Aelia Verina ( Greek : Βερίνα; died 484) was the Eastern Roman empress as the wife of Leo I . She was a sister of Emperor Basiliscus . Her daughter Ariadne also became empress. Verina was the maternal grandmother of Leo II .
175-507: The origins of Verina and her brother Basiliscus are unknown. They are considered likely to have ancestry in the Balkans but nothing more specific is known. They are assumed to have at least one sister as a hagiography of Daniel the Stylite names a brother-in-law of Verina and Basiliscus as Zuzus. Stefan Krautschick in his historical work Zwei Aspekte des Jahres 476 (1986) advanced a theory that
350-558: A series of successful campaigns against the Kingdom of Georgia . Despite near-constant warfare, Basil distinguished himself as an administrator, reducing the power of the great land-owning families who dominated the Empire's administration and military, filling its treasury, and leaving it with its greatest expanse in four centuries. Although his successors were largely incapable rulers, the Empire flourished for decades after Basil's death. One of
525-412: A "dissolute life", stating that is common of historians wishing to paint an emperor in a bad light. Historian Mirosław Leszka attributes the action to a simple desire for power, and Twardowska theorizes that Verina supported him while Leo II was emperor because she would still retain influence as a close relative, which she would not wield over Zeno himself. Zeno had the option of raising another son from
700-544: A Chalcedonian, and his ties to Timothy were seen as tacit approval of this murder. Basiliscus issued an encyclical on 9 April 475, which promoted the first three ecumenical councils of the church: Nicaea , Constantinople , and Ephesus , and condemned the Council of Chalcedon and the Tome of Leo . While enthusiastically received in Ephesus and Egypt, it resulted in outrage from
875-603: A West Roman commander, was sent to capture Sardinia , and then to sail to link up with the Eastern armies near Carthage , the Vandal capital. Basiliscus was to sail with the bulk of the forces directly to Carthage, and the Eastern comes rei militaris Heraclius of Edessa , was to gather up Eastern forces in Egypt , disembark in Tripolitania , and then to approach Carthage by land; forcing
1050-541: A church until Zeno promised not to execute them; exiled to Limnae in Cappadocia , they were either beheaded or imprisoned in a dried-up cistern and left to starve to death. Basiliscus was born at an unknown date, likely in the Balkans . He was the brother of future Empress Verina , the wife of East Roman Emperor Leo I ( r. 457–474). Historian Stefan Krautschick argues that since Basiliscus' nephew, Armatus ,
1225-705: A combination of heavy taxes and heretical ecclesiastical policies, as well as a natural disaster. A large fire broke out in the quarter of Chalkoprateia in 475/476, before quickly spreading. The fire destroyed the Basilica , a library containing 120,000 books, as well as the Palace of Lausus , the Aphrodite of Knidos , the Lindian Athene , and the Samian Here . Bury remarks that, as is common with "accidents in superstitious ages",
1400-522: A counterargument to the theory is given by Penny Macgeorge in her own study Late Roman Warlords (2003), pages 284–285, based on the silence of both John Malalas and Malchus on a blood relation of Odoacer to the House of Leo . Both historians were chronologically closer to the recorded events than John of Antioch. If accepted the theory of Krautschick would give Verina a barbarian origin. Her ancestry would still be uncertain due to contradictory accounts on
1575-620: A former ally of Verina, to extort money from the church. Verina turned against Basiliscus after the execution of her lover and began to plot to return Zeno to power, and sought refuge in Blachernae . It is not known if she fled because of her support or began to support Zeno after she fled, as the source, Candidus, is unclear, but the Vita Danielis Stylite states that she remained there until after Basiliscus died. Basiliscus had Armatus made magister militum praesentalis , allegedly at
1750-569: A garrison at Larissa , and burnt three minor forts in the vicinity of Abu Qubais , Masyath and Arca . The siege of Tripoli in December failed while Emesa was not threatened. Basil's attention was diverted to developments in Georgia following the murder of David III Kuropalates ; he departed for Cilicia in January and dispatched another embassy to Cairo. In 1000, a ten-year truce was concluded between
1925-500: A habit of rolling between his fingers when deep in thought or angry—and in later life a scant beard. Psellos also states that Basil was not an articulate speaker and had a loud laugh that convulsed his whole frame. Basil is described as having ascetic tastes and caring little for the pomp and ceremony of the Imperial court, typically wearing a sombre, dark-purple robe furnished with few of the gems that usually decorated imperial costumes. He
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#17330941005732100-503: A life of retirement at Heraclea on the Propontis . Aspar was suspected of inducing Basiliscus to betray the expedition, sympathizing with the Vandals, and promising to make him emperor in place of Leo. Friell and Williams also reject this, commenting that the need to find a scapegoat is common in such disasters and that the accusation is implausible. One source, Hydatius , states that Aspar
2275-706: A major victory at the Battle of the Orontes against Bourtzes. Bourtzes' defeat forced Basil to intervene personally in the East; with his army, he rode through Asia Minor to Aleppo in sixteen days, arriving in April 995. Basil's sudden arrival and the exaggeration of his army's strength circulating in the Fatimid camp caused panic in the Fatimid army, especially because Manjutakin, expecting no threat, had ordered his cavalry horses to be dispersed around
2450-483: A marriage would have no precedent in Imperial annals. Vladimir had researched various religions, having sent delegates to various countries. Marriage was not his main reason for choosing Christianity . When Vladimir promised to baptize himself and to convert his people to Christianity , Basil finally agreed. Vladimir and Anna were married in Crimea in 989. The Rus' warriors taken into Basil's army were instrumental in ending
2625-618: A miaphysite, made magister officiorum , and he received the miaphysite patriarch Timothy Ailuros , who returned from his exile in Crimea after the death of Leo. By them Basiliscus was persuaded to attack the tenets of Chalcedonianism. Basiliscus had Timothy Ailuros restored as the Patriarch of Alexandria , and Peter the Fuller as Patriarch of Antioch . Under his reign the Third Council of Ephesus
2800-537: A middler-rank officer under him. He was able to pick Leo, a candidate among his own subordinate officers, probably counting on his continued loyalty. The Senate accepted the choice. On 7 February 457, Leo was crowned by Patriarch Anatolius of Constantinople , the first such coronation known to involve a Patriarch. At this point Verina became the Empress consort. She probably added " Aelia " to her name at her proclamation as an Augusta. The name had become standard for Augustas of
2975-453: A poor commander, to prevent Leo from becoming stronger by way of weakening the Vandals. Historians Gerard Friell and Stephen Williams dismiss this, but accept that Verina pushed for his appointment and that Aspar did not object. Historian Peter Heather points out that, at this point, Basiliscus had just returned from considerable success on the Balkan frontier of the empire. Marcellinus ,
3150-538: A previous marriage to the throne, or else his brother, Longinus , which would remove any remnant of Verina's influence. Byzantine chronicler John Malalas states that Verina put forth a request which Zeno denied, causing her conspiracy, but does not specify the request; historian Maciej Salamon has argued that this request would be to have Basiliscus and her other relatives placed in high positions. Verina conspired with others to remove him as emperor, and historians generally accept that she planned to install her lover,
3325-588: A profound effect on Basil's outlook and methods of governance. Psellos describes the defeated Skleros giving Basil the following advice, which he took to heart: "Cut down the governors who become over-proud. Let no generals on campaign have too many resources. Exhaust them with unjust exactions, to keep them busied with their own affairs. Admit no woman to the imperial councils. Be accessible to no-one. Share with few your most intimate plans." To defeat these dangerous revolts, Basil formed an alliance with Prince Vladimir I of Kiev , who in 988 had captured Chersonesos ,
3500-444: A promise to make them both magister militum , but Leszka challenges this, arguing that Theophanes does not specify the promises because he invented them as the most likely explanation. Leszka questions that Basiliscus would entrust military command to men he had lied to, and argues that they were motivated instead by fear that Basiliscus would be overthrown, or else religious opposition. From February/March 476, Basiliscus remained in
3675-603: A request the senior empress had made on her son-in-law. Malalas does not clarify what was the request. A modern interpretation suggests that the request concerned her second marriage to Patricius. Which Zeno had reasons to refuse to prevent Patricius from emerging as a rival candidate for the throne. Verina conspired against Zeno with her lover Patricius, her brother Basiliscus , the Isaurian general Illus , and general Theodoric Strabo , forcing Zeno to flee Constantinople in 475. Zeno fled to his native lands, bringing with him some of
