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125-690: Wokes was born on 1 February 1892 in Liverpool . His father was Thomas Siminson Wokes of Grassendale . He qualified at the London School of Pharmacy in 1914 and studied biochemistry and nutrition at the University of Liverpool . He served with the Vegetarian Field and Ambulance Unit during World War I . He was assistant biochemist and pharmacologist at the UCL School of Pharmacy from 1927 to 1940. He obtained

250-667: A cast-iron frame, the Roberts Loom . In 1842 James Bullough and William Kenworthy , made the Lancashire Loom . It is a semiautomatic power loom . Although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century, when the Northrop Loom invented in 1894 with an automatic weft replenishment function gained ascendancy. Also in 1830, Richard Roberts patented

375-703: A vegan . He was a vice-president of the Vegan Society . He attended the 18th World Vegetarian Congress in 1965 and applied as a member to form their Science Council. The deficiency of Vitamin B12 which may occur in vegans was first described by Wokes to the International Congress of Nutrition in Amsterdam in 1954. Wokes and the Vegetarian Nutritional Research Centre took interest in studying

500-576: A London doctorate in 1938 for his research into hormones and vitamins . Wokes was director of research at Ovaltine Research Laboratory (1941–1959) and at the Vegetarian Nutritional Research Centre. He was a member of the Royal Society of Medicine , Royal Institute of Chemistry and the British Pharmacological Society . He toured India at the age of 77 and worked with Government officials, Universities and Research Institutes. Wokes

625-410: A ban on the importation, and later the sale of woven cotton goods. Which they eventually achieved via the 1700 and 1721 Calico Acts . The acts banned the importation and later the sale of finished pure cotton produce, but did not restrict the importation of raw cotton, or sale or production of Fustian . The exemption of raw cotton saw two thousand bales of cotton being imported annually, from Asia and

750-671: A city which also suffered severe aerial bombing during the war. In the 1950s and 1960s, much of the immediate reconstruction that took place in the city centre proved to be deeply unpopular. The historic portions of the city that had survived German bombing suffered extensive destruction during urban renewal. It has been argued that the so-called "Shankland Plan" of the 1960s, named after the town planner Graeme Shankland , led to compromised town planning and vast road-building schemes that devastated and divided inner city neighbourhoods. Concrete brutalist architecture , compromised visions, botched projects and grand designs that were never realised became

875-494: A continuous improvement in technology as the mill-owner strove to reduce cost and improve quality. Developments in the transport infrastructure - the canals and, after 1831, the railways - facilitated the import of raw materials and export of finished cloth. The use of water power to drive mills was supplemented by steam driven water pumps, and then superseded completely by the steam engines . For example, Samuel Greg joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on taking over

1000-511: A craft production model to a factory-centric model. It was during the years 1761 to 1850 that these changes happened. Textile factories organized workers' lives much differently from craft production. Handloom weavers worked at their own pace, with their own tools, and within their own cottages. Factories set hours of work, and the machinery within them shaped the pace of work. Factories brought workers together within one building to work on machinery that they did not own. Factories also increased

1125-693: A day, being beaten if they fell asleep. The children were sent to the mills of Derbyshire, Yorkshire and Lancashire from the workhouses in London and other towns in the south of England. A well-documented example was that of Litton Mill . Further legislation followed. By 1835, the share of the workforce under 18 years of age in cotton mills in England and Scotland had fallen to 43%. About half of workers in Manchester and Stockport cotton factories surveyed in 1818 and 1819 had begun work at under ten years of age. Most of

1250-544: A joint European Capital of Culture for 2008. The celebrations included the erection of La Princesse , a large mechanical spider 20 metres high and weighing 37 tonnes, which represented the "eight legs" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture. La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel . Spearheaded by

1375-516: A maximum of 400 spindles after, self-acting mules with up to 1,300 spindles could be built. The savings that could be made with this technology were considerable. A worker spinning cotton at a hand-powered spinning wheel in the 18th century would take more than 50,000 hours to spin 100 lb of cotton; by the 1790s, the same quantity could be spun in 300 hours by mule, and with a self-acting mule it could be spun by one worker in just 135 hours. The nature of work changed during industrialisation from

