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51-614: Duruy was born in Paris, the son of a factory worker, and at first intended for his father's trade. Having passed brilliantly through the École Normale Supérieure , where he studied under Jules Michelet , he accompanied Michelet as secretary in his travels through France, substituting for him at the École Normale in 1836, when only twenty-four. Ill health forced him to resign, and poverty caused him to undertake writing an extensive series of school textbooks, which made him well known. He devoted himself to secondary school education, holding his chair in

102-404: A book published posthumously, Le Banquet , critics say this issue disappears. To complete the list of his miscellaneous works, two collections of pieces, written and partly published at different times, are the works Les Soldats de la révolution and Légendes démocratiques du nord . Michelet's Origines du droit français, cherchées dans les symboles et les formules du droit universel

153-422: A correspondence with him arising from her ardent admiration of his ideas that ensued for years. They became engaged before they had seen each other. After their marriage, she collaborated with him in his labors albeit without formal credit, introduced him to natural history, inspired him on themes, and was preparing a new work, La nature , at the time of his death in 1874. She lived until 1899. Upon his death from

204-412: A foundational text in modern historiography . Michelet was influenced by Giambattista Vico ; he admired Vico's emphasis on the role of people and their customs in shaping history, which was a major departure from the emphasis on political and military leaders. Michelet also drew inspiration from Vico's concept of the "corsi e ricorsi", or the cyclical nature of history, in which societies rise and fall in

255-513: A heart attack at Hyères on 9 February 1874, Michelet was interred there. At his widow's request, a Paris court granted permission for his body to be exhumed on 13 May 1876 so he could be buried in Paris. On 16 May, his coffin arrived for reburial at Le Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Michelet's monument there, designed by architect Jean-Louis Pascal , was erected in 1893 through public subscription. Michelet accorded Athénaïs literary rights to his books and papers before he died, acknowledging

306-403: A peculiar variety of romantic free-thought), he was, above all, a man of letters and an inquirer into the history of the past. His earliest works were school textbooks. Between 1825 and 1827 he produced diverse sketches, chronological tables and other works relating to modern history. His précis of the subject was published in 1827. In the same year he was appointed maître de conférences at

357-608: A recurring pattern. In Histoire de France , Michelet coined the term Renaissance (meaning "rebirth" in French) as a period in Europe's cultural history that reflected a clear break, away from the Middle Ages . This subsequently created a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the new, "re-birthed" world. The term "rebirth" and its association with the Renaissance can be traced to

408-414: A rule, and the succession was almost unbroken for five or six years. La Femme (1860) followed L'Amour . It was a book on which a whole critique of French literature and French character might be founded. Vincent van Gogh inscribed a quote he took from La Femme on his drawing, Sorrow . It reads, " Comment se fait-il qu'il y ait sur la terre une femme seule? " ( How can there be on earth

459-422: A small number of pupils the historical method , and in his books, where he wrote ad probandum at least as much as ad narrandum : class-books, collections of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences ( Questions d'enseignement national , 1885; Etudes et étudiants , 1890; A propos de nos écoles , 1895), rough historical sketches ( Vue générale de l'histoire politique de l'Europe , 1890), etc. According to

510-470: A struggle between Christian spirit and liberty against Jewish matter, fatality, and tyranny, is seen by intellectual historian David Nirenberg as an example of anti-judaism as a constituent conceptual tool in western thought. Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote himself to anything resembling a picturesque history of the Middle Ages and his account is still one of the most vivid that exists. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities

561-503: A teacher in St. Petersburg before their extensive correspondence led to marriage. They entered into a shared literary life and she would assist him significantly in his endeavors as well. He openly acknowledged this, although she never was given credit in his works. After the coup d'état by Napoleon III , in 1852 Michelet lost his position in the Record Office when he refused to swear fealty to

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612-465: A woman alone? ). La Mer followed in 1861, along L’Oiseau (1856), L’Insecte (1858), and La Montagne (1868) represented a happier return to the natural history class, in a lyrical vein, influenced by his second marriage to Athénaïs Mialaret. The next year (1862) one of Michelet's more successful minor works, Satanism and Witchcraft , was published. Developed out of an episode of history, it has strong hints of Michelet's more unusual views. It

663-512: A work published in 1550 by the Italian art historian Giorgio Vasari . Vasari used the term to describe the advent of a new manner of painting that began with the work of Giotto , as the "rebirth ( rinascita ) of the arts". Michelet thereby became the first historian to use and define the French translation of the term, Renaissance , to identify the period in Europe's cultural history that followed

