176-766: Vembanad ( Malayalam: [ʋeːmbɐnaːɖə̆] ) is the longest lake in India, as well as the largest in the state of Kerala . The lake has an area of 230 square kilometers and a maximum length of 89.5 km. Spanning three districts in the state of Kerala, it is known as Vembanad Lake in Kottayam , Vaikom , Changanassery , Punnamada Lake in Alappuzha , Punnappra , Kuttanadu and Kochi Lake in Kochi . Several groups of small islands including Vypin , Mulavukad , Maradu , Udayamperoor , Vallarpadam , and Willingdon Island are located in
352-495: A Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam . A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention
528-582: A unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms. The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house. The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and
704-456: A 12-month period. It is, however, costly and requires the use of both land and water vehicles, but many years were needed for the lake to become in poor condition, and reclamation will be a continual process. It can have an annual cost from $ 6 million to $ 20 million and is only considered a short-term solution to a long-term problem. Another disadvantage with mechanical harvesting is that it can lead to further fragmentation of water hyacinths when
880-601: A bold solution was put forth by the New Foods Society . Their plan was to import and release hippopotamus from Africa into the rivers and bayous of Louisiana. The hippopotamus would then eat the water hyacinth and also produce meat to solve another serious problem at the time, the American meat crisis. Known as the American Hippo Bill, H.R. 23621 was introduced by Louisiana Congressman Robert Broussard and debated by
1056-474: A capacity of 40 m , per day, for 365 days to get rid of it. The water hyacinth would then be transferred to a dumping site and allowed to decompose, which releases CO 2 , methane , and nitrogen oxides. Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and New Zealand . In many areas, it has become an important and pernicious invasive species . In New Zealand, it
1232-534: A continuation of the Mysore Plateau , are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka . Minerals including Ilmenite , Monazite , Thorium , and Titanium , are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium -containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on
1408-502: A developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils , became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis , with each province comprising
1584-427: A hundredfold in number in a matter of 23 days. In their native range, the flowers are pollinated by long-tongued bees, and the plants can reproduce both sexually and clonally. The invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone itself, and large patches are likely to all be part of the same genetic form. Water hyacinth has three flower morphs and is termed " tristylous ". The flower morphs are named for
1760-401: A matter of concern, stating that the crew of the spraying boat would routinely catch fish from their working areas and consume them. However, spraying had little hope of completely eradicating the water hyacinth, due to the vastness of escaped colonies and the inaccessibility of some of the infested areas, and the engineer suggested that some biological means of control may be needed. In 1910,
1936-501: A number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis . Mamankam festival , which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram , on the bank of river Bharathappuzha . Athavanad , the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal , who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya. Sulaiman al-Tajir ,
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#17330858767542112-427: A package of those seeds. One paper has also inquired into the role which catalog sales of seeds and plants may have played in the dissemination of invasive plants. P. crassipes was found to have been offered in the 1884 issue of Bordentown, New Jersey –based Edmund D. Sturtevant's Catalogue of Rare Water Lilies and Other Choice Aquatic Plants , and Haage & Schmidt [ de ] of Germany has offered
2288-527: A piece penned in 1941 by the director of the wildlife and fisheries division at the Louisiana Department of Conservation, where the author writes, "the Japanese government maintained a Japanese building" at the fair, and the "Japanese staff imported from Venezuela considerable numbers of water hyacinth, which were given away as souvenirs". The claim has been repeated by later writers, with various shifts in
2464-583: A prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100 CE . In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin . They united to form
2640-406: A researcher devoted to the study of the plant has discovered that ukiyo-e artist Utagawa Kunisada (or Utagawa Toyokuni III, d. 1865 ) produced a wood-block print featuring the water hyacinth, goldfish, and beautiful women , dated to 1855. The plant is floated on the water surface of filled (glassware) fishbowls or glazed earthenware waterlily pots ( hibachi pots serving as substitute). In
2816-477: A revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion (US$ 240 million). Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in
2992-621: A serious problem on Lake Tana in Ethiopia. The water hyacinth is also present on the Shire River in the Liwonde National Park in Malawi. The water hyacinth was introduced to Bengal , India, because of its ornamental flowers and shapes of leaves, but became an invasive weed, draining oxygen from the water bodies and resulting in devastation of fish stocks. The water hyacinth was referred to as
3168-533: A small island called Pathiramanal , which can be accessed only via a boat. Other major attraction is the island of Kakkathuruth . The Vembanad Wetland system has formed an intricate network of estuaries , lagoons and canals which spans over 196 km in the north–south and 29 km in the east–west directions. Almost all villages in these areas can be accessed via water transport. The major rivers of Muvattupuzha, Meenachil, Pamba and Achencovil rivers, are all navigable up to distances of about 30 km upstream in
3344-586: A strong service sector. In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA , compared to 28% by secondary sector , and 8% by primary sector . In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one. The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry , tourism , Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology , transportation , financial sector, and education . Major initiatives under
3520-559: Is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The Matsya Purana , among
3696-676: Is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of Kozhikode , Palakkad , Fort Kochi , Kannur , and Thalassery , were founded on 1 November 1866 of