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#17330941005733850-407: A significant portion of the city to support Zeno's return. The popular stylite (pillar monk) Daniel the Stylite , whom Basiliscus had been attempting to sway to his side, rejected his efforts after the publication of the encyclical, and descended from his pillar to pray alongside Acacius, branding Basiliscus as a "second Diocletian " for his attacks on the church. There is some debate over
4025-503: A son of Aspar, was guilty of treason . The scandal caused a rift in the relations of Leo and Aspar, leaving the former relying even more on the Excubitors. In 467, the alliance of Leo and Tarasicodissa was sealed with the marriage of Ariadne to the officer. To make himself more acceptable to the Roman hierarchy and the native Greek-speaking population of Constantinople , the new son-in-law of
4200-416: A son, Marcus . Zenonis' origins are unknown, but she may have been a miaphysite , as some authors credit her for pushing Basiliscus's religious policies. Basiliscus was also related by marriage to Emperor Julius Nepos ( r. 474–475/480), as the uncle of Julius Nepos's wife. Zenonis is alleged to have taken Armatus, Basiliscus's nephew, as a lover. Byzantist J.B. Bury , summarizing sources from
4375-471: A statue in honor of her brother, however some scholars note that the source is not considered particularly reliable. The Patria was written during the reign of Basil II (976–1025) and revised during the Alexios I Komnenos (1081–1118). So at least five centuries separate the time of Leo and Euphemia and this written account of their relationship. Verina and Leo had three children. Their eldest daughter Ariadne
4550-549: A strong ruler. In the early years of his reign, administration remained in the hands of Basil Lekapenos. As president of the Byzantine Senate, Lekapenos was a wily, gifted politician who hoped the young emperors would be his puppets. The younger Basil waited and watched without interfering, devoting himself to learning the details of administrative business and military science. Nikephoros II and John I were brilliant military commanders but proved to be poor administrators. Towards
4725-411: A strongly fortified frontier in those highlands. Other Byzantine forces restored much of Southern Italy , which had been lost during the previous 150 years. Basil was preparing a military expedition to recover the island of Sicily when he died on 15 December 1025, having had the longest reign among any Byzantine or Roman emperor. At the time of his death, the Empire stretched from southern Italy to
4900-570: A treaty with the Doge of Venice Pietro II Orseolo under terms reducing Venice's custom duties in Constantinople from 30 nomismata to 17 nomismata . In return, the Venetians agreed to transport Byzantine troops to southern Italy in times of war. According to one estimate, a Byzantine landowning farmer might expect a profit of 10.2 nomismata after paying dues for half of his best-quality land. Basil
5075-409: Is also described as a capable administrator who left a well-stocked treasury upon his death. Basil supposedly despised literary culture and affected scorn for the learned classes of Byzantium. According to the 19th century historian George Finlay , Basil saw himself as "prudent, just, and devout; others considered him severe, rapacious, cruel, and bigoted. For Greek learning he cared little, and he
5250-442: Is seen as a Greek national hero but is a despised figure among Bulgarians . The courtier and historian Michael Psellos , who was born towards the end of Basil's reign, gives a description of Basil in his Chronographia . Psellos describes him as a stocky man of shorter-than-average stature who nevertheless was an impressive figure on horseback. He had light-blue eyes, strongly arched eyebrows, luxuriant side whiskers —which he had
5425-517: The Suda , Candidus , and Malchus states that: Basiliscus permitted Armatus, inasmuch as he was a kinsman, to associate freely with the Empress Zenonis. Their intercourse became intimate, and as they were both persons of no ordinary beauty they became extravagantly enamoured of each other. They used to exchange glances of the eyes, they used constantly to turn their faces and smile at each other; and
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5600-409: The magister militum , selected him for this position, much as he had selected Marcian himself. Despite being half- Alanic and half- Gothic , Aspar held much influence in the empire since the mid fifth century, and wielded significant power over Marcian and Leo. Basiliscus served as a military officer under Leo, and was made consul of the East for 465, with Flavius Hermenericus as consul of
5775-399: The magister officiorum Patricius , as emperor and to marry him. She was supported in this plot by Theoderic Strabo, angered by Zeno's coronation, and Basiliscus, who succeeded in recruiting Illus and Trocundes , Isaurian brothers, as well as her nephew Armatus. The plot had the backing of the military, bolstered by Basiliscus' popularity, and that of Illus and Trocundes, and also
5950-399: The praetorian prefect Sebastianos in December 477, by order of Zeno. Basiliscus is part of a 1669 play written by Sir William Killigrew , The Imperial Tragedy , where he appears as a ghost, during the second reign of Zeno. Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus ( Greek : Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος Basileios Porphyrogennetos ; 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed
6125-486: The de facto ruler until 985. His reign of 49 years and 11 months was the longest of any Roman emperor . The early years of Basil's reign were dominated by civil wars against two powerful generals from the Byzantine Anatolian aristocracy: first Bardas Skleros and later Bardas Phokas , which ended shortly after Phokas' death and Skleros' submission in 989. Basil then oversaw the stabilization and expansion of
6300-572: The Bibliotheca of Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople quotes Candidus in placing his birthplace in Dacia . Leo was not from a prominent family. His only known relation prior to his marriage was a sister named Euphemia. According to Patria , attributed to George Codinus , Euphemia never married. She resided in Constantinople and was visited by her brother on a weekly basis. She reportedly erected
6475-585: The Byzantine Senate confirmed them as emperors with their mother as the nominal regent , de facto power passed for the time into the hands of the parakoimomenos Joseph Bringas . Theophano did not trust Bringas, however, and another enemy of the powerful parakoimomenos was Basil Lekapenos , an illegitimate , eunuch son of Emperor Romanos I – Basil's great-grandfather. Lekapenos himself had been parakoimomenos to Constantine VII and megas baioulos to Romanos II. Yet another enemy of Bringas
6650-804: The Caucasus and from the Danube to the Levant , which was its greatest territorial extent since the Muslim conquests four centuries earlier. Basil was to be buried in the last sarcophagus available in the rotunda of Constantine I in the Church of the Holy Apostles but he later asked his brother and successor Constantine VIII to be buried in the Church of St. John the Theologian ( i.e. ,
6825-618: The Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo, a Byzantine protectorate, perhaps expecting Basil would not interfere. Manjutakin invaded the emirate, defeated a Byzantine force under the doux of Antioch Michael Bourtzes in June 992, and laid siege to Aleppo. The city easily resisted. In early 993, after thirteen months of campaigning, a lack of supplies forced Manjutakin to return to Damascus. In 994, Manjutakin resumed his offensive and in September scored
7000-639: The Hebdomon , out of fear of the capital's populace; this news may have motivated them, along with letters received from ministers of the capital. These letters informed them that the city was now ready to restore Zeno, as the people had become even less supportive of Basiliscus due to the "fiscal rapacity of his ministers", as Bury puts it. Illus, possibly buoyed by his hold over Zeno, by way of his imprisonment of his brother, arranged to ally him and they began to march towards Constantinople with their combined forces. Basiliscus ordered Armatus to take command of all
7175-514: The Huns , possibly because of his service under Attila the Hun . According to Amory, the varying ethnographic identities of both men may reflect both their mixed ancestry and their political association with the various groups. The presence of Verina in the Roman court has been attributed by Demandt to "the osmosis of the late Roman and Germanic aristocracies". In other words, the practice of intermarriage between
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7350-510: The miaphysites , restoring Timothy Ailuros as the Patriarch of Alexandria and Peter the Fuller as Patriarch of Antioch . He heeded their advice and issued an encyclical on 9 April 475 which promoted the first three ecumenical councils of the church: Nicaea , Constantinople , and Ephesus , and condemned the Council of Chalcedon and the Tome of Leo . The Patriarch of Constantinople , Acacius , strongly opposed him, and together with Daniel
7525-470: The theme of Iberia with the capital at Theodosiopolis . This forced the successor Georgian Bagratid ruler Bagrat III to recognize the new rearrangement. Bagrat's son George I , however, inherited a longstanding claim to David's succession. George, who was young and ambitious, launched a campaign to restore the Kuropalates's succession to Georgia and occupied Tao in 1015–1016. He entered in an alliance with
