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103-536: The Vermont Lunar CubeSat is a CubeSat satellite by Vermont Technical College and funded in part by grants from NASA and the Vermont Space Grant Consortium and in part by voluntary donations. The satellite, costing about US$ 50,000 to build — with NASA offering a free launch as part of the ELaNa program — served as a testing model for guidance and navigation pending future launches. The eventual goal of

206-477: A Russian Eurockot , and approximately 75 CubeSats had entered orbit by 2012. The need for such a small-factor satellite became apparent in 1998 as a result of work done at Stanford University's Space System Development Laboratory. At SSDL, students had been working on the OPAL (Orbiting Picosatellite Automatic Launcher) microsatellite since 1995. OPAL's mission to deploy daughter-ship " picosatellites " had resulted in

309-534: A catalyst , or bipropellant which combusts an oxidizer and a fuel . The benefits of monopropellants are relatively low-complexity/high-thrust output, low power requirements, and high reliability. Monopropellant motors tend to have high thrust while remaining comparatively simple, which also provides high reliability. These motors are practical for CubeSats due to their low power requirements and because their simplicity allows them to be very small. Small hydrazine fueled motors have been developed, but may require

412-435: A formation . The generic term "small satellite" or "smallsat" is also sometimes used, as is "satlet". Examples: Astrid-1 and Astrid-2, as well as the set of satellites currently announced for LauncherOne (below) In 2018, the two Mars Cube One microsats—massing just 13.5 kg (30 lb) each—became the first CubeSats to leave Earth orbit for use in interplanetary space. They flew on their way to Mars alongside

515-456: A thermal vacuum chamber before launch. Such testing provides a larger degree of assurance than full-sized satellites can receive, since CubeSats are small enough to fit inside of a thermal vacuum chamber in their entirety. Temperature sensors are typically placed on different CubeSat components so that action may be taken to avoid dangerous temperature ranges, such as reorienting the craft in order to avoid or introduce direct thermal radiation to

618-464: A 10 kg (22 lb) payload into a 250 km (160 mi) orbit to an even-more-capable clustered "20/450 Nano/Micro Satellite Launch Vehicle" (NMSLV) capable of delivering 20 kg (44 lb) payloads into 450 km (280 mi) circular orbits . The Boeing Small Launch Vehicle is an air-launched three-stage-to-orbit launch vehicle concept aimed to launch small payloads of 45 kg (100 lb) into low Earth orbit. The program

721-489: A 7× boost in range—potentially able to reach the Moon—but questions linger concerning survivability after micrometeor impacts. JPL has successfully developed X-band and Ka-band high-gain antennas for MarCO and Radar in a CubeSat ( RaInCube ) missions. Traditionally, Low Earth Orbit Cubesats use antennas for communication purpose at UHF and S-band. To venture farther in the solar system, larger antennas compatible with

824-745: A CubeSat is deployed, due to asymmetric deployment forces and bumping with other CubeSats. Some CubeSats operate normally while tumbling, but those that require pointing in a certain direction or cannot operate safely while spinning, must be detumbled. Systems that perform attitude determination and control include reaction wheels , magnetorquers , thrusters, star trackers , Sun sensors , Earth sensors, angular rate sensors , and GPS receivers and antennas . Combinations of these systems are typically seen in order to take each method's advantages and mitigate their shortcomings. Reaction wheels are commonly utilized for their ability to impart relatively large moments for any given energy input, but reaction wheel's utility

927-469: A Folded Panel Reflectarray (FPR) to fit on a 6U CubeSat bus and supports X-band Mars-to-Earth telecommunications at 8 kbit/s at 1AU. Different CubeSat components possess different acceptable temperature ranges, beyond which they may become temporarily or permanently inoperable. Satellites in orbit are heated by radiative heat emitted from the Sun directly and reflected off Earth, as well as heat generated by

1030-465: A Soyuz rocket VS14 launched from Kourou, French Guiana. The satellites were: AAUSAT4 (Aalborg University, Denmark), e-st@r-II (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) and OUFTI-1 (Université de Liège, Belgium). The CubeSats were launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency. On February 15, 2017, Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) set a record with

1133-563: A cargo of Kounotori 3 , and an ISS astronaut prepared the deployment mechanism attached to Japanese Experiment Module 's robotic arm. Four CubeSats were deployed from the Cygnus Mass Simulator , which was launched April 21, 2013 on the maiden flight of Orbital Sciences' Antares rocket . Three of them are 1U PhoneSats built by NASA's Ames Research Center to demonstrate the use of smart phones as avionics in CubeSats. The fourth

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1236-419: A challenge. Many CubeSats use an omnidirectional monopole or dipole antenna built with commercial measuring tape. For more demanding needs, some companies offer high-gain antennae for CubeSats, but their deployment and pointing systems are significantly more complex. For example, MIT and JPL are developing an inflatable dish antenna based on a mylar skin inflated with a sublimating powder , claiming

1339-538: A coil to take advantage of Earth's magnetic field to produce a turning moment . Attitude-control modules and solar panels typically feature built-in magnetorquers. For CubeSats that only need to detumble, no attitude determination method beyond an angular rate sensor or electronic gyroscope is necessary. Pointing in a specific direction is necessary for Earth observation, orbital maneuvers, maximizing solar power, and some scientific instruments. Directional pointing accuracy can be achieved by sensing Earth and its horizon,