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#17330858767543872-466: Is a liquid bromide salt that can rapidly penetrate the leaves of the water hyacinth and lead to immediate inactivity of plant cells and cellular processes. The herbicide glyphosate has a lower toxicity than the other herbicides, so takes longer for the water hyacinth mats to be destroyed (about three weeks). The symptoms include steady wilting of the plants and a yellow discoloration of the plant leaves that eventually leads to plant decay. Physical control
4048-530: Is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani , Tanur , Beypore - Chaliyam - Kadalundi - Vallikkunnu , and Koyilandy . Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to
4224-617: Is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by
4400-702: Is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha
4576-510: Is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The Chera dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been
4752-537: Is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and
4928-551: Is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta , Ashtamudi Lake , Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands , and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve . Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover
5104-408: Is greater than 15% that of sea water (around 5 g salt per kg). In brackish water , its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis , and eventually die. Rafts of harvested water hyacinth have been floated to the sea , which kills it. Azotobacter chroococcum , a species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria , is probably concentrated around the bases of the petioles , but the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless
5280-582: Is home to more than 20,000 waterfowls – the third largest such population in India. It is also an ideal habitat for shrimp. Kerala Kerala ( English: / ˈ k ɛr ə l ə / / KERR -ə-lə ; Malayalam: [keːɾɐɭɐm] ), is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act , by combining Malayalam -speaking regions of
5456-422: Is limited. These organisms regulate water hyacinth by limiting its size, vegetative propagation, and seed production. They also carry microorganisms that can be pathological to the water hyacinth. These weevils eat stem tissue, which results in a loss of buoyancy for the plant, which will eventually sink. Although meeting with limited success, the weevils have since been released in many other countries. However,
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5632-723: Is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord , which prevents it from being propagated, distributed, or sold. In large water areas such as Louisiana, the Kerala Backwaters in India , Tonlé Sap in Cambodia , and Lake Victoria , it has become a serious pest. The common water hyacinth has become an invasive plant species on Lake Victoria in Africa after it was introduced into the area in the 1980s. A 1.22 Gb/8 chromosome reference genome
5808-407: Is located on the east coast of the lake. During the months of August and September, the rivers in and near Kottayam turn into activity and attraction centers due to these boat races, a Kerala Tradition. Snake boat races - the lakes and rivers come alive during Onam with this water sport. It's a sight to watch oarsmen (about a hundred in one boat), slice their way through the backwaters. The lake has
5984-764: Is now protected from clearfelling . Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests , which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur . Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds , 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation , and resource extraction. In
6160-428: Is performed by land-based machines, such as bucket cranes, draglines, or boom, or by water-based machinery such as aquatic weed harvesters , dredges , or vegetation shredder. Mechanical removal is seen as the best short-term solution to the proliferation of the plant. A project on Lake Victoria in Africa used various pieces of equipment to chop, collect, and dispose of 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres) of water hyacinth in
6336-533: Is rearing M. scutellaris and the water hyacinth weevils N. eichhorniae and N. bruchi en masse for biological control at dams in South Africa, including the Hartbeespoort Dam . The moth Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) has been introduced to North America, Africa, and Australia. Larvae of this moth bore in the stems and flower buds of water hyacinth. Since water hyacinth
6512-462: Is separated from the Laccadive Sea by a narrow barrier island . Canals link the lake to other coastal lakes in the north and south. The lake surrounds the islands of Pathiramanal , Perumbalam and Pallippuram . The Vembanad Lake is approximately 14 kilometers wide at its widest point. The lake is a part of the Vembanad-Kol wetland system which extends from Alappuzha in the south to Azheekkode in
6688-424: Is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs , Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices . The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen , Oman , and
6864-444: Is the largest shopping mall in India. Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. Water hyacinth Pontederia crassipes (formerly Eichhornia crassipes ), commonly known as common water hyacinth , is an aquatic plant native to South America , naturalized throughout
7040-537: Is the largest mud regulator in India and essentially divides the lake into two parts – one with perennial brackish water and the other with fresh water from rivers draining into the lake. This barrier has helped farmers in Kuttanad by freeing the area of salinity and allowing them an additional crop in the dry season. The Thanneermukkom barrier is located at one of the narrower parts of the Vembanad Lake. Only two-thirds of
7216-405: Is the largest of the three Ramsar Sites in the state of Kerala. Vembanad Lake has been heavily reclaimed over the course of the past century with the water spread area reducing from 290.85 km in 1917 to 227 km in 1971 and 213.28 km in 1990. In the same period almost 63.62 km of erstwhile water spread were reclaimed primarily for the formation of polders and to enlarge the extent of
Vembanad - Misplaced Pages Continue
7392-449: Is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities. The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy . Kerala has
7568-638: Is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka . Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics. The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar , synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra . Kerala
7744-419: Is the least used of the three controls of water hyacinth, because of its long-term effects on the environment and human health. The use of herbicides requires strict approval from governmental protection agencies and skilled technicians to handle and spray the affected areas. The use of chemical herbicides is only used in case of severe infiltration of water hyacinth. However, the most successful use of herbicides