7700-485: The 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of Jesus Christ were associated, following the Arian controversy . The School of Alexandria , including theologians such as Athanasius , asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The School of Antioch , including theologians such as Theodore of Mopsuestia , determined not to lose
7875-533: The Bulgar Slayer ( Greek : ὁ Βουλγαροκτόνος , ho Boulgaroktónos ), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. He and his brother Constantine VIII were crowned before their father Romanos II died in 963, but they were too young to rule. The throne thus went to two generals, Nikephoros Phokas ( r. 963–969) and John Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) before Basil became senior emperor, though his influential great-uncle Basil Lekapenos remained as
8050-565: The Bulgarian elite into Byzantine society. Because Bulgaria did not have a monetary economy to the same extent as Byzantium, Basil decided to accept Bulgarian taxes in kind. Basil's successors reversed this policy, a decision that led to considerable Bulgarian discontent and rebellion later in the 11th century. Although the Kievan Rus' had broken the power of the Khazar Khaganate in the 960s,
8225-509: The Bulgarians and the later submission of the Serbs fulfilled one of Basil's goals; the Empire regained its ancient Danubian frontier for the first time in 400 years. The rulers of neighbouring Croatia, Krešimir III and Gojslav , who were previously allies of Bulgaria, accepted Basil's supremacy to avoid the same fate as Bulgaria; Basil warmly received their offers of vassalage and awarded them
8400-399: The Bulgarians to counter-attack in 1009 was defeated at the Battle of Kreta , to the east of Thessalonica. In 1014, Basil was ready to launch a campaign aimed at destroying Bulgarian resistance. On 29 July 1014, in the Battle of Kleidion , he and his general Nikephoros Xiphias outmaneuvered the Bulgarian army, which was defending one of the fortified passes. Samuel avoided capture through
8575-627: The Byzantine Empire. At the start of the second millennium, he fought Samuel of Bulgaria , his greatest adversary. Bulgaria had been partly subjugated by John I after the invasion of Svyatoslav I of Kiev but parts of the country had remained outside Byzantine control under the leadership of Samuel and his brothers. Because the Bulgars had been raiding Byzantine lands since 976, the Byzantine government sought to cause dissension among them by allowing
8750-457: The Byzantine generals Nikephoros Xiphias and Theodorokanos took the former Bulgarian capital Great Preslav , and the towns Lesser Preslav and Pliskova . In 1001, Basil, operating from Thessalonica , regained control of Vodena , Verrhoia and Servia . The following year, he based his army in Philippopolis and occupied the length of the military road from the western Haemus Mountains to
8925-577: The Byzantines and al-Dawla quickly began acting as an independent ruler. Al-Hakim's persecution of Christians in his realm and especially the 1009 destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at his orders strained relations and, along with Fatimid interference in Aleppo, provided the main focus of Fatimid–Byzantine diplomatic relations until the late 1030s. Basil sought to restore former territories of
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#17330941005739100-527: The Byzantines had not been able to fully exploit the power vacuum and restore their dominion over Crimea and other areas around the Black Sea. In 1016, Byzantine armies in conjunction with Mstislav of Chernigov attacked the Crimea, much of which had fallen under the control of the Khazar successor kingdom of George Tzoul based at Kerch . Kedrenos reports that Tzoul was captured and the Khazar successor kingdom
9275-498: The Danube, cutting off communications between Samuel's Macedonian heartland and Paristrion (the lands south of the lower Danube). Following this success, Basil laid siege to Vidin , which fell after a prolonged resistance. Samuel reacted to the Byzantine campaign by launching a large-scale raid into the heart of Byzantine Thrace and took the major city of Adrianople by surprise. After turning homeward with his extensive plunder, Samuel
9450-462: The Danubian provinces and the East. Everywhere the might of Roman arms was respected and feared. The treasury was overflowing with the accumulated plunder of Basil's campaigns. Even the lamp of learning, despite the emperor's known indifference, was burning still, if somewhat dimly. The lot of ordinary folk in Constantinople must have been pleasant enough. For most of them life was gay and colourful, and if
9625-626: The Eastern Empire 130,000 pounds (59,000 kg) of gold, causing the empire to hover above bankruptcy for 30 years. When Basiliscus returned to Constantinople , he sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia . His sister, Empress Verina , secured him a pardon and he left the church to retire in Neapolis . When Emperor Leo died in 474, his grandson Leo II ( r. 474) took power, but soon died; his father, Zeno ( r. 474–475, 476–491) ascended
9800-480: The Empire remained the most powerful political entity of the age. At the end of Basil II's reign, the Byzantine Empire had a population of approximately 12 million people. Although they were beneficial, Basil's achievements were reversed very quickly. Many of the Georgian, Armenian and Fatimid campaigns were undone after the succession crisis and eventual civil war after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Because many of
9975-475: The Empire's main base in the Crimean Peninsula . Vladimir offered to evacuate Chersonesos and to supply 6,000 of his soldiers as reinforcements to Basil. In exchange, he demanded to be married to Basil's younger sister Anna. At first, Basil hesitated. The Byzantines viewed all of the peoples of Northern Europe—namely Franks and Slavs —as barbarians . Anna objected to marrying a barbarian ruler because such
10150-628: The Empire's other enemies. The Byzantine civil wars had weakened the Empire's position in the east, and the gains of Nikephoros II and John I had nearly been lost to the Fatimid Caliphate . In 987–988, a seven-year truce with the Fatimids was signed; it stipulated an exchange of prisoners , the recognition of the Byzantine emperor as protector of Christians under Fatimid rule and of the Fatimid Caliph as protector of Muslims under Byzantine control, and
10325-612: The Evangelist) at the Hebdomon Palace complex outside the walls of Constantinople. The epitaph on Basil's tomb celebrated his campaigns and victories. His final resting place carried the following inscription: From the day that the King of Heaven called upon me to become the Emperor, the great overlord of the world, no one saw my spear lie idle. I stayed alert throughout my life and protected
10500-422: The Fatimid caliph of Egypt, al-Hakim, forcing Basil to refrain from an acute response to George's offensive. The Byzantines were also involved in a relentless war with the Bulgarians, limiting their actions to the west. As soon as Bulgaria was conquered in 1018 and al-Hakim was dead, Basil led his army against Georgia. Preparations for a larger-scale campaign against the Kingdom of Georgia were set, beginning with
10675-409: The Gates of Trajan . Basil escaped with the help of his Varangian Guard and attempted to recover his losses by turning Samuel's brother Aron against him. Aron was tempted by Basil's offer of his sister Anna in marriage, but the negotiations failed when Aron discovered the bride he was sent was an imposter. By 987, Samuel had eliminated Aron. Another brother of Samuel, called David, was killed in 976 by
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#173309410057310850-488: The Imperial treasury due to his prudent management. Despite his attempts to control the power of the aristocracy, they again took control of the government following his death. Basil II was praised by his army because he spent most of his reign campaigning with it rather than sending orders from Constantinople, as had most of his predecessors. This allowed his army to be largely supportive of him, often making his stance in political and church matters unquestionable. He lived
11025-449: The Isaurians living in Constantinople, and the imperial treasury. Basiliscus was then acclaimed as Augustus on 9 January 475 at the Hebdomon palace, by the palace ministers and the Senate. John of Antioch and the hagiography of Daniel the Stylite imply that Verina was tricked in supporting the conspiracy. Candidus and John of Antioch report that Verina was hoping to use the conspiracy to replace Zeno with Patricius, restoring herself to
11200-420: The Nicaean soldiers to identify the corpse as the remains of Basil II. The body of Basil II was transferred to the Monastery of the Saviour at Selymbria . The following year Constantinople was recovered by the Byzantines. An assessment of the reign in the eyes of the subsequent generations is given by Psellos: He crushed rebellions, subdued the feudal landowners, conquered the enemies of the Empire, notably in
11375-433: The Roman military aristocracy and the dynasties derived from it on the one hand and various Germanic families of foederati . Verina married Leo, a Thraco-Roman officer of the East Roman army . According to Jordanes and John Malalas , her husband was one of the Bessi , a tribe of Thracians . Theodorus Lector , Theophanes the Confessor , Georgios Kedrenos and Michael the Syrian report Leo born in Thrace . However
11550-613: The Stylite , turned the population of Constantinople against Basiliscus. Zeno, besieged by Illus and Trocundes in his homeland of Isauria , convinced the two generals to defect, and soon the three of them marched their troops toward the capital. Basiliscus ordered Armatus to intercept them, but Armatus also switched sides after Zeno promised to give him the position of magister militum praesentalis for life, and make his son Basiliscus caesar . With Armatus' defense force deliberately kept out of his way, Zeno entered Constantinople unopposed in August 476. Basiliscus and his family hid in