1442-452: A constellation of over one hundred 0.25U CubeSats for IoT communication services. Since nearly all CubeSats are 10 cm × 10 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in) (regardless of length) they can all be launched and deployed using a common deployment system called a Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployer (P-POD), developed and built by Cal Poly. No electronics form factors or communications protocols are specified or required by

1545-435: A larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers or for launching and docking with picosatellites. Picosatellites are emerging as a new alternative for do-it-yourself kitbuilders. Picosatellites are currently commercially available across the full range of 0.1–1 kg (0.22–2.2 lb). Launch opportunities are now available for $ 12,000 to $ 18,000 for sub-1 kg picosat payloads that are approximately

1648-477: A limited surface area on their external walls for solar cells assembly, and has to be effectively shared with other parts, such as antennas, optical sensors, camera lens, propulsion systems, and access ports. Lithium-ion batteries feature high energy-to-mass ratios, making them well suited to use on mass-restricted spacecraft. Battery charging and discharging is typically handled by a dedicated electrical power system (EPS). Batteries sometimes feature heaters to prevent

1751-425: A market value estimated at US$ 7.4 billion . By mid-2015, many more launch options had become available for smallsats, and rides as secondary payloads had become both greater in quantity and easier to schedule on shorter notice. In a surprising turn of events, the U.S. Department of Defense , which had for decades procured heavy satellites on decade-long procurement cycles, is making a transition to smallsats in

1854-433: A mass of no more than 1.33 kilograms (2.9 lb) per unit. The CubeSat concept was first developed in 1999 by a collaborative team of California Polytechnic State University and Stanford University , and the specifications, for use by anyone planning to launch a CubeSat-style nanosatellite, are maintained by this group. With continued advances in the miniaturization and capability increase of electronic technology and

1957-474: A number of companies began development of launch vehicles specifically targeted at the smallsat market. In particular, with larger numbers of smallsats flying, the secondary payload paradigm does not provide the specificity required for many small satellites that have unique orbital and launch-timing requirements. Some USA-based private companies that at some point in time have launched smallsat launch vehicles commercially: The term "microsatellite" or "microsat"

2060-880: A professor at Stanford University Space Systems Development Laboratory, developed the CubeSat specifications to promote and develop the skills necessary for the design, manufacture, and testing of small satellites intended for low Earth orbit (LEO) that perform scientific research and explore new space technologies. Academia accounted for the majority of CubeSat launches until 2013, when more than half of launches were for non-academic purposes, and by 2014 most newly deployed CubeSats were for commercial or amateur projects. Functions typically involve experiments that can be miniaturized or serve purposes such as Earth observation or amateur radio . CubeSats are employed to demonstrate spacecraft technologies intended for small satellites or that present questionable feasibility and are unlikely to justify

2163-444: A specific part, thereby allowing it to cool or heat. CubeSat forms a cost-effective independent means of getting a payload into orbit. After delays from low-cost launchers such as Interorbital Systems , launch prices have been about $ 100,000 per unit, but newer operators are offering lower pricing. A typical price to launch a 1U cubesat with a full service contract (including end-to-end integration, licensing, transportation etc.)

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2266-422: A substantially larger area on-orbit. Recent innovations include additional spring-loaded solar arrays that deploy as soon as the satellite is released, as well as arrays that feature thermal knife mechanisms that would deploy the panels when commanded. CubeSats may not be powered between launch and deployment, and must feature a remove-before-flight pin which cuts all power to prevent operation during loading into

2369-452: A total area of 32 m (340 sq ft). This test will allow a full checkout of the satellite's systems in advance of the main 2016 mission. On October 5, 2015, AAUSAT5 (Aalborg University, Denmark), was deployed from the ISS. launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency. The Miniature X-ray Solar Spectrometer CubeSat is a 3U launched to

2472-1299: A waiver to fly due to restrictions on hazardous chemicals set forth in the CubeSat Design Specification. Safer chemical propellants which would not require hazardous chemical waivers are being developed, such as AF-M315 ( hydroxylammonium nitrate ) for which motors are being or have been designed. A "Water Electrolysis Thruster" is technically a chemical propulsion system, as it burns hydrogen and oxygen which it generates by on-orbit electrolysis of water . CubeSat electric propulsion typically uses electric energy to accelerate propellant to high speed, which results in high specific impulse . Many of these technologies can be made small enough for use in nanosatellites, and several methods are in development. Types of electric propulsion currently being designed for use in CubeSats include Hall-effect thrusters , ion thrusters , pulsed plasma thrusters , electrospray thrusters , and resistojets . Several notable CubeSat missions plan to use electric propulsion, such as NASA's Lunar IceCube . The high efficiency associated with electric propulsion could allow CubeSats to propel themselves to Mars. Electric propulsion systems are disadvantaged in their use of power, which requires

2575-678: Is 1U, consisting of a single unit, while the most common form factor was the 3U, which comprised over 40% of all nanosatellites launched to date. Larger form factors, such as the 6U and 12U, are composed of 3Us stacked side by side. In 2014, two 6U Perseus-M CubeSats were launched for maritime surveillance, the largest yet at the time. The Mars Cube One (MarCO) mission in 2018 launched two 6U cubesats towards Mars. Smaller, non-standard form factors also exist; The Aerospace Corporation has constructed and launched two smaller form CubeSats of 0.5U for radiation measurement and technological demonstration, while Swarm Technologies has built and deployed