7920-561: Is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats . Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions:
8096-416: Is when it is used for smaller areas of infestation, because in larger areas, more mats of water hyacinths are likely to survive the herbicides and can fragment to further propagate a large area of water hyacinth mats. In addition, it is more cost-effective and less laborious than mechanical control, yet it can lead to environmental effects, as it can penetrate into the ground water system and can affect not only
8272-518: The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India , the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats , 152 Block panchayats , 941 Grama Panchayats , 87 Municipalities , six Municipal Corporations and one Township . Mahé , a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry , though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,
8448-492: The Achankovil River ; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta , they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state
8624-585: The Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to
8800-534: The Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District ) in South Canara , and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district , and Shenkottai taluks). Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in
8976-667: The Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty . Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja , who had popular support in Thalassery - Wayanad region. After India
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#17330858767549152-478: The British Indian Empire , making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal , Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. The first Municipal Corporation founded after
9328-558: The Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary , who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of
9504-471: The Dravidian word Mala ('hill'). Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE ) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar . Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar , Manibar , Mulibar , and Munibar . Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills . According to William Logan ,
9680-675: The High and Late Middle Ages . However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery . After Vasco Da Gama 's arrival in Kappad , Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled
9856-505: The Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft). The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls , which is situated on
10032-564: The Idukki district , which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats . They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala. The studies point to
10208-660: The Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021 . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep . In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by
10384-582: The Leader of the Opposition . According to the Constitution of India , Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy ; universal suffrage is granted to residents. After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy . The "Kerala phenomenon" or " Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from
10560-891: The Persian Gulf , must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries . They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East . The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad , and controlled
10736-443: The Travancore Royal Family , and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in
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#173308587675410912-400: The United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress ; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election , the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is
11088-516: The United States Army Corps of Engineers to solve the water hyacinth problem plaguing Gulf states such as Florida and Louisiana. Thus, in the early 20th century, the U.S. War Department (i.e., the Army Corps of Engineers) tested various means of eradicating the plants, including the jet-streaming of steam and hot water, application of various strong acids , and application of petroleum followed by incineration. Spraying with saturated salt solution (but not dilute solutions) effectively killed
11264-421: The "(beautiful) blue devil" in Bengal and "Bengal terror" elsewhere in India; it was called "German weed" (Bengali: Germani pana ) in Bangladesh out of belief the German Kaiser submarine mission was involved in introducing them at the outbreak of World War I. Concerted efforts were made to eradicate water hyacinths, which affected navigability in Bengal's rivers. The Bengal Water Hyacinth Act, 1936 prohibited
11440-421: The 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in
11616-406: The 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism , to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism . The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas . However, in
11792-592: The 1930s, water hyacinth was introduced into China as a feed , ornamental plant , and sewage -control plant, and it was widely planted in the south as an animal feed. Beginning in the 1980s, with the rapid development of China's inland industry, the eutrophication of inland waters has intensified. With the help of its efficient asexual reproduction and environmental adaptation mechanisms, water hyacinth began to spread widely in river basins. The hyacinths has blocked rivers and hindered water traffic. For example, many waterways in Zhejiang and other provinces have been blocked by
11968-410: The 1950s. Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries , mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$ 11.3 billion, which
12144-422: The 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio , 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog 's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India 's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy . Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in
12320-401: The Agricultural Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives. The chief collaborators in the New Foods Society and proponents of Broussard's bill were Major Frederick Russell Burnham , the celebrated American Scout , and Captain Fritz Duquesne , a South African Scout who later became a notorious spy for Germany. Presenting before the Agricultural Committee, Burnham made the point that none of
12496-417: The Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos . The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis , was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period . The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris , as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode . Its exact location
