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55-468: Jules Louis Gabriel Violle (16 November 1841 – 12 September 1923) was a French physicist and inventor . He is notable for having determined the solar constant at Mont Blanc in 1875, and, in 1881, for proposing a standard for luminous intensity , called the Violle , equal to the light emitted by 1 cm² of platinum at its melting point . It was the first unit of light intensity that did not depend on

110-495: A Bridgewater Treatise , translating the works of Goethe , and writing sermons and theological tracts. In mathematics , Whewell introduced what is now called the Whewell equation , defining the shape of a curve without reference to an arbitrarily chosen coordinate system. He also organized thousands of volunteers internationally to study ocean tides , in what is now considered one of the first citizen science projects. He received

165-700: A master's degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. For research-oriented careers, students work toward a doctoral degree specializing in a particular field. Fields of specialization include experimental and theoretical astrophysics , atomic physics , biological physics , chemical physics , condensed matter physics , cosmology , geophysics , gravitational physics , material science , medical physics , microelectronics , molecular physics , nuclear physics , optics , particle physics , plasma physics , quantum information science , and radiophysics . The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with

220-457: A "no-tide zone" is now called an amphidromic point . In 1840, the naval surveyor William Hewett confirmed Whewell's prediction. This involved anchoring his ship, HMS Fairy , and taking repeated soundings at the same location with lead and line , precautions being needed to allow for irregularities in the sea bed, and the effects of tidal flow. The data showed a rise of no more than 1 foot (0.30 m). Whewell published about 20 papers over

275-473: A creator establishing laws: But with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws. Though Darwin used the concepts of Whewell as he made and tested his hypotheses regarding the theory of evolution , Whewell did not support Darwin's theory itself. "Whewell also famously opposed

330-452: A minimum, the owner must possess a three-year bachelors or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of six years' experience in a physics-related activity; or an Honor or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of five years' experience in a physics-related activity; or master or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of three years' experience in

385-490: A period of 20 years on his tidal researches. This was his major scientific achievement, and was an important source for his understanding of the process of scientific enquiry, the subject of one of his major works Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences . His best-known works are two voluminous books that attempt to systematize the development of the sciences, History of the Inductive Sciences (1837) and The Philosophy of

440-555: A physics-related activity; a Doctorate or equivalent degree in Physics or a related field; or training or experience which, in the opinion of the Council, is equivalent to any of the above. Physicists may be a member of a physical society of a country or region. Physical societies commonly publish scientific journals, organize physics conferences and award prizes for contributions to the field of physics. Some examples of physical societies are

495-416: A professional practice examination must also be passed. An exemption can be granted to a candidate that has practiced physics for at least seven years and provide a detailed description of their professional accomplishments which clearly demonstrate that the exam is not necessary. Work experience will be considered physics-related if it uses physics directly or significantly uses the modes of thought (such as

550-452: A result of a fall from his horse. Whewell was born in Lancaster , the son of John Whewell and his wife, Elizabeth Bennison. His father was a master carpenter , and wished him to follow his trade, but William's success in mathematics at Lancaster Royal Grammar School and Heversham grammar school won him an exhibition (a type of scholarship) at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1812. He

605-688: Is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers , the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus , Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt , Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos . Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly

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660-447: Is best known for his writings on Gothic architecture , specifically his book, Architectural Notes on German Churches (first published in 1830). In this work, Whewell established a strict nomenclature for German Gothic churches and came up with a theory of stylistic development. His work is associated with the "scientific trend" of architectural writers, along with Thomas Rickman and Robert Willis . He paid from his own resources for

715-589: Is the Nobel Prize in Physics , awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . National physical societies have many prizes and awards for professional recognition. In the case of the American Physical Society , as of 2023, there are 25 separate prizes and 33 separate awards in the field. Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by

770-534: The American Physical Society , the Institute of Physics , with the oldest physical society being the German Physical Society . William Whewell William Whewell FRS FGS FRSE ( / ˈ h juː əl / HEW -əl ; 24 May 1794 – 6 March 1866) was an English polymath , scientist , Anglican priest , philosopher , theologian , and historian of science . He

825-683: The Institute of Physics . It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with

880-539: The Islamic medieval period , which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation , such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in