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1500-515: A pioneer of scientific toponymy in Wales, in "Place Names of North Wales", does not attempt to explain it beyond noting that " lleifiad " is used as a Welsh equivalent of "Liver". A derivative form of a learned borrowing into Welsh ( * llaf ) of Latin lāma (slough, bog, fen) to give " lleifiad " is possible, but unproven. In the Middle Ages , Liverpool existed firstly as farmland within

1625-525: A prototype in the following year. His initial venture to exploit this technology failed, although his advances were recognised by others in the industry. Others such as Robert Grimshaw (whose factory was destroyed in 1790 as part of the growing reaction against the mechanization of the industry) and Austin – developed the ideas further. In the 1790s industrialists, such as John Marshall at Marshall's Mill in Leeds, started to work on ways to apply some of

1750-407: A regenerated Albert Dock which proved to be a catalyst for further regeneration. In the mid-1990s, the city enjoyed growth rates higher than the national average. At the end of the 20th century, Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration, a process that continues today. Ongoing regeneration combined with the hosting of internationally significant events has helped to re-purpose Liverpool as one of

1875-548: A separate condenser engine in 1774 and a rotating separate condensing engine in 1781. Watt formed a partnership with businessman Matthew Boulton , and together they manufactured steam engines which could be used by industry. Prior to the 1780s, most of the fine quality cotton muslin in circulation in Britain had been manufactured in India. Due to advances in technique, British "mull muslin" was able to compete in quality with Indian muslin by

2000-455: A small wage increase. In the general strike of 1842 , half a million workers demanded the Charter and an end to pay cuts. Again, troops were called in to keep the peace, and the strike leaders were arrested, but some of the worker demands were met. The early textile factories employed a large share of children , but the share declined over time. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of

2125-534: A waterwheel demanded a location with a ready supply of water, hence the mill at Cromford. This mill is preserved as part of the Derwent Valley Mills Arkwright generated jobs and constructed accommodation for his workers which he moved into the area. This led to a sizeable industrial community. Arkwright protected his investment from industrial rivals and potentially disruptive workers. This model worked and he expanded his operations to other parts of

2250-417: A week, so that they could do the record keeping their illiterate parents could not. The first stage of the spinning process is carding, initially this was done by hand, but in 1775 he took out a second patent for a water-powered carding machine and this led to increased output. He was soon building further mills on this site and eventually employed 1,000 workers at Cromford. By the time of his death in 1792, he

2375-473: Is also home to the UK's oldest surviving classical orchestra ( Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra ) and repertory theatre ( Liverpool Playhouse ). In 1864, Peter Ellis built the world's first iron-framed, curtain-walled office building, Oriel Chambers , which was a prototype of the skyscraper. The UK's first purpose-built department store was Compton House , completed in 1867 for the retailer J.R. Jeffrey. It

2500-565: Is also the home of the earliest black community in the UK , the earliest Chinese community in Europe , and the first mosque in England. The name comes from the Old English lifer , meaning thick or muddy water, and pōl , meaning a pool or creek, and is first recorded around 1190 as Liuerpul . According to the Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names , "The original reference

2625-418: Is beyond dispute, claims are sometimes made that the name Liverpool is of Welsh origin, but these are without foundation. The Welsh name for Liverpool is Lerpwl , from a former English local form Leerpool. This is a reduction of the form "Leverpool" with the loss of the intervocalic [v] (seen in other English names and words e.g. Daventry (Northamptonshire) > Danetry, never-do-well > ne’er-do-well). In

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2750-696: Is closely linked to a small number of innovations, made in the second half of the 18th century: These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which allowed the economic takeoff by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. Later inventions such as the power loom and Richard Trevithick 's high pressure steam engine were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills and ironworks enabled these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there