12672-566: The European Union banned any sales of the water hyacinth in the EU. The species features on the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. This means that not only the sales but also importation, cultivation, or intentional release into the environment are forbidden in the whole of the European Union. In Papua New Guinea , water hyacinth blocks sunlight to other aquatic organisms, creates habitat for malaria-carrying mosquitoes, clogs waterways to
12848-759: The French in 1785. In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode , the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore . In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar region ) including Kolathunadu , Kottayam , Kadathanadu , Kozhikode , Tanur , Valluvanad , and Palakkad were unified under
13024-657: The Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden. In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur ),
13200-517: The Kochi Lake portion. Kochi Port is built around Willingdon Island and Vallarpadam island. Kuttanad , also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala , has the lowest altitude in India , and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. Kuttanad lies on the southern portion of Vembanad. The Nehru Trophy Boat Race is conducted in a portion of the lake. High levels of pollution have been noticed at certain hotspots of
13376-635: The Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia . The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates . The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in
13552-529: The Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala
13728-543: The Vembanad backwaters. The Government of India has identified the Vembanad wetland under the National Wetlands Conservation Programme. The Vembanad lake is 96.5 km long, making it the longest lake in India. The area of Vembanad backwater shrunk from 230 km in 1968 to 179.25 km as of 1983. The lake is bordered by Alappuzha , Kottayam , and Ernakulam districts. It is situated at sea level, and
13904-542: The Wellington island of Cochin port. The lake faces a major ecological crisis and has reduced to 37 percent of its original area, as a result of land reclamation. A unique characteristic of the lake is the 1,252 metres (4,108 ft)-long Thanneermukkom salt water barrier constructed as a part of the Kuttanad Development Scheme to prevent tidal action and intrusion of salt water into the Kuttanad low-lands. It
14080-487: The Western Ghats' rain shadow . 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad ; hence also known Pal ghat , where the Palakkad Gap breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet ) above sea level , while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet). Anamudi in
14256-651: The Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort . An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon . The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom , near Kannur , who were the vassals of the Kolathiri , ruled over the Lakshadweep islands. The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod , which is also largest fort in the state,
14432-699: The animals that Americans ate (chickens, pigs, cattle, sheep, or lambs) were native to the U.S. and had all been imported by European settlers centuries before, so Americans should not hesitate to introduce hippopotamus and other large animals into the American diet. Duquesne, who was born and raised in South Africa, further noted that European settlers on that continent commonly included hippopotamus, ostrich, antelope, and other African wildlife in their diets and suffered no ill effects. The American Hippo Bill fell one vote short of passage. Water hyacinths have also been introduced into waters inhabited by manatees in Florida, for
14608-543: The background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India . It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad , Malappuram ( Chaliyar valley at Nilambur ), and Palakkad ( Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and
14784-569: The backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km (77 sq mi) in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar ; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha ; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba ; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar ; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam ; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and
14960-471: The battle of Purakkad in 1755. In 1761, the British captured Mahé , and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu . The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé . In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to
15136-500: The bottom of the water, causing secondary pollution to the water body, destroying the natural water quality, and may even affect the quality of residents' drinking water in severe cases. Water where water hyacinth grows heavily is often a breeding place for disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes and snails ) and harmful pathogens, posing a potential threat to the health of local residents. It is very critical to monitor areas quickly that are infested in order to efficiently reduce or control
15312-586: The central government. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance. This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat. The Acts define clear powers for these institutions. For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization. Currently,
15488-497: The coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr. Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries , and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters . Kuttanad , also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala , has the lowest altitude in India , and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake Vembanad , dominates
15664-802: The coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats . Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. As of 2004 , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal , and 159 are threatened . Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km ), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km and 100 km , respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate ( shola ) forests (highest elevations—100 km ). Altogether, 24% of Kerala
15840-487: The country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India . The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English . Hinduism is practised by more than half of
16016-496: The cultivation of the plants. By 1947, the problem was resolved, and navigability was restored to the rivers, although the plants still exist in wetlands. Water hyacinths were called "Japanese trouble" in Sri Lanka because there was a rumor that the British had planted them to entice Japanese aircraft to land on the insecure pads. The plant entered Japan in 1884 for horticultural appreciation, according to conventional wisdom, but
