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101-721: The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria or CRI was an unrecognized secessionist government established in the Russian region of Chechnya in late 1991 by Dzhokhar Dudayev . After winning de facto independence in 1996 from the Russian Federation in the wake of the First Chechen War , it was invaded by Russia in the Second Chechen War , with direct rule of Chechnya being established in May 2000. After losing territorial control to Russia,

202-407: A de facto law (also known as a de facto regulation ) is a law or regulation that is followed but "is not specifically enumerated by a law." By definition, de facto 'contrasts' de jure which means "as defined by law" or "as a matter of law." For example, if a particular law exists in one jurisdiction, but is followed in another where it has no legal effect (such as in another country), then

303-416: A one size fits all approach ), consumer demand & expectation, or other factors known only to the complier. In prison sentences , the term de facto life sentence (also known as a "virtual" life sentence ) is used to describe a "non-life sentence" that is long enough to end after the convicted person would have likely died due to old age, or one long enough to cause the convicted person to "live out

404-409: A Kremlin-backed publication, Komsomolskaya Pravda , and reprinted in early 1992 by The Guardian , Dudayev allegedly signed a decree outlawing the extradition of criminals to any country which did not recognize Chechnya. After being informed that the Russian government would not recognize Chechnya's independence, he declared that he would not recognize Russia. Grozny became an organized crime haven, as

505-464: A burned-out house holding a dead baby. Trucks with bodies piled in the back rolled through the streets on the way to the cemetery. While treating the wounded, I heard stories of young men – gagged and trussed up – dragged with chains behind personnel carriers. I heard of Russian aviators who threw Chechen prisoners, screaming, out of their helicopters. There were rapes, but it was hard to know how many because women were too ashamed to report them. One girl

606-436: A couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975 . De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by

707-410: A court order awards custody, either sole or joint. A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed but the market is so completely dominated by one that the other players are unable to compete or even survive. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate. In finance,

808-427: A de facto national language but no official, de jure national language. Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco , Arabic is an official language (in addition to Tamazight in the case of Morocco), but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, the official languages are Māori and New Zealand Sign Language ; however, English

909-601: A guerrilla campaign, even as Russia cemented its control by establishing a loyal administration in the region. In June 2000, Kremlin appointee, supreme mufti and head of the Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of the Chechen Republic Akhmad Kadyrov became the new controversial head of the official administration of Chechnya. Kadyrov, who has been criticised as the object of a cult of personality,

1010-482: A guerrilla commander fatally shot each other in an argument. The internal violence in Chechnya peaked on 16 July 1998, when fighting broke out between Maskhadov's National Guard force led by Sulim Yamadayev (who joined pro-Moscow forces in the second war) and militants in the town of Gudermes ; over 50 people were reported killed and the state of emergency was declared in Chechnya. Maskhadov proved unable to guarantee

1111-502: A jihad until "all unbelievers had been driven out". This event prompted Russian intervention, and the beginning of the Second Chechen War . As more people escaped the war zones of Chechnya, President Maskhadov threatened to impose Sharia punishment on all civil servants who moved their families out of the republic. This time, however, the Russian invasion met much less resistance as during the First Chechen War. The infighting among

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1212-430: A power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead. In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed

1313-477: A previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally. Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta , which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president until new elections were called, making him

1414-511: A resolution in October recognizing the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. The human rights situation in Chechnya during the hostility phases had long been a concern among several human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch , who, after several years of investigation and gathering evidence, referred to the situation as disturbing. Throughout the span of

1515-645: A state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution , where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state. If an Australian de facto couple moves out of

1616-598: A state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. This is unlike marriage and "matrimonial causes" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). A de facto relationship

1717-453: A subsequent legitimate government. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994 . Article 36 states: Two examples of de facto leaders are Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and general Manuel Noriega of Panama . Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or

