, or teased, to separate the lumps. In America, goats ' hair is frequently used, though it

4750-458: Is the best material on account of its strength, durability, and weather resisting external properties, but not on historic structures that are required to flex and breathe; for this, lime without cement is used. Sawdust has been used as a substitute for hair and also instead of sand as an aggregate . Sawdust will enable mortar to stand the effects of frost and rough weather. It is useful sometimes for heavy cornices and similar work, as it renders

4875-537: Is the eastern continuation of the Scandinavian Mountains. The South Swedish Highland and the Norrland terrain are separated by the Central Swedish lowland . The topography of Iceland stands out among the Nordic countries for being a bowl-formed highland. Despite their northern location, the Nordic countries generally have a mild climate compared with other countries that share globally the same latitudes. The climate in

5000-476: Is the strongest, most extensive medieval city wall in Scandinavia and the best preserved. Large parts of the original wall remain intact, and it incorporates the majority of the medieval large full-length towers, so-called "saddle towers" (small towers riding on the wall) and gates. In addition, large parts of the original system of trenches have been preserved outside the wall. The city wall is mostly unencumbered by

5125-455: Is traditionally assumed to be the visible remains of the troops' breach into the town, but is more likely due to a later collapse of this part of the wall. However, it is in the part of the wall where the troops from Lübeck most probably damaged the town's defenses. During the 17th and early 18th century, two caponiers were added to the eastern section of the wall. The defensive purpose of the wall had by that time otherwise completely ceased and

Visby City Wall - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-579: The European Free Trade Association (EFTA). All the Nordic countries are however members of the European Economic Area (EEA). Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, Nordic countries began partnerships with newly liberated neighbouring Baltic states ( Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania ) by opening Nordic council of ministers' offices in the three countries. The Baltic Assembly started to work together with

5375-681: The Germanic people that would later relate to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe . However, these acquired the Latin culture of Rome . The Nordic countries first came into more permanent contact with the rest of Europe during the Viking Age . Southern Finland and northern parts of Sweden and Norway were areas where the Vikings mostly only traded and had raids, whilst

5500-684: The Norderport (North Gate) and 1294 the Snäckgärdsporten (the Snäckgärds Gate). Around the 1290s and early 1300s, about 20 large towers were added between the gates. The construction of the wall was probably connected to conflicts that arose between the town of Visby and the thing or assembly of Gotland, which led to a civil war on the island in 1288 . A part of the wall east of Kvarntornet (the Mill Tower) which has been razed possibly dates from

5625-569: The Protestant Reformation , the main religion became Lutheran Christianity , the state religion of several Nordic countries. Although the area is linguistically heterogeneous, with three unrelated language groups, the common linguistic heritage is one factor that makes up the Nordic identity. Most Nordic languages belong to North Germanic languages , Finno-Ugric languages and Eskimo–Aleut languages . Danish , Norwegian and Swedish are considered mutually intelligible , and they are

5750-465: The Russian invasion of Ukraine , Finland joined NATO in 2023 as did Sweden a year later. The Nordic countries and self-governing regions in alphabetic order – number of inhabitants (2018), area (km ) and population density (people/km ): Denmark is by far the most densely populated country, whilst Sweden, Norway and Finland are low populated and similar to each other from this perspective. Iceland has both

5875-511: The Schengen Area and only a national ID card is required. Within the Nordic area any means of proving one's identity, e.g. a driving licence , is valid for Nordic citizens because of the Nordic Passport Union. When traveling to other countries than the Nordics, public officials in the foreign services of any of the Nordic countries are to assist citizens of another Nordic country if that country

6000-521: The Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645 Denmark–Norway had to cede some of their territories, including Norwegian territories Jemtland , Herjedalen and Idre and Serna , as well as the Danish Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel . The Thirty Years' War thus began the rise of Sweden as a great power , while it marked the start of decline for the Danish. To some extent in the 16th century and certainly in

6125-659: The common market as in the EU have been implemented decades before the EU implemented them. Intra-Nordic trade is not covered by the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG), but by local law. The Nordic countries have cooperated closely in the administrative and consular fields since the Nordic Passport Union was established and the Helsinki Treaty concluded. According to