16192-615: The department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary / Principal Secretary Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The judiciary consists of
16368-577: The details. Thus National Academy of Sciences fellow Noel D. Vietmeyer (1975) wrote that "Japanese entrepreneurs" introduced the plant into the U.S., and the plants had been "collected from the Orinoco River in Venezuela." This claim was echoed by a pair of NASA researchers ( Wolverton & McDonald 1979 ), who asserted that the souvenir plants were carelessly dumped in various waterways. Canadian biologist Spencer C. H. Barrett (2004) meanwhile favored
16544-551: The development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age . Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it
16720-593: The earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504) . However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut . The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida
16896-517: The earliest glimpses of life in the city. Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ( Zheng He ) states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of
17072-511: The eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of
17248-402: The effects of the biological control agent in extensive host-range studies since 2006 and concluded that the insect is highly host-specific and will not pose a threat to any other plant population other than the targeted water hyacinth. Researchers also hope that this biological control will be more resilient than existing biological controls and the herbicides that are already in place to combat
17424-489: The environment. Therefore, the process is very time-intensive. As chemical and mechanical removals are often too expensive, polluting, and ineffective, researchers have turned to biological control agents to deal with water hyacinth. The effort began in the 1970s, when USDA researchers released into the United States three species of weevils known to feed on water hyacinth, Neochetina bruchi , N. eichhorniae , and
17600-434: The erstwhile regions of Cochin , Malabar , South Canara , and Travancore . Spread over 38,863 km (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area . It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census , Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population . It
17776-436: The far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi , and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles. The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad , which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district . The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of
17952-441: The fastest-growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of runners or stolons , which eventually form daughter plants. Each plant additionally can produce thousands of seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years. Common water hyacinths are vigorous growers, and mats can double in size in one to two weeks. In terms of plant count rather than size, they are said to multiply by more than
18128-628: The first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in);
18304-458: The forests, sonokeling , Dalbergia latifolia , anjili , mullumurikku , Erythrina , and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo , wild black pepper, wild cardamom , the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides . Indian elephant , Bengal tiger , Indian leopard , Nilgiri tahr , common palm civet , and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in
18480-1225: The forests. Reptiles include the king cobra , viper , python , and mugger crocodile . Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon , the great hornbill , Kerala laughingthrush , darter and southern hill myna . In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu , Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi ; orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis . The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks , which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages. Since
18656-504: The growth of these species. On the other hand, water hyacinth can also provide a food source for goldfish, keep water clean and help to provide oxygen. The invasion of water hyacinth also has socioeconomic consequences. Since water hyacinth is composed of up to 95% water, its evapotranspiration rate is high. As such, small lakes that have been covered with the species can dry out and leave communities without adequate water or food supply. In some areas, dense mats of water hyacinth prevent
18832-464: The hydrological cycle within an ecosystem, but also negatively affect the local water system and human health. Also of note, the use of herbicides is not strictly selective of water hyacinths; keystone species and vital organisms such as microalgae can perish from the toxins and can disrupt fragile food webs. The chemical regulation of water hyacinths can be done using common herbicides such as 2,4-D, glyphosate , and diquat. The herbicides are sprayed on
19008-400: The independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962. There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur , and Kannur . The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA
19184-541: The industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard , shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops . Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as coconut , tea , coffee , pepper , natural rubber , cardamom , and cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since
19360-467: The introduced range. Further, the genomic study also revealed the adaptation in four key pathways; plant-pathogen interaction, plant-hormone signal transduction, photosynthesis and abiotic stress tolerance, which provide water hyacinth to expand its niche and compete with other native flora Various accounts are given as to how the water hyacinth was introduced to the United States . The claim that
19536-426: The invasive water hyacinth. Another insect being considered as a biological control agent is the semiaquatic grasshopper Cornops aquaticum . This insect is specific to the water hyacinth and its family, and besides feeding on the plant, it introduces a secondary pathogenic infestation. This grasshopper has been introduced into South Africa in controlled trials. The Rhodes University Centre for Biological Control
19712-569: The king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498. The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during
19888-491: The lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology). Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea
20064-586: The late 18th to early 19th century during Muhammad Ali of Egypt 's era, but was not recognized as an invasive threat until 1879. The invasion into Egypt is dated between 1879 and 1892 by Brij Gopal . The plant (Afrikaans: waterhiasint ) arguably invaded South Africa in 1910, although earlier dates have been claimed. A waterbody extensively threatened by water hyacinth is the Hartebeespoort Dam near Brits in North West Province . The plant
20240-406: The leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars , which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan , who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature , was born at Tirur ( Vettathunadu ) during Portuguese period. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by
20416-573: The legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal). According to the legend, Rayar , the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats , invaded Kerala during
20592-565: The length of their pistils: long (L), medium (M), and short (S). Tristylous populations are, however, limited to the native lowland South American range of water hyacinth; in the introduced range, the M-morph prevails, with the L-morph occurring occasionally and the S-morph is absent altogether. This geographical distribution of the floral morphs indicates that founder events have played a prominent role in
20768-469: The major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen. The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to
20944-448: The most effective control method remains the control of excessive nutrients and prevention of the spread of this species. In May 2010, the USDA's Agricultural Research Service released Megamelus scutellaris as an additional biological control insect for the invasive water hyacinth species. M. scutellaris is a small planthopper insect native to Argentina. Researchers have been studying
21120-503: The mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation : the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in
21296-500: The north, making it by far India's longest lake at just over 96.5 km in length. The lake is fed by 10 rivers flowing into it including the six major rivers of central Kerala namely the Achenkovil , Manimala , Meenachil river , Muvattupuzha river , Pamba and Periyar . The total area drained by the lake is 15,770 km, which accounts for 40% of the area of Kerala. Its annual surface runoff of 21,900 Mm accounts for almost 30% of
21472-600: The oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu , the first man and the king of the region. Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth. The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings ) of Kerala. The validity of
21648-450: The original number of gates are opened in July to release flood flow. These gates remain closed until mid-November. The main drawback of the structure has been the loss of opportunity for fish and prawns to migrate upstream, and also an increase in weed growth in the upstream, severely restricting the natural flushing of pollutants. The Thanneermukkom bund has created ecological problems, primarily,
21824-499: The permission to "die, and kill, and seize"). A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery , thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of
22000-843: The plant is suffering extreme nitrogen deficiency. Fresh plants contain prickly crystals . This plant is reported to contain hydrogen cyanide , alkaloids , and triterpenoids , and may induce itching . Plants sprayed with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) may accumulate lethal doses of nitrates and other harmful elements in polluted environments . Water hyacinth grows and reproduces quickly, so it can cover large portions of ponds and lakes. It can easily coexist with other invasive plants and native plants in an area. Particularly vulnerable are bodies of water that have already been affected by human activities, such as artificial reservoirs or eutrophied lakes that receive large amounts of nutrients. It outcompetes native aquatic plants, both floating and submerged. In 2011, Wu Fuqin et al. tracked
22176-446: The plant since 1864 (when the firm was founded). By 1895, it was offered by seed purveyors in the states of New Jersey, New York, California, and Florida. Harper's Weekly magazine (1895) printed an anecdotal account stating that a certain man from New Orleans collected and brought home water hyacinths from Colombia, around 1892, and the plant proliferated in a matter of 2 years. As the hyacinths multiply into mats, they eliminate
22352-413: The plant's propensity for absorbing contaminants, and it is considered toxic to humans. Furthermore, the practice of mechanical harvesting is not effective in large-scale infestations, because this aquatic invasive species grows much more rapidly than it can be eliminated. Only one to two acres ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 ha) of water hyacinth can be mechanically harvested daily because of the vast amounts in
22528-410: The plants are broken up by spinning cutters of the plant-harvesting machinery. The fragments of water hyacinth that are left behind in the water can easily reproduce asexually and cause another infestation. Transportation and disposal of the harvested water hyacinth is a challenge, though, because the vegetation is heavy in weight. The harvested water hyacinth can pose a health risk to humans because of
22704-401: The plants; unfortunately this was considered prohibitively expensive, and the engineers selected Harvesta brand herbicide, whose active ingredient was arsenic acid , as the optimal cost-effective tool for eradication. This herbicide was used until 1905, when it was substituted with a different, white arsenic –based compound. An engineer charged with the spraying did not think the poison to be
22880-477: The point that boats cannot get through, and reduces the quality of water for purposes such as cooking, washing, and drinking. People have lost income or even died due to being unable to travel to get food or medical care, or due to diseases from contaminated water or mosquitoes. Control depends on the specific conditions of each affected location such as the extent of water hyacinth infestation, regional climate, and proximity to human and wildlife. Chemical control
23056-468: The population, followed by Islam and Christianity . In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹ 8.55 trillion (US$ 100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹ 222,000 (US$ 2,700). In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA , while the primary sector contributed only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to
23232-477: The port of Muziris , but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris , between the Cheras and the Roman Empire . The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. Pliny
23408-443: The presence of fish, and choke waterways for boating and shipping. This effect was well underway in the state of Louisiana by the turn of the 20th century. The plant invaded Florida in 1890, and an estimated 50 kg/m of the plant mass choked Florida's waterways. The clogging of the St. Johns River was posing a serious threat, and in 1897 the government dispatched a task force of