2678-544: Is a satellite of low mass and size, usually under 1,200 kg (2,600 lb). While all such satellites can be referred to as "small", different classifications are used to categorize them based on mass . Satellites can be built small to reduce the large economic cost of launch vehicles and the costs associated with construction. Miniature satellites, especially in large numbers, may be more useful than fewer, larger ones for some purposes – for example, gathering of scientific data and radio relay . Technical challenges in

2781-681: Is designed to form a quantum communication network as well as communicate with Earth through an optical ground station. The term "small satellite", or sometimes "minisatellite", often refers to an artificial satellite with a wet mass (including fuel) between 100 and 500 kg (220 and 1,100 lb), but in other usage has come to mean any satellite under 500 kg (1,100 lb). Small satellite examples include Demeter , Essaim , Parasol , Picard , MICROSCOPE , TARANIS , ELISA , SSOT , SMART-1 , Spirale-A and -B , and Starlink satellites. Although smallsats have traditionally been launched as secondary payloads on larger launch vehicles,

2884-449: Is important for precision maneuvers such as rendezvous . CubeSats which require longer life also benefit from propulsion systems; when used for orbit keeping a propulsion system can slow orbital decay . A cold gas thruster typically stores inert gas , such as nitrogen , in a pressurized tank and releases the gas through a nozzle to produce thrust. Operation is handled by just a single valve in most systems, which makes cold gas

2987-426: Is limited and designers choose higher efficiency systems with only minor increases in complexity. Cold gas systems more often see use in CubeSat attitude control. Chemical propulsion systems use a chemical reaction to produce a high-pressure, high-temperature gas that accelerates out of a nozzle . Chemical propellant can be liquid, solid or a hybrid of both. Liquid propellants can be a monopropellant passed through

3090-670: Is limited due to saturation, the point at which a wheel cannot spin faster. Examples of CubeSat reaction wheels include the Maryland Aerospace MAI-101 and the Sinclair Interplanetary RW-0.03-4. Reaction wheels can be desaturated with the use of thrusters or magnetorquers. Thrusters can provide large moments by imparting a couple on the spacecraft but inefficiencies in small propulsion systems cause thrusters to run out of fuel rapidly. Commonly found on nearly all CubeSats are magnetorquers which run electricity through

3193-517: Is proposed to drive down launch costs for U.S. military small satellites to as low as US$ 300,000 per launch ($ 7,000/kg) and, if the development program was funded, as of 2012 could be operational by 2020. The Swiss company Swiss Space Systems (S3) has announced plans in 2013 to develop a suborbital spaceplane named SOAR that would launch a microsat launch vehicle capable of putting a payload of up to 250 kg (550 lb) into low Earth orbit. The Spanish company PLD Space born in 2011 with

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3296-453: Is put into material selection as not all materials can be used in vacuums . Structures often feature soft dampers at each end, typically made of rubber, to lessen the effects of impacting other CubeSats in the P-POD. Protrusions beyond the maximum dimensions are allowed by the standard specification, to a maximum of 6.5 mm (0.26 in) beyond each side. Any protrusions may not interfere with

3399-418: Is similar to an electrodynamic tether in that the craft only needs to supply electricity to operate. Solar sails  (also called light sails or photon sails) are a form of spacecraft propulsion using the  radiation pressure  (also called solar pressure) from stars to push large ultra-thin mirrors to high speeds, requiring no propellant. Force from a solar sail scales with

3502-695: Is the opportunity to enable missions that a larger satellite could not accomplish, such as: The nanosatellite and microsatellite segments of the satellite launch industry have been growing rapidly in the 2010s. Development activity in the 1–50 kg (2.2–110.2 lb) range has been significantly exceeding that in the 50–100 kg (110–220 lb) range. In the 1–50 kg range alone, fewer than 15 satellites were launched annually in 2000 to 2005, 34 in 2006, then fewer than 30 launches annually during 2007 to 2011. This rose to 34 launched in 2012 and 92 launched in 2013. European analyst Euroconsult projects more than 500 smallsats being launched in 2015–2019 with

3605-966: Is to reduce the cost of deployment: they are often suitable for launch in multiples, using the excess capacity of larger launch vehicles. The CubeSat design specifically minimizes risk to the rest of the launch vehicle and payloads. Encapsulation of the launcher– payload interface takes away the amount of work that would previously be required for mating a piggyback satellite with its launcher. Unification among payloads and launchers enables quick exchanges of payloads and utilization of launch opportunities on short notice. Standard CubeSats are made up of 10 cm × 10 cm × 11.35 cm (3.94 in × 3.94 in × 4.47 in) units designed to provide 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm (3.9 in × 3.9 in × 3.9 in) or 1 L (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal) of useful volume, with each unit weighing no more than 2 kg (4.4 lb). The smallest standard size

3708-422: Is usually applied to the name of an artificial satellite with a wet mass between 10 and 100 kg (22 and 220 lb). However, this is not an official convention and sometimes those terms can refer to satellites larger than that, or smaller than that (e.g., 1–50 kg (2.2–110.2 lb)). Sometimes, designs or proposed designs from some satellites of these types have microsatellites working together or in