6250-487: The 11th century, three northern kingdoms emerged in the region: Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Iceland first became a commonwealth before it came under Norwegian rule in the early 13th century. There were several secular powers who aimed to bring Finland under their rule, but through the Second and Third Swedish Crusade in the latter part of 13th and through the colonisation of some coastal areas of Finland with Christian Swedes,

6375-466: The 16th century, a new highly decorative type of decorative internal plasterwork, called scagliola , was invented by stuccoists working in Bavaria. This was composed of gypsum plaster, animal glue and pigments, used to imitate coloured marbles and pietre dure ornament. Sand or marble dust, and lime, were sometimes added. In this same century, the sgraffito technique, also known as graffito or scratchwork

SECTION 50

#1733085389404

6500-532: The 17th, the Nordic region played a major role in European politics at the highest level. The struggle for dominion over the Baltic Sea and its trading opportunities raged between Denmark–Norway and Sweden, which began to impact upon the neighbouring nations. Sweden prevailed in the long term and became a major European power as it extended its reach into coastal tracts in modern-day Russia, Estonia, Latvia, and – following

6625-452: The 1820s. The popularisation of Portland cement changed the composition of stucco, as well as mortar , to a harder material. The development of artificial cements had started early in the 19th century. In 1811, James Frost took out a patent for an artificial cement obtained by lightly calcining ground chalk and clay together. The French Engineer Louis Vicat in 1812–1813 experimented with calcining synthetic mixtures of limestone and clay,

6750-451: The 19th century, various mixtures of modified gypsum plasters, such as Keene's cement, appeared. These materials were developed for use as internal wall plasters, increasing the usefulness of simple plaster of Paris as they set more slowly and were thus easier to use. Tools and materials include trowels , floats, hammers , screeds, hawk , scratching tools, utility knives , laths , lath nails , lime , sand , hair , plaster of Paris ,

6875-752: The Axis/Allies conflict and avoided direct hostilities, but in practice it adapted to the wishes of the dominant power – first Germany, later the Allies. However, during the Winter War between Finland and Russia in 1939–1940, Sweden did support Finland and declared itself "non combatant" rather than neutral. Compared with large parts of Europe, the Nordic region got off lightly during the World War II, which partially explains its strong post-war economic development. The labour movement – both trade unions and political parties –

7000-437: The Faroe Islands and Greenland, which had been re-colonised in the 18th century, became Danish. Population growth and industrialisation brought change to the Nordic countries during the 19th century and new social classes steered political systems towards democracy. International politics and nationalism also created the preconditions for the later independence of Norway in 1905 , Finland in 1917 and Iceland in 1944 . During

7125-689: The Faroe Islands and Greenland. The Finnish Eduskunta has 200 seats, including one seat for Åland. The Icelandic Althing has 63 seats, the Norwegian Storting 169 seats and the Swedish Riksdag 349 seats. The Faroese Løgting has 32 seats, Greenland's Inatsisartut 31 seats and Åland's Lagtinget 30 seats. Nordic citizens – and in the three member countries of the EU also EU citizens – living in another Nordic country are normally entitled to vote in local government elections after three months of residence, while other foreign citizens have to reside in

7250-417: The Helsinki Treaty, public officials in the foreign services of any of the Nordic countries are to assist citizens of another Nordic country if that country is not represented in the territory concerned. Nordic cooperation is based on the Helsinki Treaty. Politically, Nordic countries do not form a separate entity, but they cooperate in the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers . The council

7375-510: The Nordic Council to form the Nordic-Baltic Eight in 1992, while big Baltic companies were bought by Nordic companies in sectors such as banking or telecommunications. In 1999, Estonia started to promote its Nordic heritage (see Nordic identity in Estonia ) while government of Sweden expressed regrets regarding the deportation of Estonian and Latvian soldiers to USSR in 1946. Following