1818-626: A withdrawal, and the incident ended peacefully. Clashes between supporters and opponents of Dudayev occurred in April 1993. The President fired Interior Minister Sharpudin Larsanov after he refused to disperse the protesters. The opposition planned a no-confidence referendum against Dudayev for 5 June 1993. The government deployed army and riot police to prevent the vote from taking place, leading to bloodshed. After staging another coup attempt in December 1993,

1919-473: Is a former de facto state that controlled most of the former Checheno-Ingush ASSR from 1991 to 2000 and has been a government-in-exile since. In September–October 1991, supporters of Dzhokhar Dudayev seized power in Chechnya in the Chechen Revolution . Dudayev was subsequently elected as Chechnya's President and in this new position, he proclaimed Chechnya's independence from Russia. The move

2020-517: Is a secular state. No religion may be established as a state or compulsory religion." The Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of the Chechen Republic —the Chechen muftiate —was a non-governmental organisation. Despite this, the criminal code of Chechnya legally established Sharia courts and included Islamic hudud punishments of decapitation, stoning and other punishments for crimes such as alcohol drinking, sodomy, and apostasy from Islam. Ichkeria

2121-461: Is a third de facto language. Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union , but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law, effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union prior to its dissolution in 1991. In Hong Kong and Macau ,

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2222-416: Is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called "palimony agreements") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world. A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage , which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and

2323-459: Is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally." The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages . Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent , are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around

2424-517: Is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as "de jure standards"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard. In social sciences , a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem . Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have

2525-667: The Caucasus Emirate - Tarkhan Gaziyev , Muhannad , Aslanbek Vadalov and Hussein Gakayev withdrew their oath of loyalty to Umarov. In a video, they also announced Gekayev has been elected the Emir of Chechnya. In July 2011, a sharia court ruled in favour of Umarov and the dissident commanders reaffirmed the loyalty to him. Umarov then announced a reorganisation of the Vilayat into two military sectors, with Aslan Byutukayev being appointed as

2626-457: The Family Court or Federal Circuit Court . Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in

2727-709: The First Chechen War is the Samashki massacre , in which it is estimated that up to 300 civilians died during the attack. Russian forces conducted an operation of zachistka , house-by-house searches throughout the entire village. Federal soldiers deliberately and arbitrarily attacked civilians and civilian dwellings in Samashki by shooting residents and burning houses with flame-throwers . They wantonly opened fire or threw grenades into basements where residents, mostly women, elderly persons, and children, had been hiding. Russian troops intentionally burned many bodies, either by throwing

2828-553: The Taliban government on 16 January 2000. This recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in December 2001. However, despite Taliban recognition, there were no friendly relations between the Taliban and Ichkeria—Maskhadov rejected their recognition, stating that the Taliban were illegitimate. In June 2000, the Russian government claimed that Maskhadov had met with Osama bin Laden , and that

2929-552: The United Kingdom . Chechnya had been badly damaged by Russia's war against the newly formed republic's independence, and the economy was in shambles. According to Russian sources, Aslan Maskhadov tried to concentrate power in his hands to establish authority, but had trouble creating an effective state or a functioning economy . Maskhadov requested $ 260 billion in war reparations from Russia to rebuild infrastructure destroyed in heavy Russian fighting, an amount equivalent to 60% of

3030-452: The World Bank has a pertinent definition: A "de facto government" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution. In engineering, de facto technology is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of

3131-527: The special administrative regions of China , the official languages are English and Portuguese respectively, together with Chinese. However, no particular variety of Chinese referred to in law is specified. Cantonese ( Hong Kong Cantonese ) in traditional Chinese characters is the de facto standard in both territories. A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by

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3232-835: The war in Donbas . The early pro-Ukrainian Chechen volunteer units included the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion . The Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion fought on the side of Ukraine since its formation during the War in Donbas in 2014. In 2022, Russia launched a full invasion of Ukraine . Anti-Kadyrov Chechens like the Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalion and Sheikh Mansur Battalion continued to fight in this conflict. In May 2022, Ichkeria's government-in-exile leader Akhmed Zakayev travelled to Kyiv and met with Ukrainian officials for "confidential" talks. Later,