3811-539: The Deep Space Network (X-band and Ka-band) are required. JPL 's engineers developed several deployable high-gain antennas compatible with 6U-class CubeSats for MarCO and Near-Earth Asteroid Scout . JPL's engineers have also developed a 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) mesh reflector antenna operating at Ka-band and compatible with the DSN that folds in a 1.5U stowage volume. For MarCO, JPL's antenna engineers designed

3914-681: The International Space Station on 6 December 2015 from where it was deployed on 16 May 2016. It is the first mission launched in the NASA Science Mission Directorate CubeSat Integration Panel, which is focused on doing science with CubeSats. As of 12 July 2016, the minimum mission success criterion (one month of science observations) has been met, but the spacecraft continues to perform nominally and observations continue. Three CubeSats were launched on April 25, 2016, together with Sentinel-1B on

4017-546: The Lares satellite aboard a Vega rocket launched from French Guiana. The CubeSats launched were e-st@r Space (Politecnico di Torino, Italy), Goliat (University of Bucharest, Romania), MaSat-1 (Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary), PW-Sat (Warsaw University of Technology, Poland), Robusta (University of Montpellier 2, France), UniCubeSat-GG (University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy), and XaTcobeo (University of Vigo and INTA, Spain). The CubeSats were launched in

4120-481: The PicoSAT series of microsatellites) is usually applied to artificial satellites with a wet mass between 0.1 and 1 kg (0.22 and 2.2 lb), although it is sometimes used to refer to any satellite that is under 1 kg in launch mass. Again, designs and proposed designs of these types usually have multiple picosatellites working together or in formation (sometimes the term "swarm" is applied). Some designs require

4223-595: The 2020s. The office of space acquisition and integration said in January 2023 that "the era of massive satellites needs to be in the rear view mirror for the Department of Defense" with small satellites being procured for DoD needs in all orbital regimes, regardless of "whether it's LEO MEO or GEO " while aiming for procurements in under three years. The smaller satellites are deemed to be harder for an enemy to target, as well as providing more resilience through redundancy in

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4326-448: The CubeSat reference design in 1999 with the aim of enabling graduate students to design, build, test and operate in space a spacecraft with capabilities similar to that of the first spacecraft, Sputnik . The CubeSat, as initially proposed, did not set out to become a standard; rather, it became a standard over time by a process of emergence . The first CubeSats launched in June 2003 on

4429-481: The CubeSat Design Specification (CDS) requires a waiver for pressurization above 1.2 atm (120 kPa), over 100 Wh of stored chemical energy, and hazardous materials. Those restrictions pose great challenges for CubeSat propulsion systems, as typical space propulsion systems utilize combinations of high pressures, high energy densities, and hazardous materials. Beyond the restrictions set forth by launch service providers , various technical challenges further reduce

4532-511: The CubeSat Design Specification, as it does not require high pressures, hazardous materials, or significant chemical energy. A small number of CubeSats have employed a solar sail as its main propulsion and stability in deep space, including the 3U NanoSail-D2 launched in 2010, and the LightSail-1 in May 2015. LightSail-2 successfully deployed on a Falcon Heavy rocket in 2019, while one CubeSat that

4635-406: The CubeSat Design Specification, but COTS hardware has consistently used certain features which many treat as standards in CubeSat electronics. Most COTS and custom designed electronics fit the form of PC/104 , which was not designed for CubeSats but presents a 90 mm × 96 mm (3.5 in × 3.8 in) profile that allows most of the spacecraft's volume to be occupied. Technically,

4738-512: The CubeSat community. His efforts have focused on CubeSats from educational institutions. The specification does not apply to other cube-like nanosatellites such as the NASA "MEPSI" nanosatellite, which is slightly larger than a CubeSat. GeneSat-1 was NASA's first fully automated, self-contained biological spaceflight experiment on a satellite of its size. It was also the first U.S.-launched CubeSat. This work, led by John Hines at NASA Ames Research, became

4841-507: The CubeSat to have larger solar cells, more complicated power distribution, and often larger batteries. Furthermore, many electric propulsion methods may still require pressurized tanks to store propellant, which is restricted by the CubeSat Design Specification. The ESTCube-1 used an electric solar-wind sail , which relies on an electromagnetic field to act as a sail instead of a solid material. This technology used an electric field to deflect protons from solar wind to produce thrust. It

4944-413: The CubeSat. The cylindrical space has a maximum diameter of 6.4 cm (2.5 in) and a height no greater than 3.6 cm (1.4 in) while not allowing for any increase in mass beyond the 3U's maximum of 4 kg (8.8 lb). Propulsion systems and antennas are the most common components that might require the additional volume, though the payload sometimes extends into this volume. Deviations from

5047-517: The DARPA SeeMe program that intended to release a " constellation of 24 micro-satellites (~20 kg (44 lb) range) each with 1-m imaging resolution ." The program was cancelled in December 2015. In April 2013, Garvey Spacecraft was awarded a US$ 200,000 contract to evolve their Prospector 18 suborbital launch vehicle technology into an orbital nanosat launch vehicle capable of delivering

5150-408: The ISS external platform Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE-8) for testing. In April 2014, the nanosatellite KickSat was launched aboard a Falcon 9 rocket with the intention of releasing 104 femtosatellite-sized chipsats, or "Sprites". In the event, they were unable to complete the deployment on time due to a failure of an onboard clock and the deployment mechanism reentered