11725-438: The Theodosian dynasty. During her tenure as empress, she exerted influence over her husband and his court, living a life of luxurious royal comfort and peaceful. In 461, Leo founded the Excubitors as a counterbalance to the soldiers under Aspar. He recruited the majority of its members from among the sturdy and warlike Isaurians. In 466, Tarasicodissa, an Isaurian officer of the Excubitors came forth with evidence that Ardabur ,
11900-515: The Vandals to fight in three areas. Marcellinus seized Sardinia with little trouble, and Heraclius took the fortress of Tripoli, Libya , and both headed to connect with Basiliscus' forces. Basiliscus's galleys scattered the Vandal fleet near Sicily , something said by Procopius to have caused Gaiseric to give all up for lost, fearing a decisive blow to capture Carthage. However, Basiliscus did not press his advantage and rested his forces in Cape Bon , 60 kilometres (37 mi) from Carthage. This
12075-464: The Vandals, and likely promoted to magister militum praesentalis at that time. It is said that the fleet consisted of 1,113 ships, with more than 100,000 men under the command of Basiliscus, including mercenaries from as far as Öland , Sweden . According to Bury, Leo was influenced by both Verina and Aspar in his selection of Basiliscus, whom he describes as both "incompetent and untrustworthy"; he further states that Aspar intentionally chose
12250-434: The Varangian Guard provided him and his successors with an elite mercenary force capable of changing battle outcomes and boosting morale that became feared by the emperor's enemies. At this time, the Macedonian Renaissance was taking effect, seeing the rise of classical Greek scholarship being assimilated into Christian art and the study of ancient Greek philosophy being widespread. The studies of these subjects, and
12425-404: The Vlachs, the guards of caravans, between Prespa and Kastoria. Although the titular emperor Roman of Bulgaria was captured in 991, Basil lost Moesia to the Bulgarians. While Basil was distracted with internal rebellions and recovering the military situation on his eastern frontier, Samuel had extended his rule from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea , recovering most of the territory that
12600-568: The West. Basiliscus was granted the rank of magister militum per Thracias in c. 464, and held it till 467/468; during this period he won many victories in Thrace against the Huns and Goths. He led troops in a war against a mixed group of the two in 466/467, along with Anagast , Aspar, and Ostrys . He was made a patricius at some point, first mentioned as such in 468. Around 466, Leo attempted to free himself of Aspar's control. He utilized
12775-893: The actual extent of her involvement is uncertain. In 480, Verina was still confined in Isauria under the custody of Illus. However she was able to correspond with Ariadne and convinced her daughter to intervene on her behalf. Ariadne endeavoured to obtain her release, first from Zeno, and then from Illus, to whom the emperor referred her. Illus not only refused her request, but charged her with wishing to place another person on her husband's throne. This irritated her; and she, like her mother, attempted to assassinate Illus. Jordanes ascribes her hatred to another cause: he says that Illus had infused jealous suspicions into Zeno's mind which had led Zeno to try an attempt on her life, and that her knowledge of these things stimulated her to revenge. The assassin whom she employed failed to kill Illus, but cut off his ear in
12950-751: The ancestry of Odoacer. Various sources have identified him as one of the Goths , the Rugians , the Sciri and the Thuringii . All four were Germanic peoples , with the Goths, Rugians and Sciri grouped by ethnologists within the East Germanic tribes . His father Edeko was leader of the Sciri but it is unclear if he was born in the tribe or married into it. Other sources identify Edeko as one of
13125-534: The ancient Greek tragedian Aeschylus were among the most recited in the empire during the expansion given the different confrontations against the caliphates that the Byzantines indiscriminately and classically called " Medes ". Despite the great expansion during his reign, his military and non-scholastic character led him to be criticized and related to the ancient Spartan monarchs or tyrants who at that time were remembered for being men of action, cruelty and decision who, like Basil, paid little attention to promoting
13300-492: The army for an invasion of the Vandal Kingdom in 468, which was defeated at the Battle of Cape Bon . There were accusations at the time that Basiliscus was bribed by Aspar , the magister militum ; many historians dismiss this, instead concluding that Basiliscus was either incompetent or foolish for accepting Vandal King Gaiseric 's offer of a truce, which the latter used to construct fireships . Basiliscus's defeat cost
13475-445: The army under Basil II is unknown, but estimates put it as high as 110,000 men, excluding the imperial tagmata in Constantinople; a considerable force, compared with the nominal establishment force of c. 120,000 in the 9th–10th centuries, or the 150,000–160,000 of the field armies under Justinian I . At the same time, however, under Basil the practice began of relying on allied states—most notably Venice—for naval power, beginning
13650-469: The arts or literary culture and preferred a military environment. Basil II lacked heirs due to the "dearth of cousins found within the Macedonian dynasty ", so he was succeeded by his brother Constantine and his family, who proved to be ineffective rulers. Nevertheless, fifty years of prosperity and intellectual growth followed because the funds of state were full, the borders were safe from intruders, and
13825-452: The attempt. The assassin was taken, and Zeno, who appears to have been privy to the affair, was unable to prevent his execution. In 483 or 484, Illus rose in rebellion against Zeno. Verina still had her imperial rank and so could still crown another Augustus. He released her from confinement and had her crown Leontius , a general, as an Augustus in Tarsus. The revolt also had religious meaning as
14000-525: The belief in miaphysis as heretical . Marcian convened the Council of Chalcedon in October 451, attended by about 500 bishops, most of them Eastern Roman. This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature ( physis ) and a human nature, united in one person ( hypostasis ), "without confusion, change, division, or separation." The council also repeated
14175-440: The capital and she indeed never returned during her life. According to John of Antioch, Verina was at first confined in a monastery located at Tarsus . She was then sent first to Dalisandus (two namesake cities existed in Isauria and Pamphylia ) and secondly to Cherris in Isauria. In 478–479, the revolt of Marcian , a son of Anthemius took place. He was married to Leontia, the second daughter of Leo I and Verina. His claim to
14350-470: The case, Patricius served early in the new reign as the Magister Officiorum . Eventually, Basiliscus ordered the death of Patricius, as the officer was a natural candidate to overthrow the new emperor. Consequently, Verina later intrigued against Basiliscus, seeking revenge for her lover's execution. According to Candidus , after the death of Patricius, Verina intrigued in favour of Zeno, but her plan
14525-663: The children of the New Rome, valiantly campaigning both in the West and at the outposts of the East ;... O, man, seeing now my tomb here, reward me for my campaigns with your prayers. In 1260, during the unsuccessful Nicean Byzantine siege of Constantinople , then held by the Latin Empire , a corpse was found, upright in a corner of the Church of St. John the Evangelist, with a shepherd's flute placed in its mouth. An inscription allowed
14700-482: The city for pasture. Despite having a considerably larger and well-rested army, Manjutakin was at a disadvantage. He burned his camp and retreated to Damascus without battle. The Byzantines besieged Tripoli unsuccessfully and occupied Tartus , which they refortified and garrisoned with Armenian troops. Al-Aziz now prepared to take to the field in person against the Byzantines and initiated large-scale preparations but they were abandoned upon his death. Warfare between
14875-495: The city of Sparta . He may have had an elder sister named Helena (born c. 955). Romanos succeeded Constantine VII as sole emperor upon the latter's death in 959. Basil's father crowned him as co-emperor on 22 April 960, and his brother Constantine (born 960 or 961, eventually to rule as sole emperor Constantine VIII in 1025–1028) in 962 or 963. Only two days after the birth of his youngest child Anna , Romanos II died on 15 March 963 at 24 years of age. His unexpected death
15050-591: The city's defensive fortifications were at some points in disrepair they had no cause to dread attacks. Basil II's reign is one of the most significant in Byzantine history. His constant military campaigns led to the zenith of Byzantine power in the Middle Ages . The restoration of the Danubian frontier helped establish a more stable and secure border for the empire in Europe, maintaining a stronger barrier against Hungarian and Pecheneg raiders. The conquest of Bulgaria and
15225-438: The conquered territories he introduced both the small themes or strategiai , centred around a fortress town, that were such a common feature of the 10th-century reconquests of the East under Phokas and Tzimiskes, as well as the extensive regional commands under a doux or katepano ( Iberia in 1000, Asprakania or Upper Media in 1019/22, Paristrion in 1000/20, Bulgaria in 1018, and Sirmium in 1019 ). The exact size of