3333-426: The 20th century, the phrase de facto state of war refers to a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war . A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australian law , a de facto relationship is a legally recognized, committed relationship of

3434-635: The Baltic countries and Ukrainian nationalists. Estonia once voted to recognize, but the act never was consummated due to pressure from both Russia and pro-Russian elements within the European Union. Dudayev also had contacts with Islamist movements and guerrillas in the United Arab Emirates , Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia . During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , the Verkhovna Rada passed

3535-646: The CRI continued to exist in the form of an insurgent group fighting a guerrilla war against the Russian Military, while some Chechen separatists also carried out attacks against civilians in Russia. The CRI was severely weakened by the conflict with the Russians in the years following, suffering many casualties and defections including the deaths of its successive Presidents, Aslan Maskhadov and Abdul Halim Sadulayev . Following

3636-897: The Caucasus Emirate, Aliaskhab Kebekov . This was the largest meeting of the Chechen insurgents known to have occurred since the 2011 leadership dispute. Despite this, from late 2014 many Chechen mid-level commanders retracted their oath to Kebekov and pledged loyalty to Islamic State (IS) leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi . In June 2015, Byutukayev announced that he had also pledged allegiance to al-Baghdadi. Chechen Republic of Ichkeria The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria ( / ɪ tʃ ˈ k ɛr i ə / itch- KERR -ee-ə ; Chechen : Нохчийн Республик Ичкери , romanized:  Nóxçiyn Respublik Içkeri ; Russian : Чеченская Республика Ичкерия , romanized :  Chechenskaya Respublika Ichkeriya ; abbreviated as " ChRI " or " CRI "), known simply as Ichkeria , and also known as Chechnya ,

3737-736: The Chemical and Oil Refining Industry of the USSR Salambek Khadzhiyev was appointed leader of the officially recognized Chechen government in November 1994. The conflict ended after the Russian defeat in the Battle of Grozny of August 1996. According to Russian sources, after the Russian withdrawal, crime became rampant, with kidnappings and murders multiplying as rival rebel factions fought for territory. In December 1996, six Red Cross workers were killed, resulting in most foreign aid workers leaving

3838-582: The District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted. De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time

3939-450: The Emirate. In August 2010, a video was posted on the rebel Kavkaz Center website showing Dokku Umarov announcing his resignation as leader of the Caucasus Emirate and announcing Chechen commander Aslanbek Vadalov as his successor. This was followed by another video in the same month showing Umarov retracting the decision. Following these events, several commanders of the Chechen wing of

4040-571: The Ichkerian exile government recognized the Holodomor as a genocide against the Ukrainian people. Dudayev spent the years from 1991 to 1994 preparing for war, mobilizing men aged 15–55 and seizing Russian weapons depots. The Chechen National Guard counted 10,000 troops in December 1994, rising to 40,000 soldiers by early 1996. Major weapons systems were seized from the Russian military in 1992, and on

4141-567: The Ichkerian government subsequently moved into exile , including in Poland and the United Kingdom . As on 23 January 2000, a diplomatic representation of Ichkeria was based in Kabul during the Taliban regime in Afghanistan . Other remnants of the government and the armed forces retreated into Chechnya's south which was dominated by mountains and not yet under Russian control. From these bases, they waged

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4242-708: The Kremlin's difficult negotiations with Maskhadov and difference of opinion regarding the Chechen conflict. In December 1998, the Supreme Islamic court of Chechnya suspended the Chechen Parliament, asserting that it did not conform to the standards of sharia. After Vakha Arsanov , the Chechen Vice-President , defected to the opposition, Maskhadov abolished his post, leading to a power struggle. In February 1999 President Maskhadov removed legislative powers from