5253-501: The ISS on February 11, 2014. Of those thirty-three, twenty-eight were part of the Flock-1 constellation of Earth-imaging CubeSats. Of the other five, two are from other US-based companies, two from Lithuania, and one from Peru. The LightSail-1 is a 3U CubeSat prototype propelled by a solar sail . It was launched on 20 May 2015 from Florida. Its four sails are made of very thin Mylar and have

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5356-505: The Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). The CubeSats were: SMDC-ONE 2.2 (Baker), SMDC-ONE 2.1 (Able), AeroCube 4.0(x3), Aeneas, CSSWE , CP5, CXBN , CINEMA, and Re (STARE). Five CubeSats ( Raiko , Niwaka , We-Wish , TechEdSat , F-1 ) were placed into orbit from the International Space Station on October 4, 2012, as a technology demonstration of small satellite deployment from the ISS. They were launched and delivered to ISS as

5459-466: The P-POD remain structurally sound throughout the launch. Despite rarely undergoing the analysis that larger satellites do, CubeSats rarely fail due to mechanical issues. Like larger satellites, CubeSats often feature multiple computers handling different tasks in parallel including the attitude control (orientation), power management, payload operation, and primary control tasks. COTS attitude-control systems typically include their own computer, as do

5562-475: The P-POD. Additionally, a deployment switch is actuated while the craft is loaded into a P-POD, cutting power to the spacecraft and is deactivated after exiting the P-POD. The low cost of CubeSats has enabled unprecedented access to space for smaller institutions and organizations but, for most CubeSat forms, the range and available power is limited to about 2 W for its communications antennae. Because of tumbling and low power range, radio-communications are

5665-547: The PCI-104 form is the variant of PC/104 used and the actual pinout used does not reflect the pinout specified in the PCI-104 standard. Stackthrough connectors on the boards allow for simple assembly and electrical interfacing and most manufacturers of CubeSat electronics hardware hold to the same signal arrangement, but some products do not, so care must be taken to ensure consistent signal and power arrangements to prevent damage. Care must be taken in electronics selection to ensure

5768-455: The Sun, or specific stars. Sinclair Interplanetary's SS-411 Sun sensor and ST-16 star tracker both have applications for CubeSats and have flight heritage. Pumpkin's Colony I Bus uses an aerodynamic wing for passive attitude stabilization. Determination of a CubeSat's location can be done through the use of on-board GPS, which is relatively expensive for a CubeSat, or by relaying radar tracking data to

5871-924: The atmosphere and burned up. Small satellites usually require innovative propulsion, attitude control , communication and computation systems. Larger satellites usually use monopropellants or bipropellant combustion systems for propulsion and attitude control; these systems are complex and require a minimal amount of volume to surface area to dissipate heat. These systems may be used on larger small satellites, while other micro/nanosats have to use electric propulsion, compressed gas, vaporizable liquids such as butane or carbon dioxide or other innovative propulsion systems that are simple, cheap and scalable. Small satellites can use conventional radio systems in UHF, VHF, S-band and X-band, although often miniaturized using more up-to-date technology as compared to larger satellites. Tiny satellites such as nanosats and small microsats may lack

5974-595: The atmosphere on 14 May 2014, without having deployed any of the 5-gram femtosats. ThumbSat is another project intending to launch femtosatellites in the late 2010s. ThumbSat announced a launch agreement with CubeCat in 2017 to launch up to 1000 of the very small satellites. In March 2019, the CubeSat KickSat-2 deployed 105 femtosats called "ChipSats" into Earth orbit. Each of the ChipSats weighed 4 grams. The satellites were tested for 3 days, and they then reentered

6077-409: The battery from reaching dangerously low temperatures which might cause battery and mission failure. The rate at which the batteries decay depends on the number of cycles for which they are charged and discharged, as well as the depth of each discharge: the greater the average depth of discharge, the faster a battery degrades. For LEO missions, the number of cycles of discharge can be expected to be on

6180-499: The battery. Other spacecraft thermal control techniques in small satellites include specific component placement based on expected thermal output of those components and, rarely, deployed thermal devices such as louvers . Analysis and simulation of the spacecraft's thermal model is an important determining factor in applying thermal management components and techniques. CubeSats with special thermal concerns, often associated with certain deployment mechanisms and payloads, may be tested in

6283-442: The capabilities required to survive the environmental conditions during and after launch and describes the standard deployment interface used to release the satellites. The development of standards shared by a large number of spacecraft contributes to a significant reduction in the development time and cost of CubeSat missions. The CubeSat specification accomplishes several high-level goals. The main reason for miniaturizing satellites

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6386-494: The catalyst for the entire NASA CubeSat program. In 2017, this standardization effort led to the publication of ISO 17770:2017 by the International Organization for Standardization . This standard defines specifications for CubeSats including their physical, mechanical, electrical, and operational requirements. It also provides a specification for the interface between the CubeSat and its launch vehicle, which lists

6489-649: The construction of small satellites may include the lack of sufficient power storage or of room for a propulsion system . One rationale for miniaturizing satellites is to reduce the cost; heavier satellites require larger rockets with greater thrust that also have greater cost to finance. In contrast, smaller and lighter satellites require smaller and cheaper launch vehicles and can sometimes be launched in multiples. They can also be launched 'piggyback', using excess capacity on larger launch vehicles. Miniaturized satellites allow for cheaper designs and ease of mass production. Another major reason for developing small satellites