935-602: The Netherlands . Islands, such as the Channel Islands , were particularly interesting, adding important detail of the progress of the tides through the ocean. The Admiralty also provided the resources for data analysis, and J.F. Dessiou, an expert calculator on the Admiralty staff, was in charge of the calculations. Whewell made extensive use of graphical methods, and these became not just ways of displaying results, but tools in

990-611: The Royal Medal for this work in 1837. One of Whewell's greatest gifts to science was his word-smithing. He corresponded with many in his field and helped them come up with neologisms for their discoveries. Whewell coined, among other terms, scientist , physicist , linguistics , consilience , catastrophism , uniformitarianism , and astigmatism ; he suggested to Michael Faraday the terms electrode , ion , dielectric , anode , and cathode . Whewell died in Cambridge in 1866 as

1045-477: The subvention of scientific and professorial work. He was elected Master of Trinity College , Cambridge in 1841, and retained that position until his death in 1866. The Whewell Professorship of International Law and the Whewell Scholarships were established through the provisions of his will. Aside from Science, Whewell was also interested in the history of architecture throughout his life. He

1100-539: The École supérieure d'optique . He improved and invented a number of devices for measuring radiation, and determined the freezing and melting points of palladium . Violle is believed by some to be the secret identity of Fulcanelli , a contemporary French alchemist whose true identity is still debated. Physicist Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics ). The study and practice of physics

1155-409: The "colligation of facts" endeavored to unite these ideas with the facts and so construct science. This colligation is an "act of thought", a mental operation consisting of bringing together a number of empirical facts by "superinducing" upon them a conception which unites the facts and renders them capable of being expressed in general laws. Whewell refers to as an example Kepler and the discovery of

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1210-579: The 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology . The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy , was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term physicist

1265-559: The Admiralty. In the first of these, in June 1834, every Coast Guard station in the United Kingdom recorded the tides every fifteen minutes for two weeks. The second, in June 1835, was an international collaboration, involving Admiralty Surveyors, other Royal Navy and British observers, as well as those from the United States , France , Spain , Portugal , Belgium , Denmark , Norway , and

1320-400: The Cambridge method of mathematical teaching. His work and publications also helped influence the recognition of the moral and natural sciences as an integral part of the Cambridge curriculum. In general, however, especially in later years, he opposed reform: he defended the tutorial system , and in a controversy with Connop Thirlwall (1834), opposed the admission of Dissenters ; he upheld

1375-543: The Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History (1840, 1847, 1858–60). While the History traced how each branch of the sciences had evolved since antiquity, Whewell viewed the Philosophy as the "Moral" of the previous work as it sought to extract a universal theory of knowledge through history. In the latter, he attempted to follow Francis Bacon 's plan for discovery. He examined ideas ("explication of conceptions") and by

1430-457: The analysis of data. He published a number of maps showing cotidal lines (a term coined by Lubbock) – lines joining points where high tide occurred at the same time. These allowed a graphical representation of the progression of tidal waves through the ocean. From this, Whewell predicted that there should be a place where there was no tidal rise or fall in the southern part of the North Sea. Such

1485-399: The approach to problem-solving) developed in your education or experience as a physicist, in all cases regardless of whether the experience is in academia, industry, government, or elsewhere. Management of physics-related work qualifies, and so does appropriate graduate student work. The South African Institute of Physics also delivers a certification of Professional Physicist (Pr.Phys). At

1540-669: The book's title page. These books are available online in their entirety as part of the Internet Archive. In 1826 and 1828, Whewell was engaged with George Airy in conducting experiments in Dolcoath mine in Cornwall , in order to determine the density of the earth. Their united labours were unsuccessful, and Whewell did little more in the way of experimental science . He was the author, however, of an Essay on Mineralogical Classification , published in 1828, and carried out extensive work on

1595-481: The clerical fellowship system, the privileged class of "fellow-commoners", and the authority of heads of colleges in university affairs. He opposed the appointment of the University Commission (1850) and wrote two pamphlets ( Remarks ) against the reform of the university (1855). He stood against the scheme of entrusting elections to the members of the senate and instead, advocated the use of college funds and

1650-403: The construction of two new courts of rooms at Trinity College, Cambridge , built in a Gothic style . The two courts were completed in 1860 and (posthumously) in 1868, and are now collectively named Whewell's Court (in the singular). Between 1835 and 1861 Whewell produced various works on the philosophy of morals and politics , the chief of which, Elements of Morality , including Polity ,