4343-528: The Russian GDP. The war ravages and lack of economic opportunities left numbers of armed former guerrillas with no occupation. Machine guns and grenades were sold openly and legally in Grozny's central bazaar. The years of independence had some political violence as well. On 10 December 1998, Mansur Tagirov, Chechnya's top prosecutor, disappeared while returning to Grozny. On 21 June, the Chechen security chief and

4444-636: The Russian city of Budyonnovsk. At least seven hostages were killed by the captors, and the rest were denied water, food, and medicine. According to official figures, 129 civilians were killed during the siege, most by the numerous attempts of the Russian army to retake the hospital. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights had this to report on the incident: Although the conduct of Chechen fighters has scarcely been documented in non-governmental reports, information indicates that they indiscriminately fired on, and killed, civilians. For example, on 14 June 1995, Chechen commandos took some 2,000 people hostage in

4545-412: The Russian strategy deliberate terror bombing on parts of Russia. According to Human Rights Watch, the campaign was "unparalleled in the area since World War II for its scope and destructiveness, followed by months of indiscriminate and targeted fire against civilians". Russian forces attacked civilians many times throughout the war. One of the most notable war crimes committed by the Russian army during

4646-770: The Taliban supported the Chechens with arms and troops. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , the Bush administration called on Maskhadov to cut all links with the Taliban. After the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul (2021) the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was restored. It is unknown if the Taliban still recognizes the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. Ichkeria also received limited support from certain political factions in Poland,

4747-472: The Two Sicilies ). The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes , de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which

4848-580: The United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was not segregation by law (de jure). " Jim Crow laws ", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South . These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Most commonly used to describe large scale conflicts of

4949-529: The [Chechen autonomous] republic". The First Chechen War of 1994–1996 resulted in the victory of the separatist forces. After achieving de facto independence from Russia in 1996, kidnappings and violence between gangs plagued the region, which the government was unable to control. In November 1997, Chechnya was proclaimed an Islamic republic. The Second Chechen War began in August 1999, with Ichkeria falling and subsequently being forcibly subsumed back under

5050-429: The bodies into burning houses or by setting them on fire. A Chechen surgeon, Khassan Baiev , treated wounded in Samashki immediately after the operation and described the scene in his book: Dozens of charred corpses of women and children lay in the courtyard of the mosque, which had been destroyed. The first thing my eye fell on was the burned body of a baby, lying in the fetal position... A wild-eyed woman emerged from

5151-505: The border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state . In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, People of Colour, and Indians dated back decades before. De facto racial discrimination and segregation in

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5252-497: The captured Chechen rebels under Islamic law, and threatened to execute Russian prisoners. The First Chechen War began in December 1994, when Russian troops were sent to Chechnya to fight the separatist forces. During the Battle of Grozny (1994–95) , the city's population dropped from 400,000 to 140,000. Most of the civilians stranded in the city were elderly ethnic Russians, as many Chechens had support networks of relatives living in villages who took them in. Former Minister of

5353-435: The case of the death of one of the partners. In April 2014, an Australian federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated "de facto relationship(s) may be described as 'marriage like' but it

5454-491: The control of the Russian central government in 2000. An insurgency followed soon thereafter, officially ending in April 2009 after several years of conflict. Since 2000, the Ichkerian government has continued its activities in exile . In October 2022, the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada voted to recognize the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as "temporarily occupied" by Russia. The name Ичкерия (Ičkérija) comes from

5555-528: The country. Parliamentary and presidential elections took place in January 1997 in Chechnya and brought to power Aslan Maskhadov . The elections were deemed free and fair, but no government recognized Chechnya's independence, except for the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan . According to a 1997 Moscow Times article, ethnic Russian refugees were prevented from returning to vote by threats and intimidation, and Chechen authorities refused to set up polling booths outside

5656-476: The country. In May 1994, Labazanov changed sides, establishing the anti-Dudayev Niyso Movement. In July 1994, 41 passengers aboard a bus near Mineralniye Vody were held by kidnappers demanding $ 15 million and helicopters. After this incident, the Russian government started to openly support opposition forces in Chechnya. In August 1994, Umar Avturkhanov, leader of the pro-Russian Provisional Council, launched an attack against pro-Dudayev forces. Dudayev ordered