7500-511: The Nordic countries are members of NATO. The Nordic foreign and security policy cooperation became closer and expanded its scope in 2014. The Nordic Council of Ministers is responsible for inter-governmental cooperation. Prime ministers have ultimate responsibility, but this is usually delegated to the Minister for Nordic Cooperation and the Nordic Committee for Co-operation, which coordinates

7625-446: The Nordic countries are situated on the southern parts of the region, with the exception of Reykjavík , the capital of Iceland. Helsinki , Oslo and Stockholm are all close to the same latitude as the southernmost point of Greenland, Egger Island ( Itilleq ): about 60°N . All of Denmark and most of Finland lie below 200 m and the topography of both is relatively flat. In Denmark, moraines and tunnel valleys add some relief to

SECTION 60

#1733085389404

7750-493: The Nordic countries for three to four years before they are eligible to vote. In Denmark and the Faroe Islands, the percentage turn-out at elections is close to 90% per cent, but it is only about 67% in Åland and Finland. Men are more often elected to the national assembly compared to women. The biggest bias between the two sexes is seen in the Faroe Islands and Åland, while in Sweden men and women are close to being equally represented in

7875-681: The Nordic countries include the Norwegian fjords , the Archipelago Sea between Finland and Sweden, the extensive volcanic and geothermal activity of Iceland , and Greenland, which is the largest island in the world. The southernmost point of the Nordic countries is Gedser , on the island of Falster in Denmark. The northernmost point is Kaffeklubben Island in Greenland, which is also the northernmost point of land on Earth. The largest cities and capitals of

8000-522: The Nordic countries is mainly influenced by their northern location, but remedied by the vicinity to the ocean and the Gulf Stream which brings warm ocean currents from the tip of Florida. Even far to the north, the winters can be quite mild, though north of the Polar Circle the climate zone is mostly subarctic with harsh winters and short summers. In Greenland and Svalbard the climate is polar. The sea has

8125-534: The Nordic countries' borders without having their passport checked, but still have to carry some sort of approved travel identification documents. During the 2015 European migrant crisis , temporary border controls were set up between Denmark and Sweden to control the movement of refugees into Sweden. Since 1996, these countries have been part of the larger EU directive Schengen Agreement area, comprising 30 countries in Europe. Border checkpoints have been removed within

8250-445: The Nordic model of economy and social structure to varying degrees. This includes a mixed market economy combined with strong labour unions and a universalist welfare sector financed by high taxes, enhancing individual autonomy and promoting social mobility . There is a high degree of income redistribution, commitment to private ownership and little social unrest. North Germanic peoples , who comprise over three-quarters of

8375-499: The Nordic region was politically united in the loose Kalmar Union . Diverging interests and especially Sweden's dissatisfaction over the Danish dominance gave rise to a conflict that hampered the union from the 1430s onward until its final dissolution in 1523. After the dissolution Denmark and Norway, including Iceland, formed a personal union of the two kingdoms called Denmark–Norway whilst the successful period of Vasa Kings began in Sweden and Finland. The Lutheran Reformation played

8500-650: The North ' ) are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic . It includes the sovereign states of Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway and Sweden ; the autonomous territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland ; and the autonomous region of Åland . The Nordic countries have much in common in their way of life, history , religion and social and economic model . They have

8625-601: The Roman period until the 18th century. Plaster decoration was widely used in Europe in the Middle Ages where, from the mid-13th century, gypsum plaster was used for internal and external plaster. Hair was employed as reinforcement, with additives to assist set or plasticity including malt, urine, beer, milk and eggs. In the 14th century, decorative plasterwork called pargeting was being used in South-East England to decorate

8750-570: The Swedish rule was gradually established in the region. During the Middle Ages , increased trade meant that the Nordic countries became increasingly integrated into Europe and Nordic society became more Continental . The monarchies strengthened their positions in the 12th and 13th centuries through imposing taxes on peasants and a class of nobles also emerged. By the Late Middle Ages, the whole of