15400-426: The differences between the encyclical presented by Evagrius Scholasticus and that of Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor . Notably, Evagrius' version does not contain some of the references to the Council of Nicaea and the Second Council of Ephesus, making it less extreme. Philippe Blaudeau suggests that the one presented by Evagrius was a modified version presented to Acacius, as it would be more palatable to him; as well as that
15575-612: The eastern frontier of the Byzantine Empire and the complete subjugation of the First Bulgarian Empire , its foremost European foe, after a long struggle. Although the Byzantines had made a truce with the Fatimid Caliphate in 987–988, Basil led a campaign against the Caliphate that ended with another truce in 1000. He also conducted a campaign against the Khazar Khaganate that gained the Byzantine Empire part of Crimea and
15750-644: The emperor's rear. In December, George's ally the Armenian king Senekerim of Vaspurakan , who was being harassed by the Seljuk Turks , surrendered his kingdom to the emperor. During early 1022, Basil launched a final offensive, defeating the Georgians at the Battle of Svindax . Menaced both by land and sea, George agreed to a treaty that handed over Tao, Phasiane, Kola, Artaan and Javakheti , and left his infant son Bagrat as Basil's hostage. In 992, Basil concluded
15925-451: The end of his reign, John had belatedly planned to curb the power of the great landowners; his death, which occurred soon after he spoke out against them, led to rumors that he had been poisoned by Lekapenos, who had illegally acquired vast estates and feared an investigation and punishment. At the start of his reign, the failures of his immediate predecessors left Basil II with a serious problem: Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas , members of
16100-457: The enlargement projects of the emperors, greatly expanded the library of the University of Constantinople , which again established itself as the main source of learning for its day. Though he was not a man of literature, Basil was a relatively pious ruler who involved himself in the construction of churches, monasteries and, to some extent, cities. Literary works, eulogies and poems were made by
16275-413: The escape of their captive emperor Boris II of Bulgaria . This ploy failed so Basil used a respite from his conflict with the nobility to lead a 30,000-strong army into Bulgaria and besiege Sredets ( Sofia ) in 986. Taking losses and worried about the loyalty of some of his governors, Basil lifted the siege and returned for Thrace but he fell into an ambush and suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of
16450-558: The estate declared null and the legal owners could reclaim it. In 1002, Basil also introduced the allelengyon tax as a specific law obliging the dynatoi (wealthy landholders) to cover for the arrears of poorer tax-payers. Though it proved unpopular with the wealthier sections of Byzantine society, Basil did not abolish the tax; the emperor Romanos III abolished the allelengyon in 1028. By 1025, Basil—with an annual revenue of 7 million nomismata —was able to amass 14.4 million nomismata (or 200,000 pounds/90 tonnes of gold ) for
16625-494: The fire was reputed to be supernatural in origin. Many at the time viewed it as a symbol of divine wrath against Basiliscus. While Basiliscus's rise was not illegal, as usurpations confirmed by the senate were generally considered legitimate, such had not happened for over a century in the Eastern Roman Empire. Additionally, he was politically incompetent and temperamental, alienating much of his support. While Basiliscus
16800-452: The great cities of the Byzantine Empire that mostly tried to juxtapose the classic past of kingdoms and empires with the new expansion of Basil II in which he was compared with many important figures of the east such as Cyrus the Great and Artaxerxes . He was also particularly compared with Alexander the Great who was believed to be Basil's ancestor. Classical works such as " The Persians " by
16975-531: The help of 12,000 Georgians of Tornikios and David III Kuropalates of Tao . The fall of Lekapenos occurred between the rebellions in 985; he was accused of plotting with the rebels and was punished with exile and the confiscation of his property. The relationship between the two generals was complicated; Phokas was instrumental in defeating the rebellion of Skleros but when Phokas later rebelled, Skleros returned from exile to support him. When Phokas died in battle, Skleros, whom Phokas had imprisoned, assumed
17150-474: The honorary title of patrikios . Croatia remained a tributary state to Basil until his death in 1025. Before returning to Constantinople, Basil celebrated his triumph in Athens . He showed considerable statesmanship in his treatment of the defeated Bulgarians, giving many former Bulgarian leaders court titles, positions in provincial administration, and high commands in the army. In this way, he sought to absorb
17325-601: The human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity. Shortly before Marcian had become emperor, the Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, called miaphysis ; this was rejected by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople because of disputes on the matter of Christology , as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw
17500-556: The imperial couple changed his name to Zeno. Their only known son of Ariadne and Zeno, Leo II , was born within the year. In 471, Aspar and Ardabur were murdered within the Great Palace of Constantinople by orders of Leo. Leo earned the nickname "Macelles" (the Butcher ) for the manner of the deaths. Zeno was left by default as the main supporter of Leo within the Byzantine army . Leo II
17675-662: The importance of the See of Constantinople in Canon 28, placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, placing it over the Sees of Alexandria , Jerusalem , and Antioch . Basiliscus rose to power during a time when the miaphysite faction was growing in power, and his attempts to ally them to himself backfired severely. Historian Jason Osequeda posits that Basiliscus's mistake
17850-460: The insistence of Zenonis. This turned Theoderic Strabo against him, as he hated Armatus. Armatus was also made consul in 476, alongside Basiliscus himself. Illus and Trocundes, laying siege to Zeno in his native lands, defected to him. This has usually been ascribed to a failure to fulfill unspecified promises made to them, as given by Theophanes the Confessor , which many historians identify as
18025-408: The isolation of Samuel's core territories in the highlands of western Macedonia . Samuel was forced into an almost entirely defensive stance; he extensively fortified the passes and routes from the coastlines and valleys held by the Byzantines to the territory remaining in his possession. During the next few years, the Byzantine offensive slowed and no significant gains were made, although an attempt by
18200-502: The lack of supplies. When Leo fell ill in 473, he had his grandson, Leo II ( r. 474), the son of Zeno and Ariadne, crowned as emperor in October 473. Leo died on 18 January 474, and Leo II took the throne. Zeno was installed as co-emperor, crowned on 29 January, and when Leo II died in Autumn, Zeno became the sole eastern emperor. Zeno likely had Theoderic Strabo stripped of his role as magister militum praesentalis . Zeno
18375-502: The language of the original would have made Eutychians believe that Timothy and Basiliscus agreed with them, and the subsequent document clarified their positions. The current consensus among historians is that Evagrius' version was the original, made more extreme after the Third Council of Ephesus. Some arguments have been made by Eduard Schwartz , Hanns Brennecke , and René Draguet that Basiliscus approved Evagrius' text, but that
18550-452: The leadership of the rebellion. Basil's brother Constantine—who had no interest in politics, statecraft, or the military –led troops alongside Basil; this was the only military command Constantine would hold. The campaign ended without combat when Skleros was forced to surrender to Basil in 989. Skleros was allowed to live but he died blind, either through disease or from being blinded as punishment for his insurrection. These rebellions had
18725-426: The life of a soldier to the point of eating the same daily rations as the rest of the army. He also took the children of dead army officers under his protection and offered them shelter, food and education. Many of these children became his soldiers and officers, taking the places of their fathers. One of them, Isaac Komnenos , later became emperor himself. Basil did not innovate in terms of military organization: in
18900-517: The marriage, he was considered a member of the Theodosian dynasty . His only daughter was from a previous marriage and not considered heiress to the dynasty, thus with his death the dynastic succession ended. The Byzantine army and the Byzantine Senate had to elect a new Augustus. Aspar , the magister militum ("Master of soldiers") of the Eastern Roman Empire , may have been unable to claim
19075-414: The monasteries as well as alienating Patriarch Acacius, and the heavily Chalcedonian population of the capital. Repudiating the Council of Chalcedon invalidated Canon 28 of it, ending Acacius's control over the Eastern sees, and as such Acacius refused to sign it. Acacius draped the Church of St. Sophia in black, and lead a congregation in mourning. This caused Basiliscus to leave the city, and