714-586: The Œuvres choisies de Vico , the Mémoires de Luther écrits par lui-même , the Origines du droit français , and somewhat later, the le Procès des Templiers . 1838 was a year of great importance in Michelet's life. During that time, he at the height of his powers. His studies had fed his natural aversion to the principles of authority and ecclesiasticism, and when the revival of Jesuit activity caused some alarm, he

765-573: The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition , his works of learning are lucid and vivid. After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the development of Prussia and wrote Etude sur l'une des origines de la monarchie prussienne, ou la Marche de Brandebourg sous la dynastie ascanienne , which was his thesis for his doctor's degree, and Études sur l'histoire de la Prusse (1879). In connection with his study of

816-663: The Christian Brothers ' boarding school in Passy (the Pensionnat des Frères des écoles chrétiennes à Passy ) and complimented the Brothers "in the most flattering terms upon the appearance and tendency of the pensionnat". Another ministerial visit took place on 12 May of the same year, caused by the resistance to the projet de loi for special instruction which was manifested in the parliamentary commission which had been appointed to examine

867-548: The College Henri IV at Paris for over a quarter of a century. Already known as a historian by his Histoire des Romains et des peuples soumis à leur domination (7 vols, 1843–1844), he was chosen by Napoleon III to assist him in his biography of Julius Caesar , and his abilities being thus brought under the emperor's notice, he was in 1863 appointed minister of education. In this position he worked incessantly, attempting broad and liberal reforms. On 18 March 1864, Duruy visited

918-619: The Collège de France , of which he always contended he had been unjustly deprived, was not given back to him. He was also a supporter of the Romanian National Awakening movements. As a young man, Michelet married Pauline Rousseau in 1824. She died in 1839. Michelet married his second wife, Athénaïs Michelet in 1849. His second wife had been a teacher in St. Petersburg and was an author in the field of natural history and memoirs. She had opened

969-501: The Histoire de France , he undertook and carried out an enthusiastic Histoire de la Révolution française during the years between the downfall of Louis Philippe and the final establishment of Napoleon III . In 1849, at the age of 51, he married his second wife, 23-year-old Athénaïs Michelet (née Mialaret). She was a woman of some literary capacity as a natural history writer and memoirist, who had republican sympathies. She had been

1020-476: The Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu'à la Révolution (1900–1912), in which he carefully revised the work of his numerous assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV for himself. This section occupies the whole of volume VII. Lavisse was admitted to the Académie française on the death of Admiral Jurien de la Gravière in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of

1071-618: The Holy Roman Empire , and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were published in the Revue des Deux Mondes , and he wrote Trois empereurs d'Allemagne (1888), La Jeunesse du grand Frédéric (1891) and Frédéric II. avant son avènement (1893) when studying the modern German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred Rambaud he conceived the plan of L'Histoire générale du IVe siècle à nos jours , to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited

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1122-421: The Middle Ages . Historian François Furet described Histoire de France as "the cornerstone of revolutionary historiography' and 'a literary monument." Michelet's father was a master printer, and Jules would assist him with his work. At one point, he was offered a spot at the imperial printing office But instead he attended the famous Collège of Lycée Charlemagne , where he distinguished himself. He passed

1173-527: The Revue Historique . A potentially misogynistic effort to discount the contributions of Athénaïs is noted by a historian, Bonnie Smith , who notes, "Michelet scholarship, like other historiographical debates, has taken great pains to establish the priority of the male over the female in writing history." [REDACTED] Category Ernest Lavisse Ernest Lavisse ( French: [lavis] ; 17 December 1842 – 18 August 1922)

1224-533: The lycées and of the colleges. He greatly improved the state of primary education in France, and proposed to make it compulsory and free of charge, but failed to obtain the emperor's support for this move. In the new cabinet that followed the elections of 1869, Duruy was replaced by Louis Olivier Bourbeau , and was made a senator. After the fall of the Empire he took no part in politics, except for an unsuccessful candidacy for

1275-463: The École Normale Supérieure , succeeding Fustel de Coulanges , and then professor of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon . He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played an important part in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. His learning was displayed in his public lectures and his addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught

1326-572: The École normale supérieure . Four years later, in 1831, he wrote his Introduction à l'histoire universelle . The events of 1830 had placed Michelet in a better position for study by obtaining him a place in the Record Office and a deputy-professorship under the historian Guizot in the literary faculty of the university. Soon afterward he began his magnum opus, the Histoire de France . Which would take 30 years to complete. But he accompanied this with numerous other books, chiefly of erudition, such as