2875-565: Is named after the city. As early as 1851, the city was described as "the New York of Europe". During the late 19th and early 20th century, Liverpool was attracting immigrants from across Europe. This resulted in the construction of a diverse array of religious buildings in the city for the new ethnic and religious groups, many of which are still in use today. The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool , Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas , Gustav Adolf Church and Princes Road Synagogue were all established in

3000-464: Is often used as a filming location due to its distinctive architecture , and was the fifth most visited UK city by foreign tourists in 2022. It is the only UNESCO City of Music in England and has produced countless musicians , most notably the Beatles , who are widely regarded as the most influential band of all time ; musicians from the city have released more UK No. 1 hit singles than anywhere else in

3125-410: Is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter , making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in the shape of a double cross: Bank Street (now Water Street ), Castle Street , Chapel Street , Dale Street , Juggler Street (now High Street ), Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street ) and Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street ). Liverpool Castle

3250-694: Is the world's oldest existing organisation devoted to the promotion of spaceflight . Its journal, the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society , is the longest-running astronautical publication in the world. Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution was centred in south Lancashire and the towns on both sides of

3375-554: The British Armed Forces , settled in Liverpool and other port cities. In June 1919, they were subject to attack by whites in racial riots; residents in the port included Swedish immigrants , and both groups had to compete with native people from Liverpool for jobs and housing. In this period, race riots also took place in other port cities. The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing being built across Liverpool during

3500-532: The English Civil War , including a brief siege in 1644. In 1699, the same year as its first recorded slave ship , Liverpool Merchant , set sail for Africa, Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament . But arguably, the legislation of 1695 that reformed the Liverpool council was of more significance to its subsequent development. Since Roman times , the nearby city of Chester on the River Dee had been

3625-569: The European Capital of Culture in 2008, which was reported to have generated over £800 million for the local economy within a year. The economy of Liverpool is diversified and encompasses tourism, culture , maritime , hospitality , healthcare , life sciences , advanced manufacturing, creative , and digital sectors. The city is home to the UK's second highest number of art galleries , national museums , listed buildings , and parks and open spaces , with only London having more. It

3750-541: The Eurovision Song Contest 2023 . Liverpool has been a centre of invention and innovation. Railways, transatlantic steamships , municipal trams, and electric trains were all pioneered in Liverpool as modes of mass transit. In 1829 and 1836, the first railway tunnels in the world were constructed under Liverpool ( Wapping Tunnel ). From 1950 to 1951, the world's first scheduled passenger helicopter service ran between Liverpool and Cardiff . The first School for

3875-573: The Great War was marked by social unrest, as society grappled with the massive war losses of young men, as well as trying to re-integrate veterans into civilian life and the economy. Unemployment and poor living standards greeted many ex-servicemen. Union organising and strikes took place in numerous locations, including a police strike in Liverpool among the City Police . Numerous colonial soldiers and sailors from Africa and India, who had served with

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4000-692: The Macgregor Laird expedition to the Niger River, at that time in progress. This is to a painting by Samuel Austin , Liverpool, from the Mersey . Britain was a major market for cotton imported from the Deep South of the United States, which fed the textile industry in the country. Given the crucial place cotton held in the city's economy, during the American Civil War Liverpool was, in

4125-514: The Paradise Project , a £920 million development based on Paradise Street . This produced one of the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed as ' Liverpool One ,' the centre opened in May 2008. In 2007, events and celebrations took place in honour of the 800th anniversary of the founding of the borough of Liverpool. Liverpool was designated as

4250-649: The Pennines in the United Kingdom. The main drivers of the Industrial Revolution were textile manufacturing , iron founding , steam power , oil drilling, the discovery of electricity and its many industrial applications, the telegraph and many others. Railroads, steamboats, the telegraph and other innovations massively increased worker productivity and raised standards of living by greatly reducing time spent during travel, transportation and communications. Before

4375-554: The Queensway Tunnel linking Liverpool and Birkenhead . Described as "the eighth wonder of the world" at the time