6592-564: The cost of a larger satellite. Scientific experiments with unproven underlying theory may also find themselves aboard CubeSats because their low cost can justify higher risks. Biological research payloads have been flown on several missions, with more planned. Several missions to the Moon and beyond are planning to use CubeSats. The first CubeSats in deep space were flown in the MarCO mission, where two CubeSats were launched towards Mars in May 2018 alongside

6695-432: The craft from Earth-based tracking systems. CubeSat propulsion has made rapid advancements in: cold gas , chemical propulsion , electric propulsion , and solar sails . The biggest challenge with CubeSat propulsion is preventing risk to the launch vehicle and its primary payload while still providing significant capability. Components and methods that are commonly used in larger satellites are disallowed or limited, and

6798-433: The craft's components. CubeSats must also cool by radiating heat either into space or into the cooler Earth's surface, if it is cooler than the spacecraft. All of these radiative heat sources and sinks are rather constant and very predictable, so long as the CubeSat's orbit and eclipse time are known. Components used to ensure the temperature requirements are met in CubeSats include multi-layer insulation and heaters for

6901-477: The deployment rails and are typically occupied by antennas and solar panels. In Revision 13 of the CubeSat Design Specification an extra available volume was defined for use on 3U projects. The additional volume is made possible by space typically wasted in the P-POD Mk III's spring mechanism. 3U CubeSats which utilize the space are designated 3U+ and may place components in a cylindrical volume centered on one end of

7004-655: The design of LauncherOne". Virgin Orbit has been working on the LauncherOne concept since late 2008, and as of 2015 , is making it a larger part of Virgin's core business plan as the Virgin human spaceflight program has experienced multiple delays and a fatal accident in 2014. In December 2012, DARPA announced that the Airborne Launch Assist Space Access program would provide the microsatellite rocket booster for

7107-645: The design of a large distributed network of satellite assets . In 2021, the first autonomous nanosatellites , part of the Adelis-SAMSON mission, designed and developed by the Technion and Rafael in Israel were launched into space. In 2023, SpaceX launched a 20cm quantum communication nano satellite developed by the Tel Aviv University , it is the world's first quantum communication satellite. TAU's nanosatellite

7210-420: The development of a launcher system that was "hopelessly complicated" and could only be made to work "most of the time". With the project's delays mounting, Twiggs sought DARPA funding that resulted in the redesign of the launching mechanism into a simple pusher-plate concept with the satellites held in place by a spring-loaded door. Desiring to shorten the development cycle experienced on OPAL and inspired by

7313-708: The devices can tolerate the radiation present. For very low Earth orbits (LEO) in which atmospheric reentry would occur in just days or weeks, radiation can largely be ignored and standard consumer grade electronics may be used. Consumer electronic devices can survive LEO radiation for that time as the chance of a single event upset (SEU) is very low. Spacecraft in a sustained low Earth orbit lasting months or years are at risk and only fly hardware designed for and tested in irradiated environments. Missions beyond low Earth orbit or which would remain in low Earth orbit for many years must use radiation-hardened devices. Further considerations are made for operation in high vacuum due to

7416-426: The dimension and mass requirements can be waived following application and negotiation with the launch service provider . CubeSat structures do not have all the same strength concerns as larger satellites do, as they have the added benefit of the deployer supporting them structurally during launch. Still, some CubeSats will undergo vibration analysis or structural analysis to ensure that components unsupported by

7519-654: The earliest CubeSat launches was on 30 June 2003 from Plesetsk, Russia, with Eurockot Launch Services 's Multiple Orbit Mission . The CubeSats were injected into a Sun-synchronous orbit and included the Danish AAU CubeSat and DTUSat, the Japanese XI-IV and CUTE-1, the Canadian Can X-1, and the US Quakesat . On February 13, 2012, three P-POD deployers containing seven CubeSats were placed into orbit along with

7622-455: The effects of sublimation , outgassing , and metal whiskers , which may result in mission failure. The number of joined units classifies the size of CubeSats and according to the CubeSat Design Specification are scalable along only one axis to fit the forms of 0.5U, 1U, 1.5U, 2U, or 3U. All the standard sizes of CubeSat have been built and launched, and represent the form factors for nearly all launched CubeSats as of 2015. Materials used in

7725-428: The emergence of the technological advances of miniaturization and increased capital to support private spaceflight initiatives in the 2010s, several startups have been formed to pursue opportunities with developing a variety of small-payload Nanosatellite Launch Vehicle (NLV) technologies. NLVs proposed or under development include: Actual NS launches: The term "picosatellite" or "picosat" (not to be confused with

7828-433: The framework of the "Vega Maiden Flight" opportunity of the European Space Agency. On September 13, 2012, eleven CubeSats were launched from eight P-PODs, as part of the "OutSat" secondary payload aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket. This was the largest number of CubeSats (and largest volume of 24U) orbited on a single launch so far, made possible by the new NPS CubeSat Launcher system ( NPSCuL ) developed at

7931-489: The high radiation of space, such as the use of ECC RAM . Some satellites may incorporate redundancy by implementing multiple primary computers; this could be done on valuable missions to lessen the risk of mission failure. Consumer smartphones have been used for computing in some CubeSats, such as NASA's PhoneSats . Attitude control (orientation) for CubeSats relies on miniaturizing technology without significant performance degradation. Tumbling typically occurs as soon as