8875-600: The Thirty Years' War – also into Pomerania and other North German areas. Sweden also conquered vast areas from Denmark–Norway during the Northern Wars in the middle of the 17th century. Sweden also had several conflicts with Russia over Finland and other eastern areas of the country and after the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Sweden lost most of its territories outside the old Swedish border to Russia which then became

9000-611: The UK in this period included a "Composition or stone paste" patented in 1765 by David Wark. This was a lime-based mix and included "oyls of tar, turpentine and linseed" besides many other ingredients. Another "Composition or cement", including drying oil, was patented in 1773 by Rev. John Liardet. A similar product was patented in 1777 by John Johnson. Widely used by the architect Robert Adam who in turn commissioned George Jackson to produce reverse-cut boxwood moulds (many of which to Adam designs). Jackson formed an independent company which still today produces composition pressings and retains

9125-456: The advent of Foreningen Norden . The term is derived indirectly from the local term Norden , used in the North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages , which means 'The North(ern lands)'. Unlike the Nordic countries , the term Norden is in the singular. The demonym is nordbo , literally meaning 'northern dweller'. Similar or related regional terms include: Norga Italics indicates

9250-400: The beginning of this war, when Visby was captured and plundered. Construction of city walls was unusual in Nordic countries during the Middle Ages, and so the construction of the city wall testifies to Visby's commercial importance during this time. In medieval Sweden , only Stockholm , Kalmar and Visby had city walls. The last major rebuilding of the city wall occurred in the 1350s, when

9375-472: The best limes were those fired from limestones containing a considerable quantity of clay]ey material. In 1796, Revd James Parker patented Parker's " Roman Cement ". This was a hydraulic cement which, when mixed with sand, could be used for stucco. It could also be cast to form mouldings and other ornaments. It was however of an unattractive brown colour, which needed to be disguised by surface finishes. Natural cements were frequently used in stucco mixes during

9500-419: The calcined lime before being used is very important as, if used in a partially slaked condition, it will "blow" when in position and blister the work. Lime should therefore be run as soon as the building is begun, and at least three weeks should elapse between the operation of running the lime and its use. Hair is used in plaster as a binding medium, and gives tenacity to the material. Traditionally horsehair

9625-651: The colored plaster beneath, and following this the outlines of the rest of the design are scratched with an iron knife through the outer skimming to the underlying tinted surface. Sometimes the coats are in three different colors, such as brown for the first, red for the second, and white or grey for the final coat. The pigments used for this work include Indian red, Turkey red, Antwerp blue, German blue, umber, ochre, purple brown, bone black or oxide of manganese for black. Combinations of these colors are made to produce any desired tone. Plasters are applied in successive coats or layers on walls or lathing and gains its name from

9750-581: The countries are among the wealthiest worldwide and there is little social unrest. In 2015, Save the Children ranked the Nordic countries as number 1–5 of countries where mothers and children fare the best (among 179 countries studied). Nordic parliaments are all based on a one-chamber system . The Norwegian parliament, the Storting , did actually function as two separate chambers until 2009 when dealing with certain issues. The Icelandic Althing , founded in 930 AD,

9875-588: The day-to-day work. The autonomous territories have the same representation as states. The Nordic countries share an economic and social model, which involves the combination of a market economy with a welfare state financed with heavy taxes. The welfare states were largely developed by strong social democrat parties and in Finland with cooperation with the Agrarian League . Although the specifics differ between countries and there are ongoing political arguments, there

10000-496: The east which results in warm and long summers and clear and cold winters, often with snow. For example, Bergen at the west coast of Norway normally has a temperature above zero in February while Helsinki in Finland normally will have a temperature of 7–8 °C below zero during the same month. Climatic conditions and quality of land have determined how land is used in the Nordic countries. In densely populated mainland Denmark there

10125-480: The erection of the land-facing wall. This first wall was approximately 5-to-6-metre (16 to 20 ft) tall. On the town-side, the wall had a raised platform for archers with regularly spaced openings for firing arrows while between the narrow openings there were arrowslits . According to dendrochronological examinations , the Österport (the East Gate) was built no earlier than 1286, followed by two more in c. 1289:

10250-442: The exterior of timber-framed buildings. This is a form of incised, moulded or modelled ornament, executed in lime putty or mixtures of lime and gypsum plaster. During this same period, terracotta was reintroduced into Europe and was widely used for the production of ornament. In the mid-15th century, Venetian skilled workers developed a new type of external facing, called marmorino made by applying lime directly onto masonry. In

10375-399: The fibers of which are usually cut in the process of sawing. Laths must be nailed so as to break joint in bays three or four feet wide with ends butted one against the other. By breaking the joints of the lathing in this way, the tendency for the plaster to crack along the line of joints is diminished and a better key is obtained. Every lath should be nailed at each end and wherever it crosses

10500-488: The finished surface was often painted or decorated. Modelled stucco was employed throughout the Roman Empire. The Romans used mixtures of lime and sand to build up preparatory layers over which finer applications of gypsum , lime, sand and marble dust were made; pozzolanic materials were sometimes added to produce a more rapid set. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the addition of marble dust to plaster to allow

10625-409: The first coat over the remaining exposed wall. The render is then scratched to provide a key for the second coat. This method allows the rest of the wall to be rendered and screeded off without the need to continually check if the second coat is plumb. Alternatively, both coats can be applied with the plasterer using a t-bar to screed the final coat until it is plumb, straight and square. The first method

10750-679: The form of perforated galvanised sheets, is now extensively used on account of its fireproof and lasting quality. There are many kinds of this material in different designs, the best known in England being the Jhilmil, the Bostwick, Lathing, and Expanded Metal lathing. The two last-named are also widely used in the United States. Lathing nails are usually of iron, cut, wrought or cast, and in the better class of work they are galvanized to prevent rusting. Zinc nails are sometimes used, but are costly. Lime plastering

10875-416: The gap between them. When the height of the wall was increased during the second building phase, solid limestone stabilized with lime mortar was added on top of the first wall. Due to this, most of the weight of the wall is carried by the two thinner outer stone layers of the first wall. The joints of lime mortar in these layers were reinforced with stronger cement during 20th century restorations. Originally,

11000-504: The hemp fiber being undamaged. For fine plasterer's sand-work, special sands are used, such as silver sand, which is used when a light color and fine texture are required. In the United Kingdom this fine white sand is procured chiefly from Leighton Buzzard; also in the UK many traditional plasters had crushed chalk as the aggregate, this made a very flexible plaster suitable for timber-frame buildings. For external work Portland cement

11125-463: The home-rule ( hjemmestyre ) territory of the Faroe Islands and the self-rule ( selvstyre ) territory of Greenland . The Nordic countries have a combined area of around 3.5 million square kilometres and their geography is extremely varied. The area is so vast that it covers five time zones . To the east the region borders Russia, and on the west the Canadian coastline can be seen from Greenland on

11250-418: The landscape while in Finland the surroundings of lakes Pielinen and Päijänne display some moderate relief. The Finnish area just east of Bothnian Bay stands out as the largest plain in the Nordic countries. The Scandinavian Mountains dominate the landscape of Norway. The southern part of the Scandinavian Mountains is broader than the northern one and contains higher peaks. The southern part contains also

11375-485: The life of everybody: education is free, healthcare has zero or nominal fees in most cases, most children go to municipal day care, etc. The Nordic model is distinguished from other types of welfare states by its emphasis on maximising labour force participation, promoting gender equality, egalitarian and extensive benefit levels, the large magnitude of income redistribution and liberal use of expansionary fiscal policy. Trade unions are strong. The model has been successful:

11500-411: The lowest population and by far the lowest population density. But large areas in Finland, Norway and Sweden, like most of Iceland, are unpopulated. There are no such areas in Denmark. Denmark has a population density around continental average, higher than for instance France and Poland but lower when compared to the United Kingdom, Italy or Germany. Finland, Norway and Sweden has a population density that