1705-517: The designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this distinction. To get the certification, at minimum proof of honours bachelor or higher degree in physics or a closely related discipline must be provided. Also, the physicist must have completed, or be about to complete, three years of recent physics-related work experience after graduation. And, unless exempted,

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1760-412: The different branches of learning. Here, as in his ethical doctrine, Whewell was moved by opposition to contemporary English empiricism . Following Immanuel Kant , he asserted against John Stuart Mill the a priori nature of necessary truth , and by his rules for the construction of conceptions he dispensed with the inductive methods of Mill . Yet, according to Laura J. Snyder , "surprisingly,

1815-455: The early 1600s. The work on mechanics , along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during

1870-473: The elliptical orbit: the orbit's points were colligated by the conception of the ellipse, not by the discovery of new facts. These conceptions are not "innate" (as in Kant), but being the fruits of the "progress of scientific thought (history) are unfolded in clearness and distinctness". Whewell analyzed inductive reasoning into three steps: Upon these follow special methods of induction applicable to quantity:

1925-476: The facts' (Philosophy of Inductive Sciences, 1849, 17)". In sum, the scientific discovery is a partly empirical and partly rational process; the "discovery of the conceptions is neither guesswork nor merely a matter of observations", we infer more than we see. One of Whewell's greatest gifts to science was his wordsmithing. He often corresponded with many in his field and helped them come up with new terms for their discoveries. In fact, Whewell came up with

1980-516: The idea of evolution. First he published a new book, Indications of the Creator , 1845, composed of extracts from his earlier works to counteract the popular anonymous evolutionary work Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation . Later Whewell opposed Darwin's theories of evolution." In the 1857 novel Barchester Towers Charlotte Stanhope uses the topic of the theological arguments, concerning

2035-735: The increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist ( P. Phys. ), similar to

2090-1172: The largest employer being the last. Physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors , Sr./Jr. Scientist, or postdocs . As per the American Institute of Physics , some 20% of new physics Ph.D.s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software and about 11% are in business/education. A majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors (e.g. finance ). Job titles for graduate physicists include Agricultural Scientist , Air Traffic Controller , Biophysicist , Computer Programmer , Electrical Engineer , Environmental Analyst , Geophysicist , Medical Physicist , Meteorologist , Oceanographer , Physics Teacher / Professor / Researcher , Research Scientist , Reactor Physicist , Engineering Physicist , Satellite Missions Analyst, Science Writer , Stratigrapher , Software Engineer , Systems Engineer , Microelectronics Engineer , Radar Developer, Technical Consultant, etc. The majority of Physics terminal bachelor's degree holders are employed in

2145-496: The method of curves, the method of means, the method of least squares and the method of residues, and special methods depending on resemblance (to which the transition is made through the law of continuity), such as the method of gradation and the method of natural classification. In Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Whewell was the first to use the term " consilience " to discuss the unification of knowledge between

2200-470: The methods used to create such tables, and in some cases the observations, were closely guarded trade secrets. John Lubbock , a former student of Whewell's, had analysed the available historic data (covering up to 25 years) for several ports to allow tables to be generated on a theoretical basis, publishing the methodology. This work was supported by Francis Beaufort , Hydrographer of the Navy , and contributed to

2255-433: The private sector. Other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching. Typical duties of physicists with master's and doctoral degrees working in their domain involve research, observation and analysis, data preparation, instrumentation, design and development of industrial or medical equipment, computing and software development, etc. The highest honor awarded to physicists

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2310-620: The properties of a particular lamp. This was much larger than traditional measures such as candlepower, so the standard SI unit candela was originally defined in 1946 as 1/60 Violle. During his career, Violle taught at several colleges including the University of Lyon and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris . He was one of the founders of the Institut d'optique théorique et appliquée and

2365-503: The publication of the Admiralty Tide Tables starting in 1833. Whewell built on Lubbock's work to develop an understanding of tidal patterns around the world that could be used to generate predictions for many locations without the need for long series of tidal observations at each port. This required extensive new observations, initially obtained through an informal network, and later through formal projects enabled by Beaufort at

2420-512: The received view of Whewell's methodology in the 20th century has tended to describe him as an anti-inductivist in the Popperian mold, that is it is claimed that Whewell endorses a 'conjectures and refutations' view of scientific discovery. Whewell explicitly rejects the hypothetico-deductive claim that hypotheses discovered by non-rational guesswork can be confirmed by consequentialist testing. Whewell explained that new hypotheses are 'collected from