23584-514: The purpose of bioremediation (cf. §Phytoremediation below) of the waters that have become contaminated and fallen victim to algal blooming . The manatees include the water hyacinth in their diet, but it may not be the food of first choice for them. In 1956, E. crassipes was banned for sale or shipment in the United States, subject to a fine and/or imprisonment. This law was repealed by HR133 [116th Congress (2019–2020)] on 12/27/2020. The water hyacinth may have been introduced into Egypt in
23760-496: The rampant propagation of the water hyacinth in fresh water. The lake has become a major tourist attraction. A generally safe destination, this place had just one incident of tourist harassment in 2004 as reported in The Times of India . Vembanad Lake is at the heart of Kerala Backwaters tourism with hundreds of houseboats ( kettuvallams in Malayalam ) plied on it and numerous resorts on its banks. The Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary
23936-436: The rapidly growing water hyacinth. In addition, a large number of water hyacinths floating in the water block sunlight from entering the water, and its decay consumes dissolved oxygen in the water, pollutes water quality, and can kill other aquatic plants. The outbreak of water hyacinth has seriously affected the biodiversity of the local ecosystem and threatened the production, life, and health of community residents. In 2016,
24112-407: The results of Yunnan Dianchi Lake and also showed that water hyacinth could affect the photosynthesis of phytoplankton, submerged plants, and algae by water environment quality and inhibit their growth. The decay process depletes dissolved oxygen in the water, often killing fish. Water hyacinth can absorb a large amount of harmful heavy metals and other substances. After death, it rots and sinks to
24288-423: The rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar District ), along with Fort Kochi , Tangasseri , and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent . Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in
24464-547: The rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri , Manichchan , and Vikkiran of Eranad ). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar . The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it
24640-564: The rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore . His son and successor, Tipu Sultan , launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company , resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars . Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam ; both were annexed to
24816-552: The seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon . They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur , who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut , sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur ( Vettathunadu ) became one of
24992-602: The shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹ 674 billion (US$ 8.1 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹ 557 billion (US$ 6.7 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 146 billion (US$ 1.7 billion) in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in
25168-406: The species' worldwide spread. Its habitat ranges from tropical desert to subtropical or warm, temperate desert to rainforest zones. The temperature tolerance of the water hyacinth is: Its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0–7.5. Leaves are killed by frost and plants do not tolerate water temperatures more than 34 °C (93 °F). Water hyacinths do not grow where the average salinity
25344-482: The state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments. Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International , is considered the least corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India. Kerala hosts two major political alliances:
25520-481: The state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007
25696-543: The state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region , in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India , which later became a part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956 , the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district , Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip ,
25872-407: The state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act . A Communist -led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957 . It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state. The state
26048-504: The state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state. In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of ₹ 2.5 million (US$ 30,000)
26224-593: The surface of the water as much as 1 m (3 ft) in height. The leaves are 10–20 cm (4–8 inches) across on a stem , which is floating by means of buoyant bulb-like nodules at its base above the water surface. They have long, spongy, bulbous stalks. The feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8–15 conspicuously attractive flowers , mostly lavender to pink in colour with six petals. When not in bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frogbit ( Limnobium spongia ) or Amazon frogbit ( Limnobium laevigatum ). One of
26400-454: The term Kerala . From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male . The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes . This mentions a pepper emporium called Male , which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from
26576-400: The theory they were first cultivated in garden ponds, after which they multiplied and escaped to the environs. The account gains different details as told by children's story-teller Carole Marsh (1992), who says "Japan gave away water hyacinth seeds" during the exposition, and another Southern raconteur, Gaspar J. "Buddy" Stall (1998), assured his readership that the Japanese gave each family
26752-462: The tidal reach. The Kottappuram–Kollam segment of the west coast canal system has a major chunk passing through the Vembanad Lake and spans a total of 209 km. It has been declared as a National Waterway. Vembanad Kol Wetland was included in the list of wetlands of international importance, as defined by the Ramsar Convention for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands . It
26928-592: The total surface water resource of the state. The most popular location on the shores of the lake is the Kumarakom Tourist Village situated on the east coast of the lake. The Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary is located on the northern fringes of Kumarakom village. The Vembanad Wetland system was included in the list of wetlands of international importance, as defined by the Ramsar Convention for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands in 2002. It