1377-495: The death of Charlemagne ; the second with the flourishing time of feudal France; the third with the thirteenth century; the fourth, fifth, and sixth volumes with the Hundred Years' War ; the seventh and eighth with the establishment of the royal power under Charles VII and Louis XI . The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have four volumes apiece, much of which is very distantly connected with French history proper, especially in

1428-517: The empire. The new regime rekindled his republican zeal, further stimulated by his second marriage to Athénaïs. While his Histoire remained his main pursuit, a crowd of lesser works accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were expanded versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or companion volumes. The first of these was Les Femmes de la Révolution (1854), in which Michelet's dithyrambic often gives way to tedious and inconclusive writing. L'Insecte followed. It

1479-463: The first Western-style state higher education institution in the Ottoman Empire . Among his measures were the reorganization of higher education ( enseignement spécial ), the foundation of the conférences publiques , which became universal throughout France, and of a course of secondary education for girls by lay teachers. He introduced modern history and modern languages into the curriculum both of

1530-491: The following three categories: maleficent, beneficent, and paired. Within each of the three themes there are subsets of ideas that occur throughout Michelet's various works. One of these themes was the idea of paired themes; for example, in many of his works he writes on grace and justice, grace being the woman or feminine, and justice being more of a masculine idea. Michelet, additionally, used union and unity in his discussions about national history, and natural history. In terms of

1581-491: The indeterminate such as the Honnete-Hommes, Conde', Chantilly Sade, gambling, phantasmagoria, Italian comedy, white blood, and sealed blood. Martial dualism is a prominent theme for him, with a "war of man against nature, spirit against matter, liberty against fatality. History is nothing other than the record of this interminable struggle." Leading some to describe him as a " Manichaean dualist." His framing of history as

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1632-438: The last of the natural history series, the Michelet uses the staccato style, which creates short and disjointed sentences, but creates tension. Nos fils (1869), the last of the smaller books published during the author's life, is a tractate on education, written with knowledge and highlights Michelet's research capabilities. Some critics say it also highlights Michelet's decreasing capability to express himself. However, in

1683-608: The maleficent themes, there were subcategories these were: themes of the dry, which included concepts such as: the machine, the Jesuits, scribes, the electric, irony ( Goethe ), the Scholastics, public safety, and fatalism ( Hobbes , Molinos, Spinoza , Hegel ). Themes of the empty and the turgid included the Middle Ages, the imitation, tedium, the novel, narcotics, Alexander, and plethoric (engorged blood). Michelet also touches on themes of

1734-511: The most eccentric arguments, but urged with a great deal of eloquence. The principles of the outbreaks of 1848 were in the air and Michelet was one of many who condensed and propagated them: his original lectures were of so incendiary a kind that the course had to be interdicted. However, when the revolution broke out, Michelet, unlike many other men of letters, did not attempt to enter active political life. choosing instead to devote himself more strenuously to his literary work. Besides continuing

1785-717: The revised edition of his Roman history, which appeared in a greatly enlarged form in 5 vols. under the title of Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la mort de Théodose ( History of the Romans from the Most Ancient Times up to the Death of Theodosius ; 1879–1885), an illustrated edition was published from 1879 to 1885 (English translation by Clarke & Miss Ripley, in 6 vols., 1883–1886). His Histoire des Grecs , similarly illustrated, appeared in 3 volumes from 1886 to 1891 (English translation in 4 volumes, 1892). He

1836-626: The senate in 1876. From 1881 to 1886 he served as a member of the Conseil Supérieur de l'Instruction Publique . In 1884 he was elected to the Académie française in succession to François Mignet . In 1886, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . As an historian Duruy aimed in his earlier works at a graphic and picturesque narrative which should make his subject popular. His fame, however, rests mainly on

1887-418: The significant role she had in what he published during his later years. After having won a court challenge to this bequeathment, Athénaïs retained the papers and publishing rights. An author of memoirs, she later published several books about her husband and his family that were based on extracts and journals he had left her. Athénaïs bequeathed that literary legacy to Gabriel Monod , a historian who founded

1938-496: The subject. To overcome this opposition M. Duruy invited the members of the commission to accompany him to Passy, in order to demonstrate to them, as he expressed it, the successful realization of his project by the Christian Brothers. Ironically, despite open domestic opposition to his views in education, he was instrumental in the reformation of Galatasaray High School in 1868, in strict concordance with his secular views, as

1989-407: The title of Un Ministre: Victor Duruy . See also the notice by Jules Simon (1895), and Portraits et souvenirs by Gabriel Monod (1897). Jules Michelet Jules Michelet ( French: [ʒyl miʃlɛ] ; 21 August 1798 – 9 February 1874) was a French historian and writer . He is best known for his multivolume work Histoire de France (History of France), which is considered