8034-521: The larger ten-centimeter cube as a guideline for the new CubeSat concept. A model of a launcher was developed for the new satellite using the same pusher-plate concept that had been used in the modified OPAL launcher. Twiggs presented the idea to Puig-Suari in the summer of 1999 and then at the Japan–U.S. Science, Technology and Space Applications Program (JUSTSAP) conference in November 1999. The term "CubeSat"

8137-731: The launch of 104 satellites on a single rocket. The launch of PSLV-C37 in a single payload, including the Cartosat-2 series and 103 co-passenger satellites, together weighed over 650 kg (1,430 lb). Of the 104 satellites, all but three were CubeSats. Of the 101 nano satellites, 96 were from the United States and one each from Israel, Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates. Picosatellite A small satellite , miniaturized satellite , or smallsat

8240-482: The objective of developing low cost launch vehicles called Miura 1 and Miura 5 with the capacity to place up to 150 kg (330 lb) into orbit. The term "nanosatellite" or "nanosat" is applied to an artificial satellite with a wet mass between 1 and 10 kg (2.2 and 22.0 lb). Designs and proposed designs of these types may be launched individually, or they may have multiple nanosatellites working together or in formation, in which case, sometimes

8343-492: The order of several hundred. Due to size and weight constraints, common CubeSats flying in LEO with body-mounted solar panels have generated less than 10 W. Missions with higher power requirements can make use of attitude control to ensure the solar panels remain in their most effective orientation toward the Sun, and further power needs can be met through the addition and orientation of deployable solar arrays, which can be unfolded to

8446-471: The picosatellites OPAL carried, Twiggs set out to find "how much could you reduce the size and still have a practical satellite". The picosatellites on OPAL were 10.1 cm × 7.6 cm × 2.5 cm (4 in × 3 in × 1 in), a size that was not conducive to covering all sides of the spacecraft with solar cells. Inspired by a 4 in (10 cm) cubic plastic box used to display Beanie Babies in stores, Twiggs first settled on

8549-418: The power management systems. Payloads must be able to interface with the primary computer to be useful, which sometimes requires the use of another small computer. This may be due to limitations in the primary computer's ability to control the payload with limited communication protocols, to prevent overloading the primary computer with raw data handling, or to ensure payload's operation continues uninterrupted by

8652-514: The power supply or mass for large conventional radio transponders , and various miniaturized or innovative communications systems have been proposed, such as laser receivers, antenna arrays and satellite-to-satellite communication networks. Few of these have been demonstrated in practice. Electronics need to be rigorously tested and modified to be "space hardened" or resistant to the outer space environment (vacuum, microgravity, thermal extremes, and radiation exposure). Miniaturized satellites allow for

8755-496: The project is to build a CubeSat capable of orbiting the Moon. It was launched on November 19, 2013, from Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia as part of a payload containing two NASA, 11 university, one high school, and 14 Air Force CubeSats. Vermont Lunar is the only non-NASA/USAF CubeSat from this ELaNa IV launch that is fully working. Eight were never heard from at all. SPARK/Ada 2005

8858-419: The sail's area, this makes sails well suited for use in CubeSats as their small mass results in the greater acceleration for a given solar sail's area. However, solar sails still need to be quite large compared to the satellite, which means useful solar sails must be deployed, adding mechanical complexity and a potential source of failure. This propulsion method is the only one not plagued with restrictions set by

8961-929: The same mission cost, with significantly increased revisit times: every area of the globe can be imaged every 3.5 hours rather than the once per 24 hours with the RapidEye constellation. More rapid revisit times are a significant improvement for nations performing disaster response, which was the purpose of the RapidEye constellation. Additionally, the nanosat option would allow more nations to own their own satellite for off-peak (non-disaster) imaging data collection. As costs lower and production times shorten, nanosatellites are becoming increasingly feasible ventures for companies. Example nanosatellites: ExoCube (CP-10) , ArduSat , SPROUT Nanosatellite developers and manufacturers include EnduroSat , GomSpace , NanoAvionics , NanoSpace, Spire , Surrey Satellite Technology , NovaWurks , Dauria Aerospace , Planet Labs and Reaktor . In

9064-690: The secondary payload paradigm does not provide the specificity required for many increasingly sophisticated small satellites that have unique orbital and launch-timing requirements. In July 2012, Virgin Orbit announced LauncherOne , an orbital launch vehicle designed to launch "smallsat" primary payloads of 100 kg (220 lb) into low Earth orbit , with launches projected to begin in 2016. Several commercial customers have already contracted for launches, including GeoOptics , Skybox Imaging , Spaceflight Industries , and Planetary Resources . Both Surrey Satellite Technology and Sierra Nevada Space Systems are developing satellite buses "optimized to

9167-535: The simplest useful propulsion technology. Cold gas propulsion systems can be very safe since the gases used do not have to be volatile or corrosive , though some systems opt to feature dangerous gases such as sulfur dioxide . This ability to use inert gases is highly advantageous to CubeSats as they are usually restricted from hazardous materials. Only low performance can be achieved with them, preventing high impulse maneuvers even in low mass CubeSats. Due to this low performance, their use in CubeSats for main propulsion