2475-769: The term scientist itself in 1833, and it was first published in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville 's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review . (They had previously been known as "natural philosophers" or "men of science"). Whewell was prominent not only in scientific research and philosophy but also in university and college administration. His first work, An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics (1819), cooperated with those of George Peacock and John Herschel in reforming

2530-431: The tides. When Whewell started his work on tides , there was a theory explaining the forces causing the tides, based on the work of Newton , Bernoulli , and Laplace . But this explained the forces, not how tides actually propagated in oceans bounded by continents. There was a series of tidal observations for a few ports, such as London and Liverpool , which allowed tide tables to be produced for these ports. However

2585-457: Was Master at Trinity College, Cambridge . In his time as a student there, he achieved distinction in both poetry and mathematics . The breadth of Whewell's endeavours is his most remarkable feature. In a time of increasing specialization, Whewell belonged in an earlier era when natural philosophers investigated widely. He published work in mechanics , physics , geology , astronomy , and economics , while also composing poetry , writing

2640-677: Was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term "scientist") in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences . A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics , electricity and magnetism , non-relativistic quantum mechanics , optics , statistical mechanics and thermodynamics , and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics ( calculus , differential equations , linear algebra , complex analysis , etc.), and in computer science . Any physics-oriented career position requires at least an undergraduate degree in physics or applied physics, while career options widen with

2695-480: Was most appropriate. Whewell died in Cambridge in 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse. He was buried in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge, whilst his wives are buried together in the Mill Road Cemetery, Cambridge . A window dedicated to Lady Affleck, his second wife, was installed in her memory in the chancel of All Saints' Church, Cambridge and made by Morris & Co. A list of his writings

2750-572: Was one of the Cambridge dons whom Charles Darwin met during his education there , and when Darwin returned from the Beagle voyage he was directly influenced by Whewell, who persuaded Darwin to become secretary of the Geological Society of London . The title pages of On the Origin of Species open with a quotation from Whewell's Bridgewater Treatise about science founded on a natural theology of

2805-405: Was prepared after his death by Isaac Todhunter in two volumes, the first being an index of the names of persons with whom Whewell corresponded. Another book was published five years later, as a biography of Whewell's life interspersed with his letters to his father, his sisters, and other correspondence, written and compiled by his niece by marriage, Janet Mary Douglas, called Mrs Stair Douglas on

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2860-824: Was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832 and Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity") from 1838 to 1855. During the years as professor of philosophy, in 1841, Whewell succeeded Christopher Wordsworth as master. Whewell influenced the syllabus of the Mathematical Tripos at Cambridge, which undergraduates studied. He was a proponent of 'mixed mathematics': applied mathematics , descriptive geometry and mathematical physics , in contrast with pure mathematics . Under Whewell, analytic topics such as elliptical integrals were replaced by physical studies of electricity, heat and magnetism. He believed an intuitive geometrical understanding of mathematics, based on Euclid and Newton,

2915-487: Was published in 1845. The peculiarity of this work—written from what is known as the intuitional point of view —is its fivefold division of the springs of action and of their objects, of the primary and universal rights of man (personal security, property, contract, family rights, and government), and of the cardinal virtues ( benevolence , justice , truth , purity and order ). Among Whewell's other works—too numerous to mention—were popular writings such as: Whewell

2970-581: Was recommended to be master of Trinity College in Cambridge, following Christopher Wordsworth . Cordelia died in 1855. In 1858 he married again, to Everina Frances (née Ellis), widow of Sir Gilbert Affleck, 5th Baronet who had died in 1854. He had no children. In 1814 he was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry. He was Second Wrangler in 1816, President of the Cambridge Union Society in 1817, became fellow and tutor of his college. He

3025-577: Was the eldest of seven children having three brothers and three sisters born after him. Two brothers died as infants; the third died in 1812. Two of his sisters married; he corresponded with them in his career as a student and then a professor. His mother died in 1807, when Whewell was 13 years old. His father died in 1816, the year Whewell received his bachelor degree at Trinity College, but before his most significant professional accomplishments. Whewell married, firstly, in 1841, Cordelia Marshall, daughter of John Marshall . Within days of his marriage, Whewell

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