2040-487: The two volumes entitled Renaissance and Reforme . The last three volumes carry on the history of the eighteenth century to the outbreak of the Revolution. Michelet abhorred the Middle Ages and celebrated their end as a radical transformation. He attempted to clarify how a lively Renaissance could originate from an ossified medieval culture. Michelet has several themes running throughout his works, which included

2091-586: The university examination in 1821 and was soon appointed to a professorship of history in the Collège Rollin . Soon after this, in 1824, he married Pauline Rousseau, during what was considered an extraordinarily favorable period for scholars and men of letters in France. Michelet had powerful patrons in Abel-François Villemain and Victor Cousin , among others. Although he was an ardent politician (having from his childhood embraced republicanism and

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2142-546: Was a French historian . He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature five times. Lavisse is also known for being one of the main creator of the roman national (" National myth ", lit. "national novel"), thanks to his history schoolbooks. He was born at Le Nouvion-en-Thiérache , Aisne . In 1865 he obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became a doctor of letters; he was appointed maître de conférence (1876) at

2193-430: Was appointed to the chair of history at the Collège de France . Assisted by his friend Edgar Quinet , he began a violent polemic against the religious order and the principles that it represented, a polemic that made their lectures, especially Michelet's, among the most popular of the day. His first wife died in 1839 and he would remain unmarried for a decade. He published his Histoire romaine in that year, but this

2244-492: Was determined to complete the vast task that his two great histories had almost covered by a Histoire du XIXe siècle . He did not, however, live to carry it farther than the Battle of Waterloo , and the best criticism of it is perhaps contained in the opening words of the introduction to the last volume—" l'âge me presse " ("age hurries me"). The new republic was not altogether a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at

2295-588: Was edited by Émile Faguet in 1890 and a second edition was printed in 1900. The publication of this series of books, and the completion of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the empire. He lived partly in France, partly in Italy, and was accustomed to spending the winter on the Riviera, chiefly at Hyères . In 1867, Michelet completed his magnum opus, the Histoire de France , comprising 19 volumes. The first of these deals with early French history up to

2346-419: Was eventually adapted by animation studio Mushi Production into an animated art film , Belladonna of Sadness , directed by Eiichi Yamamoto . This series, every volume of which combined imagination and research, was not yet finished, but the later volumes exhibit a certain falling off. The Bible de l'humanité (1864), a historical sketch of religions, was not well received. In La Montagne (1868),

2397-470: Was in his graver and earlier manner. The results of his lectures appeared in the volumes Du prêtre , de la femme et de la famille and Le peuple . These books do not display the apocalyptic style which, partly borrowed from Lamennais , characterizes Michelet's later works, but they contain, in miniature, almost the whole of his curious ethico-politico-theological creed—a mixture of sentimentalism , communism , and anti- sacerdotalism , supported by

2448-479: Was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view. There is an unevenness of treatment of historical incidents. However, Michelet's insistence that history should concentrate on "the people , and not only its leaders or its institutions" clearly drew inspiration from the French Revolution. Michelet

2499-462: Was one of the first historians to apply these liberal principles to historical scholarship. Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the empire, its downfall in 1870 in the midst of France's defeat by Prussia followed by the rise and fall of the Paris Commune the next year once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it was over he

2550-438: Was succeeded by L'Amour (1859), one of Michelet's most popular books. In the next, L'Oiseau (1856), Michelet ventured into natural history, a subject new to him, having been introduced to it by his second wife. L'Oiseau was treated from the point of view of Michelet's pantheism , instead of science or sentiment. These works – half pamphlets, half moral treatises – succeeded each other at twelve-month intervals as

2601-899: Was the editor, from its commencement in 1846, of the Histoire universelle, publiée par une société de professeurs et de savants , for which he himself wrote a "Histoire sainte d'après la Bible," "Histoire grecque," "Histoire romaine," "Histoire du moyen âge," "Histoire des temps modernes," and "Abrégé de l'histoire de France." His other works include Atlas historique de la France accompagné d'un volume de texte (1849); Histoire de France de 1453 à 1815 (1856), of which an expanded and illustrated edition appeared as Histoire de France depuis l'invasion des Barbares dans la Gaule romaine jusqu'à nos jours (1892); Histoire populaire de la France (1862–1863); Histoire populaire contemporaine de la France (1864–1866); Causeries de voyage: de Paris à Vienne (1864); and Introduction générale à l'histoire de France (1865). A memoir by Ernest Lavisse appeared in 1895 under

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