19250-449: The more extreme version was written by Paul the Sophist . Whatever the case, Basiliscus soon voided his encyclical, issuing a new letter dubbed the " anti-encyclical ", revoking his previous encyclical, reaffirming condemnation of heresy, and restoring the rights of Canon 28 to Acacius, but did not explicitly mention the Council of Chalcedon. Notably, the first encyclical also asserted
19425-562: The most important decisions taken during his reign was to offer the hand of his sister Anna Porphyrogenita to Vladimir I of Kiev in exchange for military support, thus forming the Byzantine military unit known as the Varangian Guard . The marriage of Anna and Vladimir led to the Christianization of the Kievan Rus' and the incorporation of later successor states of Kievan Rus' within the Byzantine cultural and religious tradition. Basil
19600-474: The one used by Zeno's army, and marched instead into Isaura. Zeno entered Constantinople unopposed in August 476. Basiliscus and his family fled and took refuge in a church, only leaving once Zeno promised not to execute them. Zeno exiled them to Limnae in Cappadocia , where they were imprisoned in a dried-up cistern, and left to starve to death. According to some sources, they were instead beheaded. During
19775-441: The passion which they were obliged to conceal was the cause of dule and teen. They confided their trouble to Daniel, an eunuch , and to Maria, a midwife, who hardly healed their malady by the remedy of bringing them together. Then Zenonis coaxed Basiliscus to grant her lover the highest office in the city. Leo rose to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire in 457 after the death of Emperor Marcian ( r. 450–457). Aspar ,
19950-536: The path he came, and Basiliscus returned to Constantinople. The total cost of the armaments for the fleet was 130,000 pounds (59,000 kg) of gold, more than the entire treasury of the Eastern Empire, causing the Eastern Empire to waver above bankruptcy for more than 30 years. Upon his return to Constantinople, Basiliscus sought refuge in the Church of St. Sophia , before Verina interceded on his behalf to have him pardoned by Leo. He may have remained magister militum praesentalis after this, but largely lived
20125-419: The position of empress in the process. However, Basiliscus was crowned as soon as Zeno had abandoned the city. According to Malalas, Verina had to crown Basiliscus herself as the only person of imperial rank present within the capital. There is some doubt whether the description of Verina's motivation by Candidus and John of Antioch was accurate or just reflected the hostility of the chroniclers to her. Whatever
20300-407: The re-fortification of Theodosiopolis. In late 1021, Basil, at the head of a large Byzantine army reinforced by the Varangian Guard , attacked the Georgians and their Armenian allies, recovering Phasiane and continuing beyond the frontiers of Tao into inner Georgia. King George burned the city of Oltisi to prevent it falling to the enemy and retreated to Kola . A bloody battle was fought near
20475-453: The rebellion; they were later organized into the Varangian Guard . This marriage had important long-term implications, marking the beginning of the process by which the Grand Duchy of Moscow many centuries later would proclaim itself "The Third Rome ", and claim the political and cultural heritage of the Byzantine Empire. Once the internal strife was quelled, Basil turned his attention to
20650-604: The rebels were Chalcedonian Christians while Zeno was an adherent of Monophysitism . John Malalas describes that Verina joined the new alliance with fervor, corresponding with various cities and trying to win their support for the revolt. However, there is some doubt over the sincerity of both her new convictions and her political "friendship" with her old enemy. She may in effect have still been Illus' prisoner and acted under his command to preserve her safety. She notably did not join Leontius and Illus in their campaign for Antioch but
20825-607: The replacement of the name of the Abbasid caliph with that of the Fatimid caliph in the Friday prayer in the mosque at Constantinople . This lasted until the long-time vizier Yaqub ibn Killis died in 991. Fatimid caliph Al-Aziz Billah chose to pursue a more aggressive stance in Syria and appointed Manjutakin as governor of Damascus . Encouraged by the defectors after the death of emir Sa'd al-Dawla , Al-Aziz decided to renew his attacks on
21000-429: The right for an emperor to dictate and judge theological doctrine, subsuming the function of an Ecumenical Council , and is worded much like an imperial edict. Although Acacius and Basiliscus had feuded since the first months of his reign, Daniel later played the part of a diplomat, reconciling them near the end of the latter's reign, before Zeno retook Constantinople. All of Basiliscus' religious edicts were annulled by
21175-511: The siege ended the corpse of Verina was recovered and sent to Ariadne for burial. The Georgian Chronicle , a 13th-century compilation drawing from earlier sources, reports a marriage of Vakhtang I of Iberia to Princess Helena of Byzantium, identifying her as a daughter of the predecessor of Zeno. This predecessor was probably Leo I, the tale attributing a third daughter to Verina. Cyril Toumanoff identified two children of this marriage. Mithridates of Iberia and Leo of Iberia. This younger Leo
21350-479: The slow decline of the Byzantine navy during the 11th century. Basil II later secured the annexation of the sub-kingdoms of Armenia and a promise that its capital and surrounding regions would be willed to Byzantium following the death of its king Hovhannes-Smbat . In 1021, he also secured the cession of the Kingdom of Vaspurakan by its king Seneqerim-John , in exchange for estates in Sebasteia . Basil created
21525-570: The submission of the South Slavs created relative peace for the empire's Balkan lands, keeping larger cities—including Constantinople—safe from the previously frequent sieges and looting. Basil's military experience that allowed him to eventually turn the war against Bulgaria in the Byzantine Empire's favor were gained through the revolts of Phokas and Skleros in Anatolia that challenged his throne and sometimes got close to deposing him. Basil's creation of
21700-470: The support of the Eastern Roman Senate . The position of the Patriarch of Constantinople , Acacius , is unclear, although Twardowska considers it likely that he would have withheld support from either side until the outcome was clear. The exact date the conspiracy began is unknown: Salamon argues it began around 473, whereas Twardowska argues it began only after Zeno took sole power. The conspiracy
21875-586: The support of the Isaurians , marrying the Isaurian chieftain Zeno ( r. 474–475, 476–491) to his daughter Ariadne , in exchange for support. This resulted in a significant change to eastern imperial policy, notably ending the policy of ignoring the requests from the West for military aid. After Anthemius ( r. 467–472), Marcian's son-in-law, was installed by Leo as Western emperor on 12 April 467, an embassy
22050-526: The system of immense estates in Asia Minor —which his predecessor Romanos I had endeavored to check —by executing a legal decree in January 996 that limited rights to property ownership. If the owner of an estate could prove that he claimed his estate prior to the Novels of Romanos, he would be allowed to keep it. If a person had illegally seized an estate following the Novels of Romanos, he would have his rights to
22225-486: The throne by marrying Leo's daughter Leontia Porphyrogenita in 470. Historian L. M. Whitby suggests this may have been a ploy to lull Aspar into a sense of security. When anti-German sentiment rose up, Leo first quarreled with Aspar and then had him assassinated over suspicions of conspiracy. Basiliscus supported Leo in his power struggle against Aspar, and subsequently Theodoric Strabo , in 471/472. Aspar and Ardabur were killed in 471, and Patricius, severely wounded,
22400-467: The throne for himself due to his Alanic origins and Arian religious beliefs. Though his family had served in the Roman military for generations, Aspar was still considered a barbarian and the majority of the ruling class of the Eastern Roman Empire had accepted the Nicene Creed . Aspar used his influence in order to become a kingmaker , having earlier engineered the elevation of Marcian who had served
22575-413: The throne in the same year, in a politically precarious position. Verina conspired to install the magister officiorum Patricius , her lover, as emperor. This plot was supported by Basiliscus, who succeeded in recruiting Isaurian brothers Illus and Trocundes , as well as Verina's nephew Armatus . Zeno fled on 9 January 475, either after learning of the plot or after Verina warned him that his life
22750-420: The throne relied on his wife being a Porphyrogenita . In theory Leontia outranking her older sister Ariadne who was born previous to the elevation of her parents to the throne. Marcian and his brothers Procopius and Romulus launched their coup d'état in Constantinople. They were besieging the palace when Illus arrived with reinforcements from Chalcedon . John of Antioch attributes the entire revolt to Verina but
22925-680: The title of magister militum held by Strabo and the payments previously given to the Thracian Goths. It has been suggested that Constantinople was defenseless during Zeno's siege because the Magister Militum Strabo had moved north to counter this menace. The Senate opened the gates of the city to Zeno, allowing the deposed emperor to retake the throne with Ariadne as empress. The brief reign of Basiliscus does not seem to have resulted in lasting hatred between Verina and either Zeno or Ariadne. However it did result in hatred between Verina and