11625-413: The material light and strong. The sawdust should be used dry. The sawdust is used to bind the mix sometimes to make it go further. The first coat or rendering is from 1 ⁄ 2 to 3 ⁄ 4 inches thick, and is mixed in the proportions of from one part of cement to two of sand to one part to five of sand. The finishing or setting coat is about 3 ⁄ 16 inches thick, and is worked with

11750-582: The modern organised Nordic cooperation. Since 1962, this cooperation has been based on the Helsinki Treaty that sets the framework for the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers . The Nordic countries cluster near the top in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life and human development. Each country has its own economic and social model, sometimes with large differences from its neighbours. Still, they share aspects of

11875-472: The national assembly. The Nordic Passport Union, created in 1954 and implemented on 1 May 1958, allows citizens of the Nordic countries: Denmark (Faroe Islands included since 1 January 1966, Greenland not included), Sweden, Norway (Svalbard, Bouvet Island and Queen Maud Land not included), Finland and Iceland (since 24 September 1965) to cross approved border districts without carrying and having their passport checked. Other citizens can also travel between

12000-665: The new major power in Northern Europe. After the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), the political map of the Nordic countries altered again. In 1809, Finland was conquered by Russian Empire from Sweden in the Finnish War , after which Finland became the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland . In turn, Sweden captured Norway from Denmark in 1814 in the Swedish–Norwegian War and started a Union between Sweden and Norway . Iceland,

12125-500: The north and south the wall climbs the slope known as the Klinten , towards the east where the highest elevation reaches about 40 metres (130 ft). Nordic countries 2 autonomous territories 1 autonomous region 2 unincorporated areas 1 dependency 2 Antarctic claims The Nordic countries (also known as the Nordics or Norden ; lit.   '

12250-413: The number of these coats. The process for three coat work is as follows: The composition of an interior three coat plaster: The hard cements used for plastering, such as Parian, Keene's, and Martin's, are laid generally in two coats, the first of cement and sand 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick, the second or setting coat of neat cement about 1/8 inch thick. These and similar cements have gypsum as

12375-418: The ones before them, also proved to be short-lived. Moulded or cast masonry substitutes, such as cast stone and poured concrete , became popular in place of quarried stone during the 19th century. However, this was not the first time "artificial stone" had been widely used. Coade Stone , a brand name for a cast stone made from fired clay, had been developed and manufactured in England from 1769 to 1843 and

12500-593: The people of 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan used lime mixed with unheated crushed limestone to make plaster which was used on a large scale for covering walls, floors, and hearths in their houses. Often, walls and floors were decorated with red, finger-painted patterns and designs. In ancient India and China, renders in clay and gypsum plasters were used to produce a smooth surface over rough stone or mud brick walls, while in early Egyptian tombs, walls were coated with lime and gypsum plaster and

12625-414: The permanent settlements of Vikings in the Nordic region were in southern Norway and Sweden, Denmark and Faroes as well as parts of Iceland, Greenland and Estonia . Christian Europe responded to the raids and conquest of Vikings with intensive missionary work. The missionaries wanted the new territories to be ruled by Christian kings who would help to strengthen the church. After conversion to Christianity in

12750-500: The presence of modern buildings with very few visible from outside the wall. Taken as a whole, this provides for a uniquely genuine picture of what a medieval city wall was like in its original state. The wall was built during two periods, the 13th and the 14th century. It is made from locally quarried limestone, rubble limestone filling, fat lime mortar and clay mortar . The first wall was lower than at present and constructed as two thin walls of solid limestone with rubble used to fill

12875-515: The production of fine detail and a hard, smooth finish in hand-modelled and moulded decoration was not used until the Renaissance. Around the 4th century BC, the Romans discovered the principles of the hydraulic set of lime, which by the addition of highly reactive forms of silica and alumina, such as volcanic earths , could solidify rapidly even under water. There was little use of hydraulic mortar after

13000-530: The region had over 27 million people. Especially in English, Scandinavia is sometimes used as a synonym for the Nordic countries, but that term more properly refers to the three monarchies of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Geologically, the Scandinavian Peninsula comprises the mainland of Norway and Sweden and the northernmost part of Finland. The term Nordic countries found mainstream use after