9270-479: The size of a soda can. The term "femtosatellite" or "femtosat" is usually applied to artificial satellites with a wet mass below 100 g (3.5 oz). Like picosatellites, some designs require a larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers. Three prototype "chip satellites" were launched to the ISS on Space Shuttle Endeavour on its final mission in May 2011. They were attached to

9373-560: The spacecraft's other computing needs such as communication. Still, the primary computer may be used for payload related tasks, which might include image processing , data analysis , and data compression . Tasks which the primary computer typically handles include the delegation of tasks to the other computers, attitude control, calculations for orbital maneuvers , scheduling , and activation of active thermal control components. CubeSat computers are highly susceptible to radiation and builders will take special steps to ensure proper operation in

9476-421: The structure must feature the same coefficient of thermal expansion as the deployer to prevent jamming. Specifically, allowed materials are four aluminum alloys: 7075 , 6061 , 5005 , and 5052 . Aluminum used on the structure which contacts the P-POD must be anodized to prevent cold welding , and other materials may be used for the structure if a waiver is obtained. Beyond cold welding, further consideration

9579-430: The successful InSight mission. Some CubeSats have become countries' first-ever satellites , launched either by universities, state-owned, or private companies. The searchable Nanosatellite and CubeSat Database lists over 4,000 CubeSats that have been or are planned to be launched since 1998. Professors Jordi Puig-Suari of California Polytechnic State University and Bob Twiggs of Stanford University proposed

9682-557: The successful Mars InSight lander mission. The two microsats accomplished a flyby of Mars in November 2018, and both continued communicating with ground stations on Earth through late December. Both went silent by early January 2019. A number of commercial and military-contractor companies are currently developing microsatellite launch vehicles to perform the increasingly targeted launch requirements of microsatellites. While microsatellites have been carried to space for many years as secondary payloads aboard larger launchers ,

9785-564: The ten years of nanosat launches prior to 2014, only 75 nanosats were launched. Launch rates picked up substantially when in the three-month period from November 2013–January 2014 94 nanosats were launched. One challenge of using nanosats has been the economic delivery of such small satellites to anywhere beyond low Earth orbit . By late 2014, proposals were being developed for larger spacecraft specifically designed to deliver swarms of nanosats to trajectories that are beyond Earth orbit for applications such as exploring distant asteroids. With

9888-417: The term "satellite swarm" or " fractionated spacecraft " may be applied. Some designs require a larger "mother" satellite for communication with ground controllers or for launching and docking with nanosatellites. Over 2300 nanosatellites have been launched as of December 2023. A CubeSat is a common type of nanosatellite, built in cube form based on multiples of 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm, with

9991-414: The use of satellite constellations , nanosatellites are increasingly capable of performing commercial missions that previously required microsatellites. For example, a 6U CubeSat standard has been proposed to enable a satellite constellation of thirty five 8 kg (18 lb) Earth-imaging satellites to replace a constellation of five 156 kg (344 lb) RapidEye Earth-imaging satellites, at

10094-446: The usefulness of CubeSat propulsion. Gimbaled thrust cannot be used in small engines due to the complexity of gimbaling mechanisms, thrust vectoring must instead be achieved by thrusting asymmetrically in multiple-nozzle propulsion systems or by changing the center of mass relative to the CubeSat's geometry with actuated components. Small motors may also not have room for throttling methods that allow smaller than fully on thrust, which

10197-525: Was a 3U satellite, called Dove-1, built by Planet Labs . On April 26, 2013 NEE-01 Pegaso was launched and was the first CubeSat able to transmit live video from orbit, also the first 1U CubeSat to achieve more than 100 watts of power as installed capacity. Later in November same year NEE-02 Krysaor also transmitted live video from orbit. Both CubeSats were built by the Ecuadorian Space Agency . A total of thirty-three CubeSats were deployed from

10300-440: Was about $ 60,000 in 2021. Some CubeSats have complicated components or instruments, such as LightSail-1 , that push their construction cost into the millions of dollars, but a basic 1U CubeSat can cost about $ 50,000 to construct. This makes CubeSats a viable option for some schools, universities, and small businesses. The Nanosatellite & Cubesat Database lists over 2,000 CubeSats that have been launched since 1998. One of

10403-470: Was coined to denote nanosatellites that adhere to the standards described in the CubeSat design specification. Cal Poly published the standard in an effort led by aerospace engineering professor Jordi Puig-Suari. Bob Twiggs , of the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics at Stanford University, and currently a member of the space science faculty at Morehead State University in Kentucky, has contributed to

10506-605: Was planned to launch on the Space Launch System 's first flight ( Artemis 1 ) in November 2022 was set to use a solar sail: the Near-Earth Asteroid Scout (NEA Scout). The CubeSat was declared lost when communications were not established within 2 days. CubeSats use solar cells to convert solar light to electricity that is then stored in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that provide power during eclipse as well as during peak load times. These satellites have

10609-731: Was used, and this is the first spacecraft of any kind programmed in SPARK . The control software contained about 10,000 lines of SPARK/Ada code. The Principal Investigator was Carl Brandon, the Software Supervisor was Peter Chapin, and Dan Turner served as the Principal Developer. This was the first satellite of any kind built by a college or university in New England. CubeSat In 1999, California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly) professor Jordi Puig-Suari and Bob Twiggs ,

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