23100-450: The troops in Thrace and Constantinople, as well as the palace guard, and lead them against the three. In spite of his oath of loyalty, Armatus betrayed Basiliscus when Zeno offered to have him made magister militum praesentalis for life, and his son, Basiliscus , crowned as caesar . He allowed Zeno to pass to Constantinople unhindered, deliberately traveling on a different road than
23275-432: The turncoat general Illus . The hagiography of Daniel the Stylite considers Illus responsible for pulling Verina into the initial conspiracy while hiding its actual goals. He was, in her mind, directly or indirectly responsible for the death of Patricius. In 477, a first assassination attempt on Illus was prevented by a slave . Though primary sources do not associate Verina with it, later historians have suggested that this
23450-506: The two powers continued as the Byzantines supported an anti-Fatimid uprising in Tyre . In 998, the Byzantines under Damian Dalassenos , the successor of Bourtzes, launched an attack on Apamea but the Fatimid general Jaysh ibn al-Samsama defeated them in battle on 19 July 998. This defeat drew Basil back into the conflict; he arrived in Syria in October 999 and remained there for three months. Basil's troops raided as far as Heliopolis , placed
23625-462: The two siblings were related to Odoacer , the first barbarian King of Italy . The theory relies on passage 209.1 in the fragmentary chronicle of John of Antioch , a 7th-century monk. The chronicler has been tentatively identified with John of the Sedre , Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch from 641 to 648. The passage records the assassination of Armatus by Onoulphus . Based on interpretation Odoacer
23800-527: The two states. For the remainder of the reign of Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ( r. 996–1021), relations remained peaceful as al-Hakim was more interested in internal affairs. Even the acknowledgement of Fatimid suzerainty by Abu Muhammad Lu'lu' al-Kabir of Aleppo in 1004 and the Fatimid-sponsored installment of Aziz al-Dawla as the city's emir in 1017 did not lead to a resumption of hostilities, especially because al-Kabir continued to pay tribute to
23975-446: The valor of his son Gabriel. Having crushed the Bulgarians, Basil exacted his vengeance cruelly—he was said to have captured 15,000 prisoners and fully blinded 99 of every 100 men, leaving one one-eyed man in each cohort to lead the rest back to their ruler. A possible reason for this vengeance was that, in Byzantine eyes, the Bulgarians were rebels against their authority, and blinding was the usual punishment meted out to rebels. Samuel
24150-518: The village Shirimni at Lake Palakazio on 11 September; the emperor won a costly victory, forcing George I to retreat northwards into his kingdom. Basil plundered the country and withdrew for winter to Trebizond . Several attempts to negotiate the conflict failed. George received reinforcements from the Kakhetians and allied himself with the Byzantine commanders Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos and Nikephoros Xiphias in their abortive insurrection in
24325-463: The war, in order to achieve a compromise with the Vandals. Heather notes that the Romans strongly intended to avoid a naval engagement, and archaeologist George Bass suggests this might be the reason that Basiliscus hesitated to strike the Vandals. Gaiseric assembled a new fleet with a number of fire ships and, aided by good winds, attacked the Roman fleet at the Battle of Cape Bon . The Roman fleet
24500-458: The wealthy military elite of Anatolia , had sufficient means to undertake open rebellion against his authority. Skleros and Phokas, both of whom were experienced generals, wanted to assume the Imperial position that Nikephoros II and John I had held, and thus return Basil to the role of impotent cypher. Basil, showing a penchant for ruthlessness, took to the field himself and suppressed the rebellions of both Skleros (979) and Phokas (989) with
24675-423: Was intercepted near Skopje by a Byzantine army commanded by Basil, whose forces stormed the Bulgarian camp, defeating the Bulgarians and recovering the plunder from Adrianople. Skopje surrendered shortly after the battle, and Basil treated its governor Romanos with overt kindness. In 1005, the governor of Dyrrhachium Ashot Taronites surrendered his city to the Byzantines. The defection of Dyrrhachium completed
24850-419: Was "appearing as the member of one sphere attempting to intrude into the other, rather than using influence and negotiation to achieve his platform", and that he was unaware of his outsider status, causing him to be viewed as "attempting to usurp not only an earthly crown but a spiritual one too." Some historians view it likely that Zenonis influenced Basiliscus towards miaphysitism. Basiliscus had Theoctistus ,
25025-414: Was a strategic location as it was near the port of Utica , which, unlike Carthage, was not blocked off with a chain, and the winds would push opposing ships into the coast. According to historians Michael Kulikowski , Friell, and Williams, Gaiseric feigned interest in peace and proposed a five-day truce, in order to allow himself time to prepare. Basiliscus accepted, possibly in favor of Aspar who opposed
25200-491: Was a type of the higher Byzantine moral character, which retained far more of its Roman than its Greek origin". The modern historian John Julius Norwich wrote of Basil: "No lonelier man ever occupied the Byzantine throne. And it is hardly surprising: Basil was ugly, dirty, coarse, boorish, philistine and almost pathologically mean. He was in short deeply un-Byzantine. He cared only for the greatness of his Empire. No wonder that in his hands it reached its apogee". Basil II
25375-590: Was born in 463. He died five months following his birth. The only sources about him are a horoscope by Rhetorius and a hagiography of Daniel the Stylite . In January, 457 Marcian succumbed to a disease, allegedly gangrene . He was survived by his daughter Euphemia and his son-in-law Anthemius . Leo was at this point the tribune of the Mattiarii, a regiment wielding the mattea ( Latin for mace ) as their weapon. Marcian had been proclaimed an Augustus while marrying Pulcheria , sister of Theodosius II . Due to
25550-409: Was born in 958. He was a porphyrogennetos ("born into the purple"), as were his father Romanos II and his grandfather Constantine VII ; this was the appellation used for children who were born to a reigning emperor. Basil was the eldest son of Romanos and his Laconian Greek second wife Theophano , who was the daughter of a poor tavern-keeper named Krateros and may have originated from
25725-489: Was born prior to the death of Marcian (reigned 450–457). Ariadne had a younger sister, Leontia . Leontia was first betrothed to Julius Patricius , a son of Aspar , but their engagement was probably annulled when Aspar and another of his sons, Ardabur , were assassinated in 471. Leontia then married Marcian , a son of Anthemius and Marcia Euphemia . The couple led a failed revolt against Zeno in 478–479. They were exiled to Isauria following their defeat. An unnamed son
25900-486: Was brother to either Onoulphus alone or to both men. The second interpretation was introduced by Krautschick and has gained the support of (among others) Alexander Demandt and Patrick Amory . Armatus was identified as nephew of Verina and Basiliscus in other Byzantine sources, including a hagiography of Daniel the Stylite and the Suda . The theory would make both Onoulphus and Odoacer nephews of Verina and Basiliscus. However
26075-449: Was commonly thought at the time to be the result of poisoning with hemlock ; the chroniclers Leo the Deacon and John Skylitzes imply that Theophano was responsible, and according to Skylitzes, she had been complicit in an earlier attempt by Romanos II to poison Constantine VII. Basil and Constantine were too young to rule in their own right when Romanos died in 963. Therefore, although
26250-536: Was controlled by Bulgaria before the invasion of Svyatoslav. He also conducted damaging raids into Byzantine territory as far as central Greece. In 996, the Byzantine general Nikephoros Ouranos defeated a Bulgarian army raid at the Battle of Spercheios in Thessaly . Samuel and his son Gabriel narrowly escaped capture. Beginning in 1000, Basil was free to focus on a war of conquest against Bulgaria, which he fought with grinding persistence and strategic insight. In 1000,
26425-466: Was crowned at the Hebdomon palace . He immediately had his son, Marcus, crowned as Caesar , and later co-emperor, while his wife was crowned Augusta and Patricius was executed. Zeno took residence in the fortress of Olba , and later Sbida . Illus and Trocundes were sent by Basiliscus to lay siege to Zeno's fortress, and capturing Longinus, whom Illus would not release until 485. Basiliscus quickly lost support in Constantinople, through
26600-430: Was crowned emperor. On 20 September, Phokas married Theophano, but problems resulted; it was a second marriage for each spouse and Nikephoros was thought to be the godfather of Basil or his brother, perhaps both. Although Polyeuctus , the patriarch of Constantinople , disapproved of the marriage, the Church declared it to be valid. With it, Nikephoros secured his legitimacy and became the guardian of Romanos' sons. He
26775-410: Was destroyed. Subsequently, the Byzantines occupied southern Crimea. The integrity of the Byzantine Empire was threatened after a full-scale rebellion led by Bardas Skleros broke out in 976. After winning a series of battles, the rebels conquered Asia Minor. In the urgency of the situation, Georgian prince David III of Tao aided Basil; after a decisive loyalist victory at the Battle of Pankaleia , he