27104-412: The use of a waterway, leading to the loss of transportation (both human and cargo), as well as a loss of fishing possibilities. Large sums of money are allocated to the removal of water hyacinth from the water bodies as well as figuring out how to destroy the remains harvested. Harvesting water hyacinth mechanically requires considerable effort. A million tons of fresh biomass would require 75 trucks with
27280-474: The water hyacinth borer Sameodes albiguttalis . The weevil species were introduced into the Gulf Coast states, such as Louisiana, Texas, and Florida, where thousands of acres were infested by water hyacinth. A decade later, a decrease was found in water hyacinth mats by as much as 33%, but because the lifecycle of the weevils is 90 days, the use of biological predation to efficiently suppress water hyacinth growth
27456-552: The water hyacinth leaves and leads to direct changes to the physiology of the plant. The use of the herbicide known as 2,4-D leads to the death of water hyacinth through inhibition of cell growth of new tissue and cellular apoptosis. Almost a two-week period may be needed before mats of water hyacinth are destroyed with 2, 4-D. Between 75,000 and 150,000 acres (30,000 and 61,000 ha) of water hyacinth and alligator weed are treated annually in Louisiana. The herbicide known as diquat
27632-632: The water hyacinth was introduced to the U.S. in 1884 at the World's Fair in New Orleans , also known as the World Cotton Centennial , has been characterized as the "first authentic account", as well as "local legend". At some point, a legend arose that the plants had been given away as a gift by a Japanese delegation at the fair. This claim is absent in a pertinent article published in a military engineer's trade journal dating to 1940, but appears in
27808-407: The wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages . At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ( Quilon ) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ( Koyilandy ) in the north. Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives
27984-555: The west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler , Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches , backwaters , hill stations , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The word Kerala
28160-433: The word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian / Arabic word Barr (country/continent). According to the Sangam classic Purananuru , the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas . Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it. According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi ,
28336-434: The world, and often invasive outside its native range. It is the sole species of the subgenus Oshunae within the genus Pontederia . Anecdotally, it is known as the "terror of Bengal" due to its invasive growth tendencies. Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial aquatic plant (or hydrophyte) native to tropical and subtropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise above
28512-445: Was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan , Travancore and Kochi , part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin . On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep ), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form
28688-451: Was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century. In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history. With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon . Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to
28864-433: Was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles . Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as Malabars . Until the arrival of the East India Company , the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with
29040-405: Was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi ( Fort Emmanuel ) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar ; especially from naval attacks under
29216-524: Was assembled to study nuclear and chloroplast genomes between 10 water hyacinth lines from 3 continents. Results indicating the spread of a limited genotype of water hyacinth from South America, where it has the highest genetic diversity. The paper proposing the spread potentially originating from ships travelling from Itajaí Port on the Brazilian East Coast. Although genetic studies on samples from Bangladesh and Indonesia demonstrate different genotypes, potentially implicating multiple introductions to
29392-399: Was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi . The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company , who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi , gained control of the trade. The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships. It
29568-483: Was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad. The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram
29744-411: Was established by Kulasekhara Varman , which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings , who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed
29920-434: Was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are underemployment , low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%, as was the practice of Nokku kooli , "wages for looking on". By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹ 1.15 lakh crore (US$ 14 billion). The state government's tax revenues (excluding
30096-494: Was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala
30272-404: Was first reported in 1965 at the Koka Reservoir and in the Awash River , where the Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority has managed to bring it under moderate control at considerable cost of human labor. Other infestations in Ethiopia include many bodies of water in the Gambela Region , the Blue Nile from Lake Tana into Sudan , and Lake Ellen near Alem Tena . By 2018, it has become
30448-417: Was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir , the fourth Mughal emperor , as British envoy . In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of
30624-437: Was introduced by Belgian colonists to Rwanda to beautify their holdings. It then advanced by natural means to Lake Victoria, where it was first sighted in 1988. There, without any natural enemies, it has become an ecological plague, suffocating the lake, diminishing the fish reservoir, and hurting the local economies. It impedes access to Kisumu and other harbors. The water hyacinth has also appeared in Ethiopia , where it
30800-445: Was nearly 16% of the US$ 71 billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹ 1 lakh crore (US$ 12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹ 7 lakh crore (US$ 84 billion). Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board , suggested that
30976-413: Was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of Nediyiruppu , who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode , who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal 's sword (with
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