5757-492: The creation of the " Separate Special Purpose Battalion of the Chechen Republic's Armed Forces" was announced by Zakayev; this unit officially styled itself as the continuation of Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. A fourth separatist unit, called "Khamzat Gelayev Joint Task Detachment" was also founded. As the Russo-Ukrainian War continued to escalate, the pro-Ukrainian Chechen separatists increasingly framed

5858-531: The death of Sadulayev in June 2006, Dokka Umarov was elevated as the next leader of the CRI. On 7 October 2007, Dokka Umarov, President of Ichkeria, declared the establishment of the Caucasus Emirate , which sought to establish an independent Islamic State in the North Caucasus. At the same time, Umarov abolished the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and in its place announced that it was now a province, or vilayat , of

5959-557: The eve of the First Chechen War, they included 23 air defense guns, 108 APC/tanks, 24 artillery pieces, 5 MiG-17 / 15 , 2 Mi-8 helicopters, 24 multiple rocket launchers, 17 surface-to-air missile launchers, 94 L-29 trainer aircraft, 52 L-39 trainer aircraft, 6 An-22 transport aircraft, 5 Tu-134 transport aircraft. Since the Declaration of Independence in 1991, there has been an ongoing battle between secessionist officials and federally appointed officials. Both claim authority over

6060-451: The first Chechen war, Russian forces have been accused by Human Rights organizations of starting a brutal war with total disregard for humanitarian law , causing tens of thousands of unnecessary civilian casualties among the Chechen population. The main strategy in the Russian war effort had been to use heavy artillery and air strikes leading to numerous indiscriminate attacks on civilians. This has led to Western and Chechen sources calling

6161-623: The formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein 's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq . However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president ; he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , the de jure president. In Argentina , the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932 , 1943–1946 , 1955–1958 , 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 ,

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6262-598: The foundations of the state". In 1998, four western engineers working for Granger Telecom were abducted and beheaded after a failed rescue attempt. Gennady Shpigun , the Interior Ministry liaison to Chechen officials, was kidnapped in March 1999 as he was leaving Grozny Airport; his remains were found in Chechnya in March 2000. President Maskhadov started a major campaign against hostage-takers, and on 25 October 1998, Shadid Bargishev, Chechnya's top anti-kidnapping official,

6363-430: The front of the vehicle. The bones were white; someone must have boiled the skull to remove the flesh. Chechen forces have admitted to the execution of captured Russian pilots throughout the First Chechen War, and of at least eight Russian detainees. In probably the most notorious violation of humanitarian law committed by Chechen Forces, a Chechen unit led by Shamil Basayev captured a hospital and held it as hostage in

6464-399: The government proved unable or unwilling to curb criminal activities. Dudayev's government created the constitution of the Chechen Republic, which was introduced in March 1992. In the same month, armed clashes occurred between pro and anti-Dudayev factions, leading Dudayev to declare a state of emergency. Chechnya and Ingushetia separated on 4 June 1992. Relationship between Dudayev and

6565-412: The head of the newly created Western Sector, and Hussein Gakayev being named as head the eastern sector. Following the death of Caucasus Emirate leader Dokka Umarov in 2013, Byutukayev reportedly became the new head of Vilayat Nokhchicho. On 15 May 2014 a video was released online showing Aslan Byutukayev and the district commanders of the insurgency giving an oath of allegiance to the new head of

6666-606: The initiative of Dzhokhar Dudayev, a part of the delegates of the First Chechen National Congress gathered in Grozny, which proclaimed itself the All-National Congress of the Chechen People (OKChN). Following this, was proclaimed the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho). A month later, the self-proclaimed republic was declared an independent state. The Soviet coup d'état attempt on 19 August 1991 became

6767-558: The last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress . The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments , a case law ( precedential ) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by

6868-409: The law could be considered a de facto regulation (a " de facto regulation" is not an officially prescribed legal classification for a type of law in a particular jurisdiction, rather, it is a concept about law(s). A de facto regulation may be followed by an organization as a result of the market size of the jurisdiction imposing the regulation as a proportion of the overall market; wherein

6969-809: The legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the "leaders" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi Emperor and nephew Guangxu Emperor ), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia ), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII ), Queen Elisabeth of Parma (for her husband, King Philip V ) and Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of

7070-436: The market share is so large that it results in the organization choosing to comply by implementing one standard of business with respect to the given de facto law instead of altering standards between different jurisdictions and markets (e.g. data protection, manufacturing, etc.). The decision to voluntarily comply may be the result of: a desire to simplify manufacturing processes & cost-effectiveness ( such as adopting

7171-462: The militants as well as within the Chechen diaspora. From 2007 until 2017, the remaining insurgency in the North Caucasus was mainly waged by Islamist factions, most importantly the Caucasus Emirate. In course of several years; however, the Caucasus Emirate gradually declined and had mostly ceased to exist by 2015. Other Chechen groups continued to operate in Ukraine where they fought against Russia in

7272-440: The mobilization of the Chechen military, threatening a jihad against Russia as a response to Russian support for his political opponents. In November 1994, Avturkhanov's forces attempted to storm the city of Grozny , but they were defeated by Dudayev's forces. Dudayev declared his intention to turn Chechnya into an Islamic state, stating that the recognition of sharia was a way to fight Russian aggression. He also vowed to punish

7373-532: The opposition led by Movladi Udugov , in February 1999, Maskhadov declared The Islamic Republic of Ichkeria, and the Sharia system of justice was introduced. Maskhadov hoped that this would discredit the opposition, putting stability before his own ideological affinities. However, according to former Foreign Minister Ilyas Akhmadov , the public primarily supported Maskhadov, his Independence Party, and their secularism. This

7474-430: The opposition organized a Provisional Council as a potential alternative government for Chechnya, calling on Moscow for assistance. On 14 January 1994, by Dudayev's decree, the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho) was renamed the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. The general feeling of lawlessness in Chechnya increased during the first seven months in 1994, when four hijacking accidents occurred, involving people trying to flee

7575-495: The parliament and convened an Islamic State Council. At the same time several prominent former warlords established the Mehk-Shura, a rival Islamic government. The Shura advocated the creation of an Islamic confederation in the North Caucasus, including the Chechen, Dagestani and Ingush peoples. On 9 August 1999, Islamist fighters from Chechnya infiltrated Russia's Dagestan region, declaring it an independent state and calling for

7676-471: The parliament deteriorated, and in June 1992 he dissolved the parliament, establishing direct presidential rule. In late October 1992, federal forces were dispatched to end the Ossetian-Ingush conflict . As Russian troops sealed the border between Chechnya and Ingushetia to prevent arms shipments, Dudayev threatened to take action unless the Russians withdrew. Russian and Chechen forces mutually agreed to

7777-527: The republic. Maskhadov sought to maintain Chechen sovereignty while pressing Moscow to help rebuild the republic, whose formal economy and infrastructure were virtually destroyed in Russia's war against Chechen independence from Moscow. In May 1997, the Russia–Chechen Peace Treaty was signed by Maskhadov and Yeltsin. Russia continued to transfer funds for schools and hospitals in Chechnya and paid pensions to its residents. Some of this money

7878-414: The rival factions within Chechnya as well as the rise of radical jihadists convinced several former separatist leaders and their militias to switch sides. Aided by these defectors, the Russians took the minor cities and countryside around Grozny in the period from October to December 1999, encircling Grozny. After a hard-fought battle , Grozny fell in February 2000; much of the city was destroyed. Some of

7979-580: The river Iskark in South-Eastern Chechnya. The term was mentioned first as "Iskeria" in a Russian document by Colonel Pollo from 1836. In November 1990, Dzhokhar Dudayev was elected head of the Executive Committee of the unofficial opposition Chechen National Congress (NCChP), which advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the Soviet Union . On 8 June 1991, at

8080-490: The same territory. In late 2007, the President of Ichkeria , Dokka Umarov , declared that he had renamed the republic to Noxçiyc̈ó and converted it into a province of the much larger Caucasus Emirate , with himself as Emir . This change was rejected by some members of the former Chechen government-in-exile. The Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially a secular state, with its constitution stating, "The Chechen Republic

8181-440: The same year according to official accounts. There were several public executions of criminals. After the First Chechen War, the country won de facto independence from Russia, and Islamic courts were established. In September 1996, a Sharia-based criminal code was adopted, which included provisions for banning alcohol and punishing adultery with death by stoning . Sharia was supposed to apply to Muslims only, but in fact, it

8282-488: The second war. De facto De facto ( / d eɪ ˈ f æ k t oʊ , d i -, d ə -/ day FAK -toh, dee -⁠, də -⁠ ; Latin: [deː ˈfaktoː] ; lit.   ' in fact ' ) describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure ('by law'). In jurisprudence ,

8383-524: The security of the oil pipeline running across Chechnya from the Caspian Sea , and illegal oil tapping and acts of sabotage deprived his regime of crucial revenues and agitated his allies in Moscow . In 1998 and 1999, Maskhadov survived several assassination attempts, which he blamed on foreign intelligence services. Russian sources maintain that the attacks were likely to originate from within Chechnya, despite

8484-627: The spark for the so-called Chechen Revolution . On 21 August, the OKChN called for the overthrow of the Supreme Soviet of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. On 6 September 1991, OKChN squads seized the local KGB headquarters, and took over the building of the Supreme Soviet. Following the revolution , the OKChN declared itself the only legitimate authority in the region. On 27 October 1991, Dudayev

8585-427: The technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a standard technology consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology. Examples of a de facto General Manager in sports include Syd Thrift who acted as

8686-729: The three-year independence of the chaotic fledgling state, but victims were rarely killed. In a Los Angeles Times interview with a Russian woman, she states that kidnappers would at times mutilate their captives and send video recordings to their families, to encourage the payment of ransoms. According to her, there was a slave market in Minutka Square, downtown Grozny . Some of the kidnapped were supposedly sold into indentured servitude to Chechen families. They were openly called slaves and had to endure starvation, beating, and often maiming according to Russian sources. In 1998, 176 people had been kidnapped, and 90 of them had been released during

8787-632: The town of Budennovsk in the Stavropol region and barricaded themselves in the town's hospital. The hostage-takers were allegedly shot to death in the hospital by four civilian men. In this incident, over 100 hostages were reportedly killed when Federal forces attempted to take over the hospital. Kidnappings , robberies, and killings of fellow Chechens and outsiders weakened the possibilities of outside investment and Maskhadov's efforts to gain international recognition of its independence effort. Kidnappings became common in Chechnya, procuring over $ 200 million during

8888-552: The vast majority of their life in jail prior to their release." A de facto standard is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardization process, and may not have an official standards document. Technical standards are usually voluntary, such as ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, such as drinking water quality requirements. The term "de facto standard"

8989-578: The war as a chance to restore the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. On October 15 2022, the Armed Forces of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was officially resurrected in Ukraine by the Government of Ichkeria in exile. On 18 October 2022, Ukraine's parliament recognized the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as a temporarily occupied state. At this point, Islamist separatists belonging to Ajnad al-Kavkaz had also moved to Ukraine to fight Russia there. In November,

9090-631: The world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages , this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire , while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law. Due to Australian federalism , de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within

9191-420: Was elected president of the Chechen Republic. Dudayev, in his new position as president, issued a unilateral declaration of independence on 1 November 1991. Initially, his stated objective was for Checheno-Ingushetia to become a union republic within Russia. Dudayev released 640 inmates from a prison in Grozny, many of whom became his personal body guards. Among the prisoners was Ruslan Labazanov , who

9292-535: Was a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization . Former president of Georgia , Zviad Gamsakhurdia , deposed in a military coup of 1991 and a leading participant in the Georgian Civil War , recognized the independence of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria in 1993. Diplomatic relations with Ichkeria were also established by the partially recognized Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under

9393-652: Was also applied to ethnic Russians who violated Sharia provisions. In one of the first rulings under Sharia law, in January 1997 an Islamic court ordered the payment of blood money to the family of a man who was killed in a traffic accident. In November 1997, the Islamic dress code was imposed on all female students and civil servants in the country. In December 1997, the Supreme Sharia Court banned New Year celebrations , considering them "an act of apostasy and falsity". Conceding to an armed and vocal minority movement in

9494-453: Was exemplified by the much greater numbers in political rallies supporting the government than those supporting the Islamist opposition. Akhmadov notes that the parliament, which was dominated by Maskhadov's own Independence Party, issued a public statement that President Maskhadov did not have the constitutional authority to proclaim sharia law, and also condemning the opposition for "undermining

9595-512: Was killed in a remote controlled car bombing. Bargishev's colleagues then insisted they would not be intimidated by the attack and would go ahead with their offensive. Other anti-kidnapping officials blamed the attack on Bargishev's recent success in securing the release of several hostages, including 24 Russian soldiers and an English couple. Maskhadov blamed the rash of abductions in Chechnya on unidentified "outside forces" and their Chechen henchmen, allegedly those who joined Pro-Moscow forces during

9696-404: Was not democratically elected by either Russian or Chechen constituents. The separatists continued to fight, but were gradually whittled down. On 31 October 2007, the separatist news agency Chechenpress reported that Dokka Umarov had announced the Caucasus Emirate and declared himself its Emir . He integrated the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria as Vilayat Nokhchicho . This change of status

9797-410: Was raped in front of her father. I heard of one case in which the mercenary grabbed a newborn baby, threw it among each other like a ball, then shot it dead in the air. Leaving the village for the hospital in Grozny, I passed a Russian armored personnel carrier with the word SAMASHKI written on its side in bold, black letters. I looked in my rearview mirror and to my horror saw a human skull mounted on

9898-473: Was rejected by some Chechen politicians and military leaders who continue to support the existence of the republic. Since November 2007, Akhmed Zakayev was proclaimed to be the Prime Minister of Ichkeria's government-in-exile. However, the influence of Zakayev's government was described as "marginal" by political scientist Mark Galeotti who argued that the Caucasus Emirate proved more influential both among

9999-469: Was serving a sentence for armed robbery and murder, and later headed a pro-Dudayev militia. As crowds of armed separatists gathered in Grozny, Russian President Boris Yeltsin sought to declare a state of emergency in the region, but his efforts were thwarted by the Russian parliament. An early attempt by Russian authorities to confront the pro-independence forces in November 1991 ended after just three days. According to an article originally published by

10100-438: Was stolen by the Chechen authorities and divided between the warlords. Nearly half a million people (40% of Chechnya's prewar population) have been internally displaced and lived in refugee camps or overcrowded villages. The economy was destroyed. Two Russian brigades were stationed in Chechnya and did not leave. Maskhadov made efforts to rebuild the country and its devastated capital Grozny by trading oil in countries such as

10201-575: Was welcomed by Georgia's President Zviad Gamsakhurdia , who was one of the first to congratulate Dudayev with victory and attended his inauguration as president in Grozny . While Chechnya did not receive backing from the international community, it received support and attention from Georgia, which became its only gateway to the outside world that was not controlled by Moscow . Close ties between Gamsakhurdia and Dudayev led to Russian officials, including Alexander Rutskoy , accusing Georgia of "fomenting unrest in

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