26950-533: Was discovered by Basiliscus, and only the intercession of Armatus spared her life. In 476, both Illus and Armatus defected to the side of Zeno, who, in August, besieged Constantinople. Theodoric the Amal (later known as Theodoric the Great ), the leader of the Pannonian Goths, had allied to Zeno. Theodoric would have attacked Basiliscus and his Thracian Goth foederati led by Theodoric Strabo, receiving, in exchange,
27125-408: Was father of Guaram I of Iberia . The accuracy of the descent is unknown. Basiliscus Basiliscus ( Ancient Greek : Βασιλίσκος , romanized : Basilískos ; died 476/477) was Eastern Roman emperor from 9 January 475 to August 476. He became magister militum per Thracias in 464, under his brother-in-law, Emperor Leo I ( r. 457–474). Basiliscus commanded
27300-410: Was held in 475, presided over by Timothy Ailuros, which officially condemned the Council of Chalcedon, and a synodical letter was sent to Basiliscus requesting that Patriarch Acacius be stripped of his role. Historian Richard Price argues that Basiliscus' association with Timothy Ailuros also reduced his support as some rumors suggested that Timothy had a role in the murder of Proterius of Alexandria ,
27475-480: Was in danger. Although Patricius was Verina's intended successor, Basiliscus convinced the Eastern Roman Senate to acclaim him instead. Basiliscus quickly lost the support of his subjects and of his allies in court. Verina was alienated by the execution of Patricius, while the people objected to a combination of heavy taxes, heretical policies, and a natural disaster viewed as divine wrath for said heretical views. In an attempt to increase support, Basiliscus embraced
27650-478: Was indeed the case. In 478, a second assassination attempt on Illus was prevented by Epinicus, a long-time favourite of Verina. Epinicus allowed Illus custody of the prisoner and the interrogation resulted in a confession implicating Verina. Illus recuperated from the attack in his native Isauria and reportedly refused to return to Constantinople while Verina was still residing in the Palace. Zeno agreed to banish her from
27825-494: Was motivated by personal hatred, and Ernest Walter Brooks , historian and scholar of the Syriac language, suggests the Isaurian background of Zeno directly caused the hatred of Verina and the people. Historians Kamilla Twardowska and W. D. Burgess argue that his ethnicity likely exacerbated existing hatred, but did not solely cause it. Twardowska also dismisses Evagrius Scholasticus ' suggestions, especially that of him leading
28000-469: Was murdered in December 969 by Theophano and his nephew John Tzimiskes , who then became emperor John I and exiled Theophano. John married Theodora , a sister of Romanos II. Basil II acceded to the throne as effective ruler and senior emperor when John died on 10 January 976. He immediately had his mother brought back from her convent. Basil was a very successful soldier on horseback and through his achievement he proved himself to be an able general and
28175-532: Was not content in the role of a widow. According to both Candidus and John of Antioch, she found a lover in the person of Patricius, a former Praetorian prefect . Verina had originally supported Zeno while the young emperor Leo II was still alive. Not long after her grandson's death, Verina turned against her son-in-law. She still retained imperial status with a portion of the palace for herself, but she still harbored ambitions for her former position. John Malalas attributes her hostility to an argument between them over
28350-399: Was popular with the country farmers, the class that produced most of his army's supplies and soldiers. To assure this continued, Basil's laws protected small agrarian property owners and lowered their taxes. Despite the almost constant wars, Basil's reign was considered an era of relative prosperity for the class. Seeking to protect the lower and middle classes, Basil made ruthless war upon
28525-520: Was proclaimed Caesar in October, 473 and effectively became the designated heir to the throne by virtue of being the closest male relative of Leo I. On 18 January 474, Leo I died of dysentery . Their grandson immediately succeeded him. Verina remained at the Palace. Since Leo II was too young to rule himself, Verina and Ariadne prevailed upon him to crown Zeno as co-emperor, which he did on February 9, 474. When Leo became ill and died on November 17, Zeno became sole emperor with Ariadne as empress. Verina
28700-489: Was rewarded by lifetime rule of key imperial territories in eastern Asia Minor. David's rebuff of Basil in Bardas Phokas' revolt of 987, however, evoked Constantinople's distrust of the Georgian rulers. After the revolt's failure, David was forced to make Basil the legatee of his extensive possessions. In 1001, after the death of David of Tao, Basil inherited Tao, Phasiane and Speri . These provinces were then organized into
28875-412: Was routed by the combination of the fire ships, bad winds, and surprise, with half of it being destroyed. Basiliscus fled with the remainder of the fleet to Sicily, to consolidate with Marcellinus's forces; their morale and supply might have brought a victory, but Marcellinus was assassinated, possibly on Ricimer 's orders. Heraclius, who had not yet reached Carthage, returned to the Eastern Roman Empire by
29050-581: Was sent to the Vandal King Gaiseric , to inform him as well as warn him not to interfere in Italy or the Western Roman throne; Gaiseric accused them of violating a prior treaty, possibly enacted in 433, and prepared for war. Rumors may have spread in Constantinople that the Vandals were preparing an invasion of Alexandria . As a result of this, in 468 Basiliscus was given command of an expedition against
29225-472: Was sent to the fortress of Papyrius in Isauria. The revolt failed to gain sufficient support and the rebels had to withdraw from Antioch back to Papyrius. Zeno sent an army including both Romans and Ostrogoths under John the Scythian which managed to defeat them. The fort was besieged from 484 to 488. Verina died early in the siege Whether her death was violent or not is uncertain. According to Malalas, when
29400-402: Was stripped of his position as caesar and divorced from Leontia. After this, Zeno gained more power over the court. Theodoric Strabo attempted to avenge Aspar and marched against Constantinople, but was pushed back by Basiliscus and Zeno. A little later, he sent a series of demands to Leo in the capital and attacked Arcadiopolis and Philipopolis , but was forced to negotiate soon after due
29575-521: Was stripped of his rank for voicing his suspicions, but historians A. H. M. Jones , John Robert Martindale , and John Morris state that this is almost certainly a confusion relating to the disgrace of Ardabur , his son, who had informed the Sassanid Empire of Roman military weakness. Aspar regained power after the failure of the African invasion, and his son Patricius became the presumptive heir to
29750-404: Was struck down by the sight of his blinded army and died two days later on 6 October 1014 after suffering a stroke. Bulgaria fought on for four more years, its resistance fired by Basil's cruelty, but it submitted in 1018. This submission was the result of continued military pressure and a successful diplomatic campaign aimed at dividing and suborning the Bulgarian leadership. This victory over
29925-411: Was successful, as Zeno fled to his native Isauria on 9 January 475, either after learning of the conspiracy or after being convinced by Verina that his life was in danger, taking with him a number of companions and funds. Many remaining Isuarians were massacred in Constantinople when news of his flight spread. Basiliscus convinced the senate to acclaim him emperor, instead of Patricius, and Basiliscus
30100-436: Was supported initially by the elites of the Eastern Roman Empire, he never gained much popularity amongst the common people, weakening his legitimacy; his conflicts with Acacius reduced his support from the people of Constantinople, who were heavily Chalcedonian. The near-bankruptcy of the empire forced Basiliscus to levy extensive taxes and to sell off public positions for money. He utilized the praefectus urbi Epinicus ,
30275-485: Was the brother of a barbarian named Odoacer , Basiliscus was therefore also the uncle of Odoacer and thus a barbarian; this argument has been opposed by historians Wolfram Brandes , and Hugh Elton . Elton remarks that Krautschick's argument relies upon a single fragmentary Greek source, making his argument acceptable, but ignores the total lack of contemporary sources mentioning his ethnicity or relationship to Odoacer. Basiliscus married Zenonis , and with her produced
30450-604: Was the successful and widely popular general Nikephoros Phokas , who had just returned from his conquest of the Emirate of Crete and a highly successful raid into Cilicia and Syria , which culminated in the sack of Aleppo . Phokas was proclaimed emperor by his men in July and marched on Constantinople. Bringas tried to bring in troops to stop his rival's advance, but the capital's populace supported Nikephoros. Bringas fled, leaving his post to Lekapenos, and on 16 August 963 Nikephoros Phokas
30625-514: Was very unpopular, among both the common people and the senatorial class, in part simply because he was an Isaurian, a race which had acquired a poor reputation under Emperor Arcadius ( r. 383–408), and also because his rule would induce a promotion of fellow Isaurians to high positions. Although Verina had supported Zeno's elevation as co-emperor to Leo II, she turned against him once he became sole emperor. The causes for this are disputed. The Byzantists Bury and Ernst Stein suggest this
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