Vienenburg is a borough of Goslar , capital of the Goslar district, in Lower Saxony , Germany . The former independent municipality was incorporated in Goslar on 1 January 2014.
174-728: It is situated in the north of the Harz mountain range and east of the Harly Forest on the Oker River near its confluence with the Radau , about 10 km (6.2 mi) northeast of the Goslar town centre. Neighbouring municipalities are Bad Harzburg in the south and Schladen-Werla in the north. The former township consisted of Vienenburg proper and the surrounding villages Immenrode, Lengde, Weddingen, Lochtum and Wiedelah, all incorporated in 1972. Situated in
348-601: A Benedictine monastery at their ancestral seat west of Vienenburg, which converted into a Cistercian nunnery a few years later, confirmed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1188 and by Pope Honorius III in a 1216 deed. The abbey affiliated to the Bishopric of Hildesheim generated several filial monasteries and left a collection of notable manuscripts, now kept at the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel . In 1523
522-736: A secret treaty on 29 July 1617. Philip acknowledged Ferdinand's right to inherit Matthias's realms, but Ferdinand promised to cede territories in Alsace , along with Finale Ligure and the Principality of Piombino in Italy to Philip after he succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor. Philip also granted 1 million thalers to Ferdinand to finance the war against the Venetians. The Venetians again laid siege to Gradisca in March 1617. Ferdinand needed further funds, but
696-422: A breeding pair has settled in the eastern Harz as the result of a wildlife reintroduction project. The ring ouzel prefers semi-open stone runs and lightly wooded transition zones between treeless raised bogs and forests . The Harz is home to one of its few, isolated breeding areas in central Europe. Its main distribution area extends across northwest Europe, including large parts of England and Scotland, as well as
870-466: A cautious approach in the province, but Ferdinand ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers on 4 October. A year later, he prescribed that all inhabitants were to convert to Catholicism in Upper Austria by the following Easter, allowing only noblemen and burghers to choose to leave the province. The Upper Austrian peasants rose up in a rebellion and took control of the territories to
1044-612: A compromise in June 1608. According to the Treaty of Lieben , Rudolph retained most Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the title of Holy Roman Emperor , but had to renounce Hungary, Lower and Upper Austria and Moravia in favor of Matthias. Both brothers were forced to confirm the privileges of the Estates in their realms, including religious freedom. Ferdinand's mother died on 29 April 1608, while he
1218-664: A consequence of the mining industry in the Upper Harz, was largely destroyed by a bark beetle outbreak and a storm of hurricane proportions in November 1800. This largest known bark beetle infestation in the Harz was known as the Große Wurmtrocknis , and destroyed about 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) of spruce forest and lasted about for 20 years. The woods were largely reforested with spruce. Continuous problems with bark beetle and storms were
1392-553: A consequence of this it is also referred to as the "Classic Geological Square Mile" ( Klassischen Quadratmeile der Geologie ). There is a room devoted to geology in the Harz Museum in Wernigerode. The vegetation of the Harz mountains is divided into six altitudinal zones : From the edge of the Harz to 700 m above sea level beech woods dominate, especially the wood-rush beech woods on locations poorly supplied with nutrients where
1566-454: A consortium that also included the Jewish banker, Jacob Bassevi , and Wallenstein's financial manager, Hans de Witte . They persuaded Ferdinand to lease all Bohemian, Moravian and Lower Austrian mints to them for one year in return for 6 million gulden on 18 January 1622. The consortium minted debased silver coins, issuing almost 30 million gulden. They used the bad money to purchase silver and
1740-726: A counter-invasion before further reinforcements arrived, but Aldobrandini convinced him to lay siege to Nagykanizsa on 18 October 1601. After his troops were decimated by hunger and bad weather, Ferdinand was forced to lift the siege and return to Styria on 15 November. The Ottomans failed to exploit this victory, as Rudolph II's troops managed to defeat them near Székesfehérvár . This victory restored Rudolph's self-confidence, and he decided to introduce severe Counter-Reformation measures in Silesia and Hungary, outraging his Protestant subjects. The Calvinist magnate István Bocskai rose up against Rudolph, and most Hungarian noblemen joined him before
1914-542: A decisive defeat on the Bohemians and their allies in the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620. Maximilian I of Bavaria urged Ferdinand to adopt strict measures against the Bohemians and their allies, and Ferdinand declared Frederick V an outlaw on 29 January 1621. Ferdinand charged Karl I, Prince of Liechtenstein and Cardinal Franz von Dietrichstein with the government of Bohemia and Moravia, respectively, and ordered
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#17328771413332088-569: A group of armed noblemen to the Prague Castle . They captured the two governors and one of their secretaries and threw them out of the window. The Third Defenestration of Prague was the start of a new uprising. Two days later, the Protestant Estates elected directors to form a provisional government and started to raise an army. Ferdinand was staying in Pressburg when he was informed of
2262-477: A keen interest in science (see Goethes: Wahrheit und Dichtung ). In 1777, Goethe climbed the Brocken, departing from Torfhaus. At that time, there was still no mass tourism on the Brocken; in the year 1779 only 421 walkers were recorded. Goethe described his feelings on the summit later, as follows: So lonely, I say to myself, while looking down at this peak, will it feel to the person, who only wants to open his soul to
2436-468: A lack of old trees and natural brooks). Through improvements to its habitat, including the renaturalisation of waterways and the creation of relatively undisturbed peaceful areas, the black stork population has now recovered. A typical mammal of such deciduous woods is the European wildcat ( Felis silvestris ), that has established a stable population in the Harz. It prefers the diverse wooded areas, which offer
2610-545: A line from Ilsenburg to Bad Lauterberg , which roughly separates the catchment areas for the Weser (Upper Harz) and Elbe (Lower Harz). Only on the southeastern perimeter of the Upper Harz, which is also called the High Harz ( Hochharz ) (Goslar, Göttingen and Harz districts), does the mountain range exceed 1,000 m above NN on the Brocken massif. Its highest peak is the Brocken (1,141 m), its subsidiary peaks are
2784-502: A mainly agricultural area, it is known for the Harzer cheese, although the production was transferred to Saxony in 2004. The Harlyberg hill (256m/840 ft) north of the town was the site of a castle built in 1203 by the Welf king Otto IV of Germany to threaten the trade route to Goslar , as its citizens supported his Hohenstaufen rival Duke Philip of Swabia . After Otto's death in 1218
2958-483: A new alliance with the Dutch Republic . Bethlen used Ferdinand's refusal to give one of his daughters to him in marriage as a pretext to join the new coalition. Christian of Brunswick was dispatched to invade Bohemia from the north, while Bethlen attacked from the east, but Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly routed Brunswick in the Battle of Stadtlohn on 6 August 1623. The Ottomans denied support to Bethlen and he
3132-479: A new kingdom. He informed his brothers, Leopold and Charles , about his plan in a letter on 29 April 1623, but they rejected it. Leopold wanted to establish his own principality. He renounced the bishoprics of Passau and Strasbourg in favor of Ferdinand's younger son, Leopold Wilhelm , and retained Further Austria and Tyrol (that he had administered since 1619). Deprived of the Palatinate, Frederick V had made
3306-543: A pardon to Frederick V in exchange for Frederick's public submission and an indemnification for the costs of the war, but he also emphasized that he did not want to deprive Maximilian of the electoral title. The English, Dutch and Danish envoys concluded an alliance against the Catholic League in The Hague on 9 December 1625. Bethlen promised to launch a new military campaign against Royal Hungary and Richelieu agreed to send
3480-501: A parish in Graz, made a formal complaint against the local Lutheran pastors on 22 August, accusing them of unlawfully interfering in his office. Ferdinand's mother and Jesuit confessor urged him to take vigorous measures. He ordered the expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers from Styria, Carinthia and Carniola on 13 September, emphasizing that he was the "general overseer of all ecclesiastical foundations in his hereditary lands". When
3654-633: A prelate and a high officer, to install Catholic priests in each town and village, and authorized them to apply military force if necessary. During the visit of the commissioners, local Protestants were to choose between conversion or exile, although in practice peasants were rarely allowed to leave. The commissioners also burnt prohibited books. Ferdinand did not force the Lutheran noblemen to convert to Catholicism, but forbade them to employ Protestant priests. Ferdinand married his cousin, Maria Anna of Bavaria , in Graz on 23 April 1600. Their marriage improved
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#17328771413333828-466: A result of deliberate forest management . Sycamore trees are also found in these woods. Spruce woods thrive in the highest locations from about 800 m to the tree line at around 1,000 m above sea level. These woods are also home to some deciduous trees such as rowan, silver and downy birches ( Betula pendula and Betula pubescens ) and willows ( Salix spec. ). Conditions of high humidity foster an environment rich in mosses and lichens . In spite of