13125-643: The region's population, are the largest ethnic group, followed by the Baltic Finnic Peoples , who comprise the majority in Finland; other ethnic groups are the Greenlandic Inuit , the Sami people and recent immigrants and their descendants. Historically, the main religion in the region was Norse paganism . This gave way first to Roman Catholicism after the Christianisation of Scandinavia . Then, following

13250-550: The relative representation of the political parties in those parliaments. It holds its main session in the autumn, while a so-called "theme session" is arranged in the spring. Each of the national delegations has its own secretariat in the national parliament. The autonomous territories – Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Åland – also have Nordic secretariats. The Council does not have any formal power on its own, but each government has to implement any decisions through its country's legislative assembly. All of

13375-477: The render doesn't bond completely with the wall, either because the wall is too smooth, a coat is too thick, or the coat is being floated when the render has hardened too much, leaving an air space that makes a drumming sound when a metal tool is "rubbed" over it. For internal walls, two coats is the standard and follows the same method as for external rendering but with a weaker mix of five or six sand to one cement and one lime. However, instead of being finished with

13500-409: The second half of the 18th century water-based renders gained popularity once more. Mixes for renders were patented, including a "Water Cement, or Stucco" consisting of lime, sand, bone ash and lime-water (Dr Bryan Higgins, 1779). Various experiments mixing different limes with volcanic earths took place in the 18th century. John Smeaton (from 1756) experimented with hydraulic limes and concluded that

13625-469: The surface to give a smooth consistent finish. Materials used in the render are commonly local sands with little clay content with fine to coarse grains. Sand finish is common for external render and may be one or two coats. Plasterers use a t-bar to screed the walls until it is plumb, straight and square. Two coat is superior as, although more expensive, it gives a more consistent finish and has less chance of becoming drummy or cracking. Drumminess occurs when

13750-565: The towers rebuilt to accommodate cannons. The oldest part of the city wall is a defensive tower, today called the Kruttornet (the Gunpowder Tower), which was erected at the harbor entrance in the 12th century, making it the oldest surviving non-religious building in the Nordic countries . It was not until the 1270s and 1280s, that the building of a proper defense for the town of Visby started, with

13875-543: The two world wars and the Cold War , the five small Nordic states were forced into difficult balancing acts, but retained their independence and developed peaceful democracies. The Nordic states had been neutral during World War I , but during World War II they could no longer stand apart from world politics. The Soviet Union attacked Finland in 1939 and Finland ceded territory following the Winter War . In 1941, Finland launched

14000-504: The use of polyprolene fibres and cellulose wood fibres in new lime renders [6] Manila hemp fiber has been used as a substitute for hair. Plaster for hair slabs made with manila hemp fiber broke at 195 lb (88 kg), plaster mixed with sisal hemp at 150 lb (68 kg), jute at 145 lb (66 kg), and goats' hair at 144 lb (65 kg). Another test was made in the following manner. Two barrels of mortar were made up of equal proportions of lime and sand, one containing

14125-462: The usual quantity of goats' hair, and the other Manila fiber. After remaining in a dry cellar for nine months the barrels were opened. It was found that the hair had been almost entirely eaten away by the action of the lime, and the mortar consequently broke up and crumbled quite easily. The mortar containing the Manila hemp, on the other hand, showed great cohesion, and required some effort to pull it apart,

14250-505: The wall had 29 large regular towers and 22 small towers riding on top of the wall, 27 of the large and 9 of the small towers remain. It was approximately 3.6 km (2.2 mi), of which 3.44 km (2.14 mi) is still standing. The wall encloses the old town of Visby which is built on a steep slope facing the Baltic Sea . The west part of the wall nearest the sea, is built on land approximately 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level. To

14375-426: The wall survived mainly in its capacity as a toll barrier. When domestic tolls were abolished in Sweden in 1810, the city wall was already a known landmark, which guaranteed its survival. The city wall was restored in 1884 to 1886 by architect Emil Victor Langlet . In 2012, a 10 metres (33 ft) long section of the outer dressing of the wall collapsed. Restoration of the collapsed section began in 2013. The wall

14500-626: The wall was rebuilt in 1363. The corner tower known as the Silverhättan (the Silver Cap) probably dates from the period in which Visby belonged to the Teutonic Knights (1398–1408). It is possible that two lesser towers facing the sea, also date from this time. The last great attack on Visby took place in 1525, when troops from Lübeck assaulted the town. The Lübeckerbräschen (the Lübeck Breach)

14625-454: The wall was strengthened and its height increased by an additional 3-to-4-metre (9.8 to 13.1 ft). Its defenses were also augmented with approximately twenty new towers attached to the east part of the wall. When King Valdemar IV of Denmark captured the town in 1361, he ordered a part of the wall to be torn down as a symbolic act. It was done to emblematize the town's subjugation, a practice going back to classical antiquity. The razed part of

14750-503: The working languages of the region's two political bodies. Swedish is a mandatory subject in Finnish schools and Danish in Faroese schools. Danish is also taught in schools in Iceland. The combined area of the Nordic countries is 3,425,804 square kilometres (1,322,710 sq mi). Uninhabitable ice caps and glaciers comprise about half of this area, mainly Greenland. In September 2021,

14875-428: Was an artificial marble made using gypsum (sometimes with lime), pigments, water and glue. Stucco lustro was another a form of imitation marble (sometimes called stucco lucido) where a thin layer of lime or gypsum plaster was applied over a scored support of lime, with pigments scattered on surface of the wet plaster. The 18th century gave rise to renewed interest in innovative external plasters. Oil mastics introduced in

15000-649: Was an important political presence throughout the Nordic countries in the 20th century. The big social democratic parties became dominant and after World War II the Nordic countries began to serve as a model for the welfare state. Economically, the five Nordic countries were strongly dependent on foreign trade and so they positioned themselves alongside the big trading blocks. Denmark was the first to join European Economic Community (EEC) in 1972 and after it became European Union (EU) in 1993 Finland and Sweden also joined in 1995. Norway and Iceland are members of

15125-456: Was available from about 1845, with other improvements taking place in the following years. Thus, after about 1860, most stucco was composed primarily of Portland cement, mixed with some lime. This made it even more versatile and durable. No longer used just as a coating for a substantial material like masonry or log, stucco could now be applied over wood or metal lath attached to a light wood frame. With this increased strength, it ceased to be just

15250-829: Was established after World War II and its first concrete result was the introduction of a Nordic Passport Union in 1952. This resulted in a common labour market and free movement across borders without passports for the countries' citizens. In 1971, the Nordic Council of Ministers, an intergovernmental forum, was established to complement the council. The Nordic Council and the Council of Ministers have their headquarters in Copenhagen and various installations in each separate country, as well as many offices in neighbouring countries. The headquarters are located at Ved Stranden No. 18, close to Slotsholmen. The Nordic Council consists of 87 representatives, elected from its members' parliaments and reflecting

15375-463: Was introduced into Germany by Italian artists, combining it with modelled stucco decoration. This technique was practised in antiquity and was described by Vasari as being a quick and durable method for decorating building facades. Here, layers of contrasting lime plaster were applied and a design scratched through the upper layer to reveal the colour beneath. The 17th century saw the introduction of different types of internal plasterwork. Stucco marble

15500-405: Was the most commonly used binder, as it was easily available before the development of the motor-car. Hair functions in much the same way as the strands in fiberglass resin, by controlling and containing any small cracks within the mortar while it dries or when it is subject to flexing. Ox -hair, which is sold in three qualities, is now the kind usually specified; but horsehair, which is shorter,

15625-541: Was used for decorative architectural elements. Following the closure of the factory in South London, Coade stone stopped being produced, and the formula was lost. By the mid 19th century manufacturing centres were preparing cast stones based on cement for use in buildings. These were made primarily with a cement mix often incorporating fine and coarse aggregates for texture, pigments or dyes to imitate colouring and veining of natural stones, as well as other additives. Also in

#403596