4002-533: A result of inadequacies of his predecessors Rudolf II and Matthias. But Ferdinand's acts against Protestantism caused the war to engulf the whole empire. As a zealous Catholic, Ferdinand wanted to restore the Catholic Church as the only religion in the Holy Roman Empire and to wipe out any form of religious dissent. The war left the empire devastated and its population did not recover until 1710. Born in
4176-416: A result of the increasingly continental climate on the eastern edge of the Harz, the common beech gives way to mixed forests of sessile oak. At intermediate heights of between 700 and 800 m above sea level, mixed woods of spruce ( Picea abies ) and common beech would predominantly be found under natural conditions. However, apart from a few remnants, these were supplanted a long time ago by spruce stands as
4350-419: A rich variety of food. The animal kingdom of the mixed beech and spruce woods is also diverse. Species that thrive in mixed forest are especially at home. For example, the mixed mountain forest is the natural habitat of the capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus ). The Tengmalm's owl ( Aegolius funereus ) may also be found here. It breeds almost exclusively in black woodpecker holes in old beeches, and needs, unlike
4524-406: A role. Melic grass beech woods are found in the few places where there is an abundance of nutrients and bases , e. g. over dolerite and gneiss formations, and they have a vegetation layer rich in variety and luxuriant growth. Here, too, the common beech dominates, mixed, for example, with sycamore, ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ), hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) and Scots elm ( Ulmus glabra ). As
4698-487: A security for Ferdinand's debts and the local Estates swore fealty to him on 20 August. The Diet of Hungary dethroned Ferdinand and elected Bethlen king on 23 August. The envoy of Louis XIII of France , Charles de Valois, Duke of Angoulême , tried to mediate a compromise between Ferdinand and his opponents, but Ferdinand was determined to force his rebellious subjects into obedience. The united troops of Maximilian I of Bavaria, Tilly and Bucquoy invaded Bohemia and inflicted
4872-413: A subsidy to him. Taking advantage of the peasant revolt in Upper Austria, Christian IV departed from his headquarters in Wolfenbüttel , but Tilly routed his troops in the Battle of Lutter on 26 August 1626. Mansfeld had invaded Silesia and reached Upper Hungary, but Bethlen made a new peace with Ferdinand on 20 December 1626, because he could not wage war alone against the emperor. Ferdinand deprived
5046-407: A type of damselfly , can be seen by streams in the Harz. The dipper ( Cinclus cinclus ), which is found everywhere on Harz streams, occurs almost exclusively in the highlands. Its habitat is very fast-flowing, clear mountain streams with wooded banks. It can dive and run under water along the stream bed. It turns stones over in its search for food. The grey wagtail ( Motacilla cinerea ) also uses
5220-661: Is a native of the bilberry-rich bog spruce woods. Only a few animals are able to survive the extreme conditions of the raised bogs . Examples of these are the Alpine emerald dragonfly ( Somatochlora alpestris ), which only occurs in Lower Saxony in the Harz, and is endangered in Germany, and the Subarctic darner ( Aeshna subarctica ), a damselfly which is threatened with extinction. Rocks and stone runs are important habitat components for
5394-482: Is characterised by regular precipitation throughout the year. Exposed to westerly winds from the Atlantic, heavy with rain, the windward side of the mountains has up to 1,600 mm of rain annually (West Harz, Upper Harz, High Harz); in contrast, the leeward side only receives an average of 600 mm of precipitation per annum (East Harz, Lower Harz, Eastern Harz foothills). The Harz is the most geologically diverse of
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5568-811: Is considered the first step of the Thirty Years' War . In the following events he remained a staunch backer of the Anti-Protestant Counter Reformation efforts as one of the heads of the German Catholic League . Ferdinand succeeded Matthias as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. Supported by the Catholic League and the Kings of Spain and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Ferdinand decided to reclaim his possession in Bohemia and to quash
5742-582: Is divided into the Upper Harz ( Oberharz ) in the northwest, which is up to 800 m high, apart from the 1,100 m high Brocken massif, and the Lower Harz ( Unterharz ) in the east which is up to around 400 m high and whose plateaus are capable of supporting arable farming. The following districts ( Kreise ) fall wholly or partly within the Harz: Goslar and Göttingen in the west, Harz and Mansfeld-Südharz in
5916-559: Is known for its abbey church, a Romanesque basilica of the late 12th century with an attached cloister and a crypt, which serves for storage of the Wöltingerode Korn , distilled here since 1682. Seats in the last municipal assembly (Stadtrat) as of 2011 elections: In December 2012, the assembly voted for the amalgamation with Goslar. Vienenburg's railway station, opened in 1840 on the Brunswick–Bad Harzburg railway of
6090-842: The Roßtrappe , could indicate an earlier Celtic occupation of the Harz. The Harzgau itself was first mentioned in a deed by the Emperor, Louis the Pious , from the year 814, in which it was referred to by its High German form, Hartingowe . According to the Fulda annals of 852, the Harzgau was occupied by the Harudes and after whom the Harudengau ( Harudorum pagus ) was named. Harud , from which Hard , Hart and Harz are derived, means forest or forested mountains, and
6264-488: The Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Halberstadt , but a fierce rivalry between the two commanders prevented them from continuing the military campaign. The electors of Mainz and Saxony demanded that Ferdinand should convoke the electors to a new convention to discuss the status of the Palatinate, but Ferdinand adopted a delaying tactic. In a letter, he informed Maximilian of Bavaria about his plan to grant
6438-592: The B 82 (link to the A ;7 Hannover/Kassel) and 241 (Goslar) federal highways as well as the B 82 (link to the A 2 ; Brunswick, Berlin/Dortmund) and the B ;6 / B 6n (links to the A 14 Halle / Leipzig − Magdeburg and to Goslar and Bad Harzburg ). Harz The Harz ( German: [haːɐ̯ts] ), also called the Harz Mountains , is a highland area in northern Germany. It has
6612-522: The Capuchins in Bohemia, and the Holy See supported Harrach, but Ferdinand did not relent. Ferdinand ceremoniously renewed his oath about the restoration of Catholicism in his realms on 25 March 1624. First, he banned Protestant ceremonies in Bohemia proper and Moravia, even prohibiting the noblemen to hold Protestant pastors on 18 May. Maximilian I of Bavaria, who still held Upper Austria in pledge, proposed
6786-630: The Catholic League without his participation in 1610. Philip III of Spain , who was the childless Matthias' nephew, acknowledged Ferdinand's right to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary in exchange for territorial concessions in 1617. Spain also supported Ferdinand against the Republic of Venice during the Uskok War in 1617–18. The Diets of Bohemia and Hungary confirmed Ferdinand's position as Matthias' successor only after he had promised to respect
6960-622: The Charles University in Prague with the theological and philosophical faculties of the Jesuits' local college to strengthen the Jesuits' control of higher education. The new archbishop of Prague , Ernst Adalbert of Harrach did not renounce the control of the university and also wanted to prevent the Jesuits from seizing the estates of the Charles University. Valerianus Magnus , the head of
7134-544: The Cossack lands which invaded Upper Hungary and forced Bethlen to hurry back to Transylvania in late January 1620. Ferdinand and Bethlen concluded a 9-month truce, which temporarily acknowledged Bethlen's conquests in Hungary. Abandoned by Bethlen, Thurn was forced to lift the siege. Ferdinand ordered Frederick to abandon Bohemia before 1 July, threatening him with an imperial ban . John George I of Saxony promised support against
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7308-446: The Duchy of Brunswick State Railway , is the oldest preserved one in Germany and a regional railway hub. From Vienenburg, railway lines run in four directions: north to Brunswick , southeast to Halberstadt–Halle , south to Bad Harzburg and southwest to Oker–Goslar . The old goods line to Langelsheim was a victim of the division of Germany and was never reactivated. Vienenburg lies on
7482-708: The Eucharist during the Easter Mass. Ferdinand reached the age of majority in late 1596. He was first officially installed as ruler in Styria in December. He avoided discussion of religious affairs with the Estates, taking advantage of their fear of an Ottoman invasion and the peasant uprisings in Upper Austria . Early the following year, the representatives of the other Inner Austrian provinces swore fealty to him. He left unchanged
7656-657: The Fichtel Mountains and Rhenish Massif . They were, however, heavily eroded due to their height (up to 4 km) and were later covered over by Mesozoic rocks. From the Early Cretaceous and into Late Cretaceous times the Harz was uplifted in a single block by tectonic movements and, particularly during the Tertiary period, the younger overlying strata were eroded and the underlying base rock left standing as low mountains. The most important uplift movements were during
7830-797: The Heinrichshöhe (1,044 m) to the southeast and the Königsberg (1,023 m) to the southwest. Other prominent hills in the Harz are the Acker- Bruchberg ridge (927 m), the Achtermannshöhe (925 m) and the Wurmberg (971 m) near Braunlage . In the far east, the mountains merge into the East Harz foothills (Harz district, Saxony-Anhalt), which are dominated by the Selke Valley. Part of
8004-485: The Hofburg , but Ferdinand ordered his arrest at the entrance of the palace on 20 July. Ferdinand was automatically excommunicated for the imprisonment of a cardinal, but Pope Paul V absolved him before the end of the year. Ferdinand started negotiations with the rebels with the mediation of John George I of Saxony. He demanded the dissolution of the provisional government and the rebels' army. Instead of obeying his orders,
8178-469: The Inner German border ran through the Harz, the west belonging to the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the east to the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). Today the Harz forms a popular tourist destination for summer hiking as well as winter sports. About 700,000 to 350,000 years ago Homo erectus hunted in and around the Harz near Bilzingsleben (Thuringia), Hildesheim and Schöningen (Lower Saxony). The Neanderthals entered
8352-467: The Letter of Majesty —a royal diploma that guaranteed religious freedom in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown —only after consulting with the local Jesuits. He was crowned king in the St. Vitus Cathedral on 29 June. Ten regents (seven Catholics and three Protestants) were appointed and they established a censor office in Prague. Ferdinand and Matthias met with the Lutheran John George I, Elector of Saxony in Dresden who promised to support Ferdinand at
8526-412: The Wolkenhäuschen ("Little House in the Clouds") on the Brocken. As a young man, the famous German poet, Goethe visited the Harz several times and had a number of important lifetime experiences. These included his walks on the Brocken and his visit to the mines in Rammelsberg. Later, his observations of the rocks on the Brocken led to his geological research. His first visit to the Harz awakened in him
8700-466: The castle in Graz on 9 July 1578, Ferdinand was the son of Charles II, Archduke of Austria , and Maria of Bavaria . Charles II, who was the youngest son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor , had inherited the Inner Austrian provinces— Styria , Carinthia , Carniola , Gorizia , Fiume , Trieste and parts of Istria and Friuli —from his father in 1564. Being a daughter of Albert V, Duke of Bavaria , by Charles II's sister Anna , Maria of Bavaria
8874-474: The common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) is often the only tree species. In lower, drier locations the English oak ( Quercus robur ) and sessile oak ( Quercus petraea ) occur as well. Sycamore trees ( Acer pseudoplatanus ) may be found growing in wetter places. During times of decay and rejuvenation when there is plenty of light, light-dependent pioneers such as rowan ( Sorbus aucuparia ), silver birch ( Betula pendula ) and pussy willow ( Salix caprea ) play
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#17328771413339048-440: The electors' meeting to Frankfurt . Ferdinand avoided the rebellious Upper Austria and approached the assembly through Salzburg and Munich . The Bohemians sent envoys to the conference and denied Ferdinand's right to vote as their king, but the electors ignored their demand. The Estates of all Lands of the Bohemian Crown formed a confederation on 31 July. They deposed Ferdinand on 22 August, and four days later, they offered
9222-399: The limestone deposits around Elbingerode and the Gabbro of Bad Harzburg . The landscapes of the Harz are characterised by steep mountain ridges, stone runs , relatively flat plateaus with many raised bogs and long, narrow V-shaped valleys , of which the Bode Gorge , the Oker and Selke valleys are the best known. A representative cross-section of all the Harz rocks is displayed on
9396-434: The peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) and ring ouzel ( Turdus torquatus ). The peregrine, which is threatened with extinction here, needs steep rock outcrops with little vegetation. After its population had died out in the Harz, a breeding pair was re-established in the region. A crucial contribution has been made by extensive efforts to promote quiet areas in the ancestral breeding grounds of this shy species. Since 1980,
9570-487: The pygmy owl ( Glaucidium passerinum ) which is threatened with extinction and which lives in the submontane to subalpine zones within mixed and pine forests interspersed with open areas. They prefer spruce woods for breeding, but feed in more open stands of trees or on open moorland. Like the black stork , the pygmy owl had long since disappeared from the Harz, but returned in the 1980s of its own volition, as its ancestral homeland once again became more natural, so that there
9744-415: The Bishopric of Hildesheim in 1647. The adjacent settlement remained part of the episcopal lands until the 1803 German mediatization and fell to the newly established Kingdom of Hanover in 1814. Vienenburg received town privileges in 1935. Part of the Prussian Province of Hanover since 1866, it was incorporated into the Free State of Brunswick in 1941. In 1174 the Counts of Wohldenberg established
9918-419: The Bode. The Wipper is fed by the Eine . The Rhume is joined by the Söse and the Oder; the latter being fed by the Sieber . The Zorge , the Wieda and the Uffe all flow into the Helme. → See List of hills in the Harz → See List of rock formations (crags, tors, etc.) in the Harz Climatically a hill range has lower temperatures and higher levels of precipitation than the surrounding land. The Harz
10092-450: The Bohemian events on 27 May 1618. He urged Matthias to send an envoy to Prague, but Matthias' envoy could not reach a compromise. Ferdinand was crowned king of Hungary on 1 July, and he returned to Vienna two weeks later. Ferdinand and Maximilian III decided to get rid of Klesl, although the cardinal supported their demand for a more determined policy against the Bohemian rebels. After a meeting with Klesl at his home, they invited him to
10266-440: The Bohemian rebels in exchange for Lusatia, but Bethlen made a new alliance with the Bohemian Confederation and they sent envoys to Constantinople to seek Sultan Osman II 's assistance. Ferdinand continued the negotiations with the Estates of Lower and Upper Austria about his recognition as Matthias' successor in both provinces. After his new confessor, the Jesuit Martin Becanus , assured him that he could grant concessions to
10440-660: The Bohemians and invaded Upper Hungary (mainly present-day Slovakia) in September. After learning of Bethlen's success, Frederick V accepted the Bohemian crown on 28 September. Ferdinand concluded a treaty with Maximilian I in Munich on 8 October 1619. Maximilian became the head of a renewed Catholic League and Ferdinand promised to compensate him for the costs of the war. He was still in Munich when Bethlen and Thurn united their forces and laid siege to Vienna in November. Ferdinand sought assistance from his staunchly Catholic brother-in-law, Sigismund III of Poland . Sigismund did not intervene, however, he did hire mercenaries from
10614-440: The Brocken without special permission, and the lighting of fires was forbidden. The first attempts at forest conservation in the Harz were centred on the Brocken, and began with a far-sighted nature conservation act over 275 years ago. In 1718, Count Christian Ernest of the House of Stolberg issued an ordinance in which destruction or damage to the forest on the Brocken would be severely punished. In 1736, Christian Ernest also built
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#173287714133310788-465: The Catholics did not accept their interpretation. Royal officials arrested Protestant burghers who wanted to build a church in Broumov and destroyed a newly built church in Hrob . The Protestants principally blamed two of the four Catholic royal governors, Jaroslav Bořita of Martinice and Vilém Slavata of Chlum , for the violent acts. On 23 May 1618, Jindřich Matyáš Thurn —one of the two Czech magnates who had not accepted Ferdinand's succession—led
10962-420: The Diet implied that Rudolph regarded Ferdinand—the only Habsburg who had already fathered children—as his successor. Matthias made public his secret treaty with Ferdinand, and the emperor pardoned Ferdinand. Matthias concluded a formal alliance with the representatives of the Hungarian and Austrian Estates and led an army of 15,000 strong to Moravia . The envoys of the Holy See and Philip III of Spain mediated
11136-401: The Diet's power. In 1625, despite the subsidies received from Spain and the Pope, Ferdinand was in a bad financial situation. In order to muster an imperial army to continue the war, he applied to Albrecht von Wallenstein , one of the richest men in Bohemia: the latter accepted on condition that he could keep total control over the direction of the war, as well as over the booties taken during
11310-501: The Estates did not vote new taxes. Matthias fell seriously ill in late April 1617. Ignoring Klesl's advice, he convoked the Diet of Bohemia to secure Ferdinand's succession. He announced that his two brothers had abdicated in favor of Ferdinand, but the majority of the Bohemian delegates denied the Habsburgs' hereditary right to Bohemia. After some negotiations, all delegates but two noblemen and two burghers agreed to "accept" Ferdinand as king on 6 June. Ferdinand promised to respect
11484-419: The Estates' privileges in both realms. The different interpretation of the Letter of Majesty , which summarized the Bohemian Protestants' liberties, gave rise to an uprising, known as the Second Defenestration of Prague on 23 May 1618. The Bohemian rebels established a provisional government, invaded Upper Austria, and sought assistance from the Habsburgs' opponents. Matthias II died on 20 March 1619. Ferdinand
11658-447: The French frontiers and Richelieu sent envoys to the wealthy and ambitious Christian IV of Denmark and other Protestant rulers to convince them to form a new league. Christian IV raised new troops and stationed them in his Duchy of Holstein (in the Lower Saxon Circle of the Holy Roman Empire) and persuaded the other Lower Saxon rulers to make him the commander of their united armies in early 1625. Initially, Ferdinand wanted to avoid
11832-446: The German Mittelgebirge , although it is overwhelmingly dominated by base-poor rocks. The most common rocks lying on the surface are argillaceous shales , slaty ( geschieferte ) greywackes and granite intrusions in the shape of two large igneous rock masses or plutons . The Gießen-Harz surface layer of the Rhenohercynian zone , which is widespread in the Harz, consists mainly of flysch . Well-known and economically important are
12006-488: The Harudes were the residents or dwellers in the Harud. Of more recent origin are settlements whose names end in –rode , a suffix that is first discernable in the Harzgau from the mid-9th century. Where the founders of these villages came from is unknown. Charlemagne declared the Harz a restricted imperial forest or Reichsbannwald . The Saxon Mirror ( Sachsenspiegel ), the oldest German law book ( Rechtsbuch ), probably published around 1220/30 at Falkenstein Castle in
12180-415: The Harz The largest rivers in the Harz are the Innerste , the Oker and the Bode in the north; the Wipper in the east; and the Oder in the south. The Innerste merges into the Leine and its tributaries are the Nette and the Grane . The rivers Radau , Ecker and Ilse all discharge into the Oker. The Hassel , the Selke and the Holtemme (whose main tributary is the Zillierbach ) flow into
12354-409: The Harz are some of the best preserved in central Europe. They were formed at the end of the last ice age about 10,000 years ago. A significant proportion of the vegetation on these raised bogs is made up of peat mosses ( Sphagnum spec. ). The flarks ( Schlenken ) and the hummocks ( Bulten ) are home to different species of flora. In the flarks, for example, Sphagnum cuspidatum is found, whereas
12528-457: The Harz point to the use of this prehistoric adhesive by Neanderthals about 50,000 years ago. The Upper Palaeolithic Revolution , about 40,000 years ago, saw Homo sapiens move from Africa into Europe, including to the Harz region, where they appear to have ousted the Neanderthals and subsequently settled here. Many discoveries in the Harz, such as the bronze club of Thale, which was found by
12702-448: The Harz with an elevation of 1,141.1 metres (3,744 ft) above sea level . The Wurmberg (971 metres (3,186 ft)) is the highest peak located entirely within the state of Lower Saxony. The Harz has a length of 110 kilometres (68 mi), stretching from the town of Seesen in the northwest to Eisleben in the east, and a width of 35 kilometres (22 mi). It occupies an area of 2,226 square kilometres (859 sq mi), and
12876-491: The Holy Roman Empire was uncertain. Matthias made Ferdinand the governor of Lower and Upper Austria and appointed him as his representative in Hungary, but Klesl became his most influential advisor. Klesl wanted to forge a new princely alliance in the Holy Roman Empire with the participation of both Catholic and Protestant princes. Ferdinand and Maximilian III regarded his plan dangerous and sent envoys to Rome to convince
13050-585: The Hungarian delegates achieved the appointment of a new palatine (or royal lieutenant) and the confirmation of the Estates' privileges, they proclaimed Ferdinand king on 16 May 1618. He appointed the Catholic magnate, Zsigmond Forgách , as the new palatine. The application of the Letter of Majesty was controversial in Bohemia. The Protestants argued that it allowed them to build churches on Catholic prelates' lands, but
13224-727: The Jordanshöhe near Sankt Andreasberg near the car park (see photo). The formation and geological folding of the Harz hills began during a prominent phase of the Palaeozoic era, in the course of the Hercynian mountain building of the Carboniferous period , about 350 to 250 million years ago. At that time in the history of the Earth , numerous high mountains appeared in Western Europe, including
13398-759: The League in August. Cooperating with Rudolph II's principal advisor, Melchior Klesl , Bishop of Vienna , Ferdinand persuaded the emperor to seek a reconciliation with Matthias. Ferdinand and other imperial princes came to Prague to meet with the emperor on 1 May 1610. He stayed neutral in the family feud, which enabled him to mediate between the two brothers. They reached a compromise, but Rudolph refused to name Matthias as his successor. Instead, he adopted Ferdinand's younger brother, Leopold, who had hired 15,000 mercenaries at his request. Leopold invaded Bohemia in February 1611, but
13572-623: The Moravian treasury on 30 April. He gave the booty to Ferdinand, but the king returned it to the Moravian Estates. The Protestant Estates of Upper Austria demanded the confirmation of their religious and political liberties before recognizing Ferdinand as Matthias' successor. Thurn and his 15,000 troops laid siege to Vienna on 5 June. Since only 300 soldiers were staying in the town, Ferdinand sent envoys to his commander at Krems , Henri Duval, Count of Dampierre and entered into negotiations with
13746-485: The Pope about the importance of a pure Catholic alliance. Although the Catholic League was renewed, it declared, in accordance with Klesl's proposal, the defense of the imperial constitution as its principal purpose instead of the protection of Catholicism. Philip III of Spain announced his claim to succeed Matthias in Bohemia and Hungary, emphasizing that his mother, Anna , the sister of Matthias, had never renounced her right to
13920-826: The Pope discouraged. Ferdinand continued his journey, visiting the Holy House in Loreto . At the shrine, he ceremoniously pledged that he would restore Catholicism, according to his first biography, written after his death by his confessor, Wilhelm Lamormaini . Ferdinand returned to Graz on 20 June 1598. Johannes Kepler , who had been staying in the town, noted that the Protestant burghers watched Ferdinand's return with some apprehension. He had already made unsuccessful attempts to appoint Catholic priests to churches in predominantly Lutheran towns prior to his Italian journey. A former Jesuit student, Lorenz Sonnabenter, whom Ferdinand had sent to
14094-687: The Prince-bishop of Hildesheim had to cede Wöltingerode to Duke Henry the Younger of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel as a result of the Great Diocesan Feud . Henry's son Duke Julius turned Protestant in 1568 and in consequence a Lutheran abbess was installed as head of the monastery. During the Thirty Years' War the Hildesheim Prince-bishop Ferdinand of Bavaria , backed by the Catholic League and his Wittelsbach relatives, took
14268-563: The Protestant nobles and burghers protested against his decree, he replied that the Estates had no jurisdiction in religious affairs. He summoned Italian and Spanish mercenaries to Graz. Due to his firm actions, no riots broke out when the leaders of the Protestant community left Graz on 29 September. Ferdinand forbade the Estates of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola to hold a joint assembly. The Styrian nobles and burghers unsuccessfully sought assistance from Rudolph II and their Austrian peers against him. Although he issued new decrees to strengthen
14442-608: The Protestant troops in the Holy Roman Empire in May and June 1622. Tilly conquered the capital of the Palatinate, Heidelberg , on 19 September. Ferdinand convoked the German princes to a conference to Regensburg, primarily to talk about the future of the Palatinate. He reached the town on 24 November, but most Protestant princes sent delegates to the convention. He had secretly promised the transfer of Frederick V's title of elector to Maximilian I and his heirs, but most of his allies did not support
14616-466: The Protestants had shocked Ferdinand. However, William V and Maximilian of Bavaria ignored him when they and the three ecclesiastical electors—the archbishops of Mainz , Trier and Cologne —established the Catholic League in February 1610. Only Philip III of Spain, who promised financial aid to the League, could persuade the Catholic princes to accept Ferdinand as a director and the vice-protector of
14790-604: The Protestants to secure their loyalty, Ferdinand confirmed the Lutherans' right to practise their religion in Lower Austria, save the towns on 8 July 1620. Five days later, the vast majority of the noblemen swore fealty to him. Before long, Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly , who was the commander of the army of the Catholic League, occupied Upper Austria, Bucquoy defeated the last rebels in Lower Austria and John George of Saxony invaded Lusatia. Maximilian I retained Upper Austria as
14964-630: The Religious Peace, but he also demanded the restoration of Catholicism in all former ecclesiastic principalities and the return of the confiscated Church lands. Ferdinand embraced Schoppe's views and appointed him to start negotiations with Pope Paul V about a "just war" for the defence of the interests of Catholics, but the Pope avoid making a commitment, because he did not want to outrage Henry IV of France . Ferdinand also tried to strengthen his relationship with his Bavarian relatives, because Matthias' rebellion against Rudolph II and his concessions to
15138-549: The Romans (which could have secured his right to succeed Rudolph II), but the three ecclesiastical electors opposed the plan because of Matthias's concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria and Bohemia. Matthias was elected Holy Roman Emperor only months after Rudolph II died on 20 June 1612. Since Matthias and his two surviving brothers, Maximilian III and Albert VII were childless, his succession in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and
15312-654: The Romans , because he feared that Ferdinand would force him to abdicate. In early 1616, Ferdinand pledged that he would not interfere in state administration in Matthias's realms. Klesl who regarded Ferdinand as the Jesuits' puppet continued to oppose his appointment as Matthias's successor. On 31 October 1616, Ferdinand and Maximilian III agreed to achieve the removal of Klesl, but Ferdinand wanted to conclude an agreement with Philip III about Matthias's succession before making further steps. Philip's new envoy at Vienna, Íñigo Vélez de Guevara, 7th Count of Oñate , and Ferdinand signed
15486-523: The Selke valley, later made the imperial restriction clear: "Whoever rides through the Harz Forest, must unstring his bow and crossbow and keep dogs on a line – only crowned royalty ( gekrönte Häupter ) are allowed to hunt here". Eike von Repkow's Sachsenspiegel which, for centuries, formed the basis on which German law was administered, described the Harz as a place where wild animals are guaranteed protection in
15660-674: The Siege of Gradisca on 22 September, but peace was restored only in early 1618, after Ferdinand agreed to resettle the Uskoks from the coastline and ordered the destruction of their ships. The Venetians abandoned the territories that they had occupied in Istria and a permanent Austrian garrison was placed at Senj . Matthias convoked the Diet of Hungary to Pressburg (now Bratislava in Slovakia) in early 1618. After
15834-577: The Upper Austrian Protestants about their demands. Dampierre and his troops reached Vienna by boat and forced the Protestant delegates to flee from the Hofburg. After Ferdinand's general, Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, 2nd Count of Bucquoy , defeated the Bohemian rebels in the Battle of Sablat , Thurn lifted the siege on 12 June. Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg , Archbishop of Mainz, convoked
16008-474: The Venetians cooperated with the Ottomans. The Venetians urged Ferdinand to prevent further piratical actions. In 1600, he sent an envoy to the Uskoks, whom the Uskoks murdered. Ottoman raids against the borderlands continued and the expenses of the defence of Croatia, Slavonia and southwestern Hungary were almost exclusively financed from Inner Austria. Ferdinand could never properly manage financial affairs, and
16182-504: The Venetians who invaded Istria and captured Habsburg territories in 1615. They besieged Gradisca from 12 February to 30 March, but they could not capture the fortress. Ferdinand sought assistance from Spain and the Venetians received support from the Dutch and English , but neither side could achieve a decisive victory in the Uskok War . Matthias adopted Ferdinand as his son in 1615, but without proposing Ferdinand's election as king of
16356-546: The animals in these streams need to be well suited to high velocities. Only a few species, such as fish, swim actively against the stream. The most common species are brown trout ( Salmon trutta forma fario ) and bullhead ( Cottus gobio ). Much richer in variety, by contrast, is the range of species in the system of crevices under the streambed. In addition to the insects and fish hatchlings that thrive here, may be found protozoons , flatworms ( Turbellaria ) and water mites ( Hygrobatoidea ). Other species of animals cling fast to
16530-430: The beech woods, with their abundance of dead wood, are the black woodpecker ( Dryocopus martius ) and stock dove ( Columba oenas ). An indication of the natural state of the beech woods in the Harz is the return of the black stork ( Ciconia nigra ). This shy and susceptible resident of richly diverse deciduous and mixed forest has become very rare in central Europe due to increasing disturbance of its habitat (caused by
16704-576: The castle became a property of the Welf Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg and a thorn in the side of the Bishops of Hildesheim , while the garrisons of the castle were notorious for permanently robbing bypassing merchants. Therefore, Prince-bishop Siegfried II of Hildesheim declared war against Duke Henry I of Brunswick and in 1291 took and slighted the castle. Some moats are still visible today. A modern observation tower stands nearby. A second castle up de Viene
16878-486: The common beech gives way to hardier deciduous species such as sycamore, large-leaved lime ( Tilia platyphyllos ), Scots elm or ash. The herbaceous layer is similar to that of the better-nourished beech woods. Notable species amongst the plant communities here include the Alpine blue-sow-thistle ( Cicerbita alpina ), perennial honesty ( Lunaria rediviva ), hard shield fern ( Polystichum aculeatum ) and long beech fern ( Phegopteris connectilis ). The raised bogs in
17052-485: The costs of the war and Philip III of Spain also promised support to him. Emperor Matthias died on 20 March 1619. Maximilian of Bavaria encouraged Ferdinand to adopt an aggressive policy against the Bohemian rebels, but Ferdinand again confirmed the Letter of Majesty and urged the Bohemians to send delegates to Vienna. The directors ignored Ferdinand's acts and made further preparations for an armed conflict. Wallenstein stormed into Olomouc and seized 96,000 thalers from
17226-481: The crown to Frederick V of the Palatinate. Frederick had tried to convince the electors to elect Maximilian I of Bavaria as the new Holy Roman Emperor . Maximilian did not accept the candidacy and Ferdinand was unanimously elected as emperor on 28 August. The news about Ferdinand's deposition in Bohemia reached Frankfurt on the same day, but he did not leave the town before being crowned on 9 September. Gabriel Bethlen , Prince of Transylvania , made an alliance with
17400-456: The dams are primarily used to generate electricity , to provide drinking water , to prevent flooding and to supply water in times of scarcity. Modern dam-building began in the Harz with the construction of the Söse Valley Dam , which was built between 1928 and 1931. The dams of the Upper Harz lakes are some of the oldest dams in Germany that are still in operation. → See List of dams in
17574-610: The defense of Croatia , Slavonia and the southeastern parts of Royal Hungary against the Ottomans. He visited Nagykanizsa , Cetin Castle and the nearby fortresses and ordered their repair. Ferdinand made an unofficial journey to Italy before getting fully involved in state administration. He named his mother regent and left Graz on 22 April 1598. He met with Pope Clement VIII in Ferrara in early May, and briefly mentioned that he wanted to expel all Protestants from Inner Austria, which
17748-430: The drier hummocks and occasionally the cross-leaved heath ( Erica tetralix ) may be found. Typical grasses are the sheathed cottongrass ( Eriophorum vaginatum ), known for its bright, white clusters of fruit and deergrass ( Scirpus cespitosus ), which is rust-red in the autumn. One fascinating moorland plant is the round-leaved sundew ( Drosera rotundifolia ). Bog or northern bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum) grows on
17922-484: The drier margins of the bog. A multitude of wild animals live in the beech forests of the Harz Mountains. Over 5,000 species, most of them insects, have their home in these woods. They include many species that help to decompose leaves and work them into the soil and ground cover, including springtails , oribatid mites , woodlice , roundworms , millipedes , earthworms and snails . Characteristic breeding birds in
18096-430: The dukes of Mecklenburg from their duchies for their support to Christian IV in February 1627. In the same month, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg, Pomerania and Holstein, and invaded Denmark. His devout Catholicism and negative view of Protestantism caused immediate turmoil in his non-Catholic subjects, especially in Bohemia. He did not wish to uphold the religious liberties granted by the Letter of Majesty signed by
18270-505: The earlier, serious destruction of the cave's features by Vandals . The first Harz 'rangers' were formed. In 1705, the last bear was killed in the Harz, on the Brocken. The steadily increasing consumption of wood by the pits and smelting works led to overexploitation of the forests and, from about 1700, to their outright destruction. There were no less than 30,000 charcoal piles in the Harz. In 1707, an order by Count Ernst of Stolberg forbade Brocken guides to take strangers or local folk to
18444-623: The election of a palatine (or royal deputy) in Hungary on 23 June 1606. The subsequent Peace of Zsitvatorok put an end to the war with the Ottoman Empire on 11 November 1606. Rudolph II convoked the Imperial Diet to Regensburg and appointed Ferdinand as his deputy in November 1607. At the opening session of the Diet on 12 January 1608, Ferdinand demanded funds from the Imperial Estates on
18618-593: The emperor's behalf to finance 24,000 troops. The delegates of the Protestant princes stated that they would vote for the tax only if the Catholic Estates accepted their interpretation of the Religious Peace of Augsburg , especially their right to retain the lands they had confiscated from Catholic clerics in their realms. Ferdinand urged both parties to respect the Religious Peace, but without much success. He started negotiations with William V of Bavaria about
18792-542: The end of 1604. Taking advantage of his relatives' anxiety, Matthias persuaded Ferdinand, Maximilian and Ferdinand's brother, Maximilian Ernest , to start new negotiations concerning Rudolph's succession. At their meeting in Linz in April 1606, the four archdukes concluded that the emperor was incompetent and decided to replace him with Matthias in Bohemia, Hungary and Upper and Lower Austria. Ferdinand later claimed that he only signed
18966-562: The establishment of special courts of justice to hear the rebels' trials. The new tribunals sentenced most leaders of the rebellion to death, and 27 of them were executed in the Old Town Square in Prague on 21 June. The estates of more than 450 nobles and burghers were fully or partially confiscated. Ferdinand demanded further trials, but Liechtenstein convinced him to grant a general pardon, because Mansfeld's troops had not been expelled from western Bohemia. Bethlen also wanted to continue
19140-405: The expulsion of all Protestant pastors and teachers; next, he established special commissions to restore the Catholic parishes. The Ottomans captured Nagykanizsa in Hungary in 1600, which enabled them to invade Styria. A year later, Ferdinand tried to recapture the fortress , but the action ended in November 1601 with a defeat, due to unprofessional command of his troops. During the first stage of
19314-461: The family feud known as the Brothers' Quarrel , Ferdinand initially supported Rudolph II's brother, Matthias , who wanted to convince the melancholic emperor to abdicate, but Matthias' concessions to the Protestants in Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia outraged Ferdinand. He planned an alliance to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church in the Holy Roman Empire, but the Catholic princes established
19488-575: The formation of an alliance of the Catholic princes, but his uncle wanted to establish it without the Habsburgs' participation. After the Diet was closed in early May, the Electoral Palatinate , Brandenburg , Würtemberg and other Protestant principalities formed an alliance, known as the Protestant Union , to defend their common interests. Ferdinand's appointment as the emperor's deputy to
19662-574: The guardians of Ferdinand. Maria and William V tried to secure the regency for her, but Rudolph II, who was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed his own brothers—first Ernest in 1592, and then in 1593, Maximilian III —to the post. The Estates of Inner Austria urged the emperor to procure Ferdinand's return from Bavaria; Maria resisted this, and Ferdinand continued his studies at the Jesuit university. Ferdinand and his maternal cousin, Maximilian I , were
19836-401: The high mountains of southern and eastern Europe. The waterways, with their distinct mountain stream character, play an important role right across the Harz. In comparison with the other natural regions of Lower Saxony, they are still very natural and varied, and the water is very clean. As a result of the high water velocity of the Harz streams, flowers rarely gain a foothold in the water. Even
20010-476: The higher regions are, as in most of the Harz, comparatively poor in nutrients and bases, so that only a few herbaceous plants occur here, such as heath bedstraw ( Galium saxatile ). For that reason it is more the ferns, mosses, lichens and fungi that, in addition to spruce trees, characterise these woods. Boulders and stone runs occur in the areas of weather-resistant rock in the high (alti-)montane and montane zones – these are extreme habitats for vegetation. Due to
20184-475: The highest elevations for that region, and its rugged terrain extends across parts of Lower Saxony , Saxony-Anhalt , and Thuringia . The name Harz derives from the Middle High German word Hardt or Hart (hill forest). The name Hercynia derives from a Celtic name and could refer to other mountain forests , but has also been applied to the geology of the Harz . The Brocken is the highest summit in
20358-533: The hills lie the Cretaceous layers of the sub-Hercynian depression in the rolling hills of the Harz Foreland; south of the Harz, Permian sediments lie flat on southwest-dipping Palaeozoic beds. As a result of the northern fault zone and the vertical or, sometimes even overfolded, geological strata, the geology of the Harz sometimes changes frequently within a relatively small area of just a few square kilometres. As
20532-526: The hummocks are preferred by Sphagnum magellanicum . The blanket of peat moss is penetrated by dwarf bushes such as cowberry and blueberry . Bog-rosemary ( Andromeda polifolia ) is a relict of the ice age. Other such ice age plants include the dwarf birch ( Betula nana ) and few-flowered sedge ( Carex pauciflora ). Cranberries ( Vaccinium oxicoccus ) bloom from May to June. The black crowberry ( Empetrum nigrum ) may also be seen amongst those bearing black fruit. Common heather (Calluna vulgaris) grows on
20706-413: The imperial elections. John George also agreed to convince the two other Protestant electors, Frederick V of the Palatinate and John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg , to vote for Ferdinand. Ferdinand hired new troops against the Venetians and volunteers also joined his army. The Catholic Bohemian nobleman, Albrecht von Wallenstein , recruited 260 soldiers at his own expense. The Venetians abandoned
20880-630: The issue with his younger brother, Maximilian, and with Ferdinand at a secret meeting in Schottwien in October 1600. They agreed to jointly approach the emperor, but the superstitious and melancholic Rudolph flatly refused to talk about his succession. The Uskoks —irregular soldiers of mixed origin along the northeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea —made several attacks against the Venetian ships, claiming that
21054-531: The king's restricted forests . There were three restricted forests, so described, in the state of Saxony, where there was no longer unfettered access for everyone. This ban did not last forever. Mining, ironworks, water management, increasing settlement, woodland clearances, cattle driving, agriculture, and later tourism all undermined this imperial protection over the centuries. As early as 1224, monks who had settled in Walkenried bought extensive tracts of forest in
21228-496: The lack of soil material, only weak, straggly, very open spruce woods thrive here. They have an especially high variety of trees and allow more room of light-loving species such as silver birch, rowan, sycamore, willow and dwarf bushes such as the blueberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus ). Mosses and ferns are also common here. One unusual species is the Carpathian birch ( Betula pubescens subsp. carpatica ). Bog-spruce woods are found around
21402-635: The large civilian loss of life in the Sack of Magdeburg in 1631: he had instructed Tilly to enforce the edict of Restitution upon the Electorate of Saxony , his orders causing the Belgian general to move the Catholic armies east, ultimately to Leipzig , where they suffered their first substantial defeat at the hands of Adolphus' Swedes in the First Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) . Tilly died in battle in 1632. Wallenstein
21576-465: The most important fortresses were poorly supplied. The Ottomans occupied Nagykanizsa on 20 October 1600, which left the Styrian border almost defenseless against Ottoman raids. Ferdinand urged the Pope and Philip III of Spain to send reinforcements and funds to him. The Pope appointed his nephew, Gian Francesco Aldobrandini , as the commander of the papal troops. Ferdinand's counselors warned him against
21750-414: The near-natural habitat there are only a few, indigenous, genetically adapted ( autochthonous ) spruce trees. Wood-reed spruce woods dominate. A well developed ground vegetation thrives on their moderately rocky and fresh, but certainly not wet, soils, characterised in appearance especially by grasses such as shaggy wood-reed ( Calamagrostis villosa ) and wavy hair-grass ( Avenella flexuosa ). The soils in
21924-527: The negative side effects of mining in the Harz Mountains. In 1818, a mounted forester, Spellerberg, from Lautenthal, killed the last lynx in the Harz on the Teufelsberg. At the start of the 19th century, the increasing changes to the natural landscape wrought by man and the extinction of large mammals like the bear, wolf and lynx raised awareness of the threat to nature. Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II (9 July 1578 – 15 February 1637)
22098-656: The north and east, and Nordhausen in the south. The districts of the Upper Harz are Goslar and Göttingen (both in Lower Saxony), whilst the Lower Harz is on the territory of Harz and Mansfeld-Südharz districts (both in Saxony-Anhalt). The Upper Harz is generally higher and features fir forests, whilst the Lower Harz gradually descends into the surrounding area and has deciduous forests interspersed with meadows. The dividing line between Upper and Lower Harz follows approximately
22272-686: The north of the Danube in May–June 1626. They sent delegates to Ferdinand in Vienna, but he did not give them an audience. Instead, he sent troops from Lower Austria to assist the Bavarian army in the crushing of the rebellion which was accomplished by the end of November. Tens of thousands of Protestants left Upper Austria during the following years. Ferdinand also took advantage of his peace with Bethlen to strengthen his position in Hungary. The Diet of Hungary confirmed
22446-502: The occasion to regain the lost territories. Referring to the 1629 Edict of Restitution issued by Emperor Ferdinand II , he had the nuns expelled and put the abbey under Jesuit rule. Nevertheless, in 1632 the Catholic canons again had to abscond from the approaching Swedish army and Wöltingerode, though it finally fell back to the Hildesheim Bishopric in 1643, remained Lutheran until the 1803 secularisation. Today Wöltingerode
22620-537: The oldest, first, deepest feelings of truth. On 23 March 1798, the last wolf was killed in the Harz near the Plessenburg. The count's guest house on the Heinrichshöhe had become too small and suffered from overcrowding; in 1799 it burned down. In 1800, a new guest house was built on the Brocken to replace it. Around 1800, large swathes of the Harz were deforested. The less resistant spruce monoculture, that arose as
22794-590: The only future European rulers to have pursued university studies in the late 16th century. He regularly attended classes, although his delicate health often forced him to stay in his chamber. His religiosity was reinforced during his studies: he did not miss the Masses on Sundays and feast days, and made pilgrimages to Bavarian shrines . Ferdinand completed his studies on 21 December 1594; Rudolph II permitted him to return to Graz only two months later. Before leaving for his homeland, Ferdinand solemnly promised to support
22968-511: The operations. Wallenstein was able to recruit some 30,000 men (later expanded up to 100,000), with whom he was able to defeat the Protestants in Silesia , Anhalt and Denmark . In the wake of these Catholic military successes, in 1629 Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution , by which all the lands stripped from Catholics after the Peace of Passau of 1552 would be returned. His military success caused
23142-520: The plan. They only agreed to bestow the title on Maximilian personally. Ferdinand had to yield, but assured Maximilian that he had not abandoned their original plan. He invested Maximilian with the electoral title on 25 February 1623, but the envoys of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony and the Spanish ambassador were absent from the ceremony. Ferdinand decided to unite the Habsburgs' hereditary lands—Inner Austria, Upper and Lower Austria and Tyrol—into
23316-612: The position of the Catholic Church without seeking the Estates' consent, the Estates granted the subsidies that he had demanded from them. After the Styrian general assembly was dissolved, Ferdinand summarized his views of the Counter-Reformation in a letter to the delegates. He claimed that the unlawful prosecution of Catholics had forced him to adopt strict measures, adding that the Holy Spirit had inspired his acts. In October 1599, Ferdinand set up special commissions, consisting of
23490-484: The previous emperor, Rudolph II , which had guaranteed freedom of religion to the nobles and cities. Additionally, Ferdinand as an absolutist monarch infringed several historical privileges of the nobles. Given the great number of Protestants among the ordinary population in the kingdom, and some of the nobles, the king's unpopularity soon caused the Bohemian Revolt . The Third Defenestration of Prague of 22 May 1618
23664-739: The raised bogs on marshy and boggy soils. In these sorts of places spruce woods can, in exceptional cases, also form the natural woodland in lower down the mountains. These wet, moorland woods have a high proportion of peat mosses ( Sphagnum spec. ). The ground vegetation may also have a rich proliferation of low bushes such as cowberry ( Vaccinium vitis-idaea ). Clumps of purple moor grass ( Molinia caerulea ) are also typical of this type of woodland habitat. The characteristic species of fungi in natural spruce woods are Phellinus viticola and prunes and custard ( Tricholomopsis decora ). Ravine ( Schluchtwald ), riparian ( Auwald ) and river source ( Quellwald ) woods only occur in small areas. In these places
23838-501: The rebels concluded an alliance with the Estates of Silesia , Upper and Lower Lusatia , and Upper Austria. Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy hired Ernst von Mansfeld to assist the Bohemians. Mansfeld and his mercenaries captured Plzeň , which was an important center of the Bohemian Catholics, and the rebels made raids into Lower Austria. From September 1618, Pope Paul V paid a monthly subsidy to Ferdinand to contribute to
24012-510: The rebels' confiscated property and also to pay off the lease. The liberal issue of the new currency caused "the western's worlds first financial crisis", featured by inflation, famine and other symptoms of economic and social disruption. Dietrichstein and the Jesuits urged Ferdinand to intervene, and he dissolved the consortium in early 1623. Ferdinand met his second wife, the 23-year-old Eleonora Gonzaga , in Innsbruck on 1 February 1622. She
24186-421: The rebels. On 8 November 1620 his troops, led by the Flemish general Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly , smashed the rebels of Frederick V , who had been elected as rival King in 1619. After Frederick's flight to the Netherlands, Ferdinand ordered a massive effort to bring about re-conversion to Catholicism in Bohemia and Austria, causing Protestantism there to nearly disappear in the following decades, and reducing
24360-498: The relationship between the Habsburgs and the Wittelsbachs, which had deteriorated because of the appointment of Ferdinand's brother Leopold V to the Bishopric of Passau . Around the same time, the relationship between Rudolph II and his brother, Matthias , deteriorated. Fearing that the Protestant prince-electors could take advantage of his childless brother's death to elect a Protestant emperor, Matthias wanted to convince Rudolph II to name him as his successor. Matthias discussed
24534-481: The renewal of armed conflicts, but Maximilian of Bavaria urged him to gather an army against the new Protestant alliance. Wallenstein, who had accumulated immeasurable wealth in Bohemia, offered to hire mercenaries for him, but Ferdinand still hesitated. He authorized Maximilian to invade the Lower Saxon Circle if it were necessary to stop a Danish attack only in July. In the same month, Maximilian ordered Tilly to move his troops into Lower Saxony, and Wallenstein invaded
24708-415: The rich food supplies of the mountain brooks. In 2000, the lynx was successfully reintroduced by the Harz National Park , and it has since fitted well into the ecology of the region. Through specific conservation measures in past years, the retreat of the bat population in the Harz has been halted. Amongst the mammals that may be hunted are the red deer , roe deer , wild boar and mouflon . The Harz
24882-420: The right of his son, Ferdinand III , to succeed him in October 1625. Ferdinand also achieved the election of a Catholic magnate, Count Miklós Esterházy , as the new palatine with the support of the Archbishop of Esztergom , Cardinal Péter Pázmány . The chief minister of Louis XIII of France, Cardinal Richelieu , started to forge an alliance against the Habsburgs in 1624. French troops were garrisoned along
25056-464: The secret treaty because he feared that his relatives could otherwise accuse him of pursuing the throne for himself. Rudolph did not abdicate the throne, and announced that he was thinking of appointing Ferdinand's brother, Leopold, his successor. In fact, the emperor authorised Matthias to start negotiations with Bocskai. The resulting agreement was included in the Treaty of Vienna , which granted religious freedom to Hungarian Protestants and prescribed
25230-408: The silver mining industry in the Upper Harz and in Goslar. In the middle of the 14th century, the settlements in the Harz became heavily depopulated as a result of the Black Death , and a systematic resettlement of mining villages in the Upper Harz did not take place until the first half of the 16th century. In 1588, the Nordhausen doctor, Johannes Thal, published the first book on regional flora in
25404-409: The south Harz lies in the Thuringian district of Nordhausen. The Harz National Park is located in the Harz; the protected area covers the Brocken and surrounding wilderness area. Approximately 600,000 people live in towns and villages of the Harz Mountains. Because of the heavy rainfall in the region the rivers of the Harz Mountains were dammed from an early date. Examples of such masonry dams are
25578-660: The spruce woods, more open beech forest with its higher population of small mammals in its search for food. For cover, however, it prefers the darker, denser spruce trees. A large number of the animals that live in natural spruce forest are suited to the special conditions of life in the higher parts of the Harz. Typical residents amongst the bird population include the crested tit ( Parus cristatus ), goldcrest and firecrest ( Regulus regulus and Regulus ignicapillus ), siskin ( Carduelis spinus ), treecreeper ( Certhia familiaris ), coal tit ( Parus ater ) and crossbill ( Loxia curvirostra ). Special mention should be made here of
25752-404: The stage about 250,000 years ago and hunted aurochs , bison , brown bear and cave bear , mammoths , rhinos , horses , reindeer , forest elephants and other animals in the Harz region. Tools used by Neanderthals were discovered inter alia in the Einhorn Cave in the southern Harz (100,000 years ago) and in the Rübeland Caves. Finds of birch pitch near Aschersleben on the northern edge of
25926-494: The stones, e. g. caddis fly larvae ( Trichoptera ) and snails , or can only live in the reduced water velocities on the bed of the stream or on stones by having flat body shapes, e. g. stonefly larvae. In the calmer parts of the stream, behind stones or in blankets of moss, there are also water beetles ( Hydrophilidae ) and small shrimp-like amphipods . Occasionally the golden-ringed dragonfly ( Cordulegaster boltoni ) and beautiful demoiselle ( Calopteryx virgo ),
26100-411: The sub-Hercynian phase (83 mya ), when the northern edge was steeply tilted. This formed a fault zone on the northern border of the Harz (the Northern Harz Boundary Fault or Harznordrandverwerfung ). The Harz is a fault-block range, that rises abruptly from the surrounding lowlands in the west and northeast and gradually dips towards the south. It is dissected by numerous deep valleys. North of
26274-491: The tottering Protestants to call in Gustavus II Adolphus , King of Sweden. Soon, some of Ferdinand's allies began to complain about the excessive power exercised by Wallenstein, as well as the ruthless methods he used to finance his vast army. Ferdinand replied by firing the Bohemian general in 1630. The leadership of the war thenceforth passed to Tilly, who was however unable to stop the Swedish march from northern Germany towards Austria. Some historians directly blame Ferdinand for
26448-441: The town of Goslar , and mines became established in the following centuries throughout the mountains. During the Middle Ages , ore from this region was exported along trade routes to far-flung places, such as Mesopotamia . The wealth of the region declined after these mines became exhausted in the early 19th century. People abandoned the towns for a short time, but prosperity eventually returned with tourism. Between 1945 and 1990,
26622-421: The traditional system of government, appointing only Catholics to the highest offices. He and his mother then met with Rudolph II in Prague, where Ferdinand informed the emperor of his plans to strengthen the position of Catholicism. The emperor's advisors acknowledged Ferdinand's right to regulate religious issues, yet requested he not provoke his Protestant subjects. Rudolph II gave Ferdinand responsibility for
26796-436: The troops of the Bohemian Estates defeated him. The Bohemian Estates dethroned Rudolph and elected Matthias king on 23 May 1611. Since Rudolph retained the title of emperor, his succession in the Holy Roman Empire remained uncertain. Matthias, Ferdinand and Maximilian III assembled at Vienna to discuss the issue with Philip III's envoy, Baltasar de Zúñiga , in December. They decided to support Matthias's election as King of
26970-422: The two largest: the Oker Dam and the Rappbode Dam . The clear, cool water of the mountain streams was also dammed by early mountain folk to form the various mountain ponds of the Upper Harz waterways, such as the Oderteich . The 17 dams in the Harz block a total of twelve rivers. Because the Harz is one of the regions of Germany that experiences the most rainfall, its water power was used from early times. Today
27144-525: The two realms. Matthias and Ferdinand discussed the issue with Zúñiga in Linz in June and July 1613, but they did not reach an agreement. Maximilian III and Albert VII who preferred Ferdinand to Philip III renounced their claims in favor of him in August 1614, but Klesl made several efforts to delay the decision. Ferdinand sent troops against the Uskoks' principal center at Senj to put an end to their piratical raids in 1614. Dozens of Uskok commanders were captured and beheaded, but his action did not satisfy
27318-479: The university and the Jesuits. Maximilian III renounced the regency and the emperor made the 17-year-old Ferdinand his own regent. Ferdinand chose the Jesuit Bartholomew Viller as his confessor . A burgher from Graz who had converted to Catholicism, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg , became one of his most trusted courtiers. The weak position of Catholicism in Graz astonished Ferdinand, especially when he realized that only his relatives and most trusted courtiers celebrated
27492-516: The war against Ferdinand, but the Ottomans did not support him. After lengthy negotiations, Bethlen renounced the title of king of Hungary, after Ferdinand ceded him seven Hungarian counties and two Silesian duchies in the Peace of Nikolsburg on 31 December 1621. By that time, Ferdinand had banned all Protestant pastors from Prague, ignoring John George I of Saxony's protests. Ferdinand could not pay off his mercenaries' salaries. Liechtenstein, Eggenberg, Wallenstein and other noblemen established
27666-400: The western Harz, to secure economically the one quarter of the Rammelsberg ore profits promised to them by Frederick Barbarossa in 1129. From that it can be deduced that there was already a shortage of wood then. From the 12th to the 14th centuries, large parts of the Harz were managed economically by the Cistercian Abbey of Walkenried . As well as agriculture and fishing, they also controlled
27840-520: The world, Silva hercynia , in which he described the flowers specific to the Harz. In 1668, Rudolph Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg granted the first conservation order for Baumann's Cave . The ducal decree stated, inter alia , that the cave should be permanently preserved by all those responsible as a special, natural wonder. It also stated that nothing should be spoiled or destroyed, and that groups of ordinary strangers should not be allowed to enter without prior arrangement. A resident mine worker
28014-561: Was Holy Roman Emperor , King of Bohemia , Hungary , and Croatia from 1619 until his death in 1637. He was the son of Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria and Maria of Bavaria , who were devout Catholics . In 1590, when Ferdinand was 11 years old, they sent him to study at the Jesuits' college in Ingolstadt because they wanted to isolate him from the Lutheran nobles. A few months later, his father died, and he inherited Inner Austria – Styria , Carinthia , Carniola and smaller provinces. His cousin, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor , who
28188-421: Was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 28 August 1619 (Frankfurt), two days before the Protestant Bohemian Estates deposed Ferdinand (as king of Bohemia). News of his deposition arrived in Frankfurt on the 28th but Ferdinand didn't leave the city until he had been crowned. The rebel Bohemians offered their crown to the Calvinist Frederick V of the Palatinate on 26 August 1619. The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 as
28362-434: Was assassinated in 1634. Despite Wallenstein's fall, the imperial forces recaptured Regensburg and were victorious in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) . The Swedish army was substantially weakened, and the fear that the power of the Habsburgs would become overwhelming caused France, led by Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu , to enter the war on the Protestant side. (Louis's father Henry IV of France had once been
28536-453: Was crowned as queen of Hungary in Sopron where the first Italian opera was performed in the Habsburgs' realms during the festivities that followed the coronation. Ferdinand had convoked the Diet of Hungary to Sopron to assure the Hungarian Estates that he would respect their privileges. The Diet elected a Lutheran aristocrat, Count Szaniszló Thurzó , as the new palatine. The united Imperial and Spanish armies inflicted decisive defeats on
28710-437: Was entrusted to oversee the natural monument . Until the issue of this conservation order, there had only been an order for the protection of the forest, which had been issued by the ruling princes for real, practical considerations. But for the first time the 1668 cave order took ethical-aesthetic considerations into account. The year 1668 was the birth of classic nature conservation in the Harz. The order had been precipitated by
28884-412: Was first mentioned as Hartingowe in an 814 deed by the Carolingian King Louis the Pious . Settlement within the mountains began only 1000 years ago, as in ancient times dense forests made the region almost inaccessible. The suffix -rode (from German : roden , to stub) denotes a place where woodland had been cleared to develop a settlement. The year 968 saw the discovery of silver deposits near
29058-408: Was first mentioned in a 1306 deed. It was erected by the Counts of Wernigerode , then at the behest of the Hildesheim prince-bishops, who purchased it in 1367. After the Hildesheim Diocesan Feud , the castle was occupied by Duke Henry V of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel . During the Thirty Years' War , it was conquered by the Imperial troops of Albrecht von Wallenstein in 1626. The estates were restored to
29232-400: Was forced to sign a new peace treaty in Vienna in May 1624. The treaty confirmed the provisions of the previous Peace of Nikolsburg. Becanus who died in late 1623 was succeeded by Lamormaini as Ferdinand's confessor. Lamormaini awakened Ferdinand's determination to adopt strict measures against the Protestants. At his initiative, Ferdinand decided to unite the medical and law faculties of
29406-434: Was her husband's niece. Their marriage brought about a reconciliation between the two leading Catholic families of the Holy Roman Empire . They were devout Catholics, but Charles II had to grant concessions to his Lutheran subjects in 1572 and 1578 to secure the predominantly Protestant nobles and burghers' financial support for the establishment of a new defense system against the Ottoman Empire . Ferdinand's education
29580-740: Was managed primarily by his mother. He matriculated at the Jesuits ' school in Graz at the age of 8. His separate household was set up three years later. His parents wanted to separate him from the Lutheran Styrian nobles and sent him to Ingolstadt to continue his studies at the Jesuits' college in Bavaria. Ferdinand chose Paul the Apostle 's words—" To Those Who Fight Justly Goes the Crown "—as his personal motto before he left Graz in early 1590. His parents asked his maternal uncle, William V, Duke of Bavaria , to oversee his education. Charles II died unexpectedly on 10 July 1590, having named his wife, his brother Archduke Ferdinand II , their nephew Emperor Rudolf II , and his brother-in-law Duke William V
29754-451: Was recalled, being able to muster an army in only a week, and immediately staked a tactical, if not strategic, victory at the September Battle of Fürth , quickly followed by his forces expelling the Swedes from Bohemia. In November 1632, however, the Catholics were defeated in the Battle of Lützen (1632) , while Gustavus Adolphus was himself killed. A period of minor operations followed. Perhaps because of Wallenstein's ambiguous conduct, he
29928-414: Was staying in Regensburg. With her death, as historian Robert Bireley noted, Ferdinand "lost the most important person in his life, the one who more than any other had formed his character and his outlook." He requested the scholar Caspar Schoppe , whom he had met at the Imperial Diet, to elaborate a detailed plan for an alliance of the Catholic monarchs. Schoppe argued that the alliance was to guarantee
30102-525: Was sufficient food to support it (insects, small mammals and small birds) as well as standing dead wood (spruce trees with woodpecker holes). In addition to the many species of birds, there is a range of large butterflies in the various spruce woods that, outside of the Harz, are seriously endangered or simply non-existent. Two species will be mentioned here as examples. Gnophos sordarius occurs in old, open wood-reed spruce forest, sometimes in connection with stone runs or bog spruce forests; Enthephria caesiata
30276-478: Was the head of the Habsburg family, appointed regents to administer these lands. Ferdinand was installed as the actual ruler of the Inner Austrian provinces in 1596 and 1597. Rudolf II also charged him with the command of the defense of Croatia , Slavonia , and southeastern Hungary against the Ottoman Empire . Ferdinand regarded the regulation of religious issues as a royal prerogative and introduced strict Counter-Reformation measures from 1598. First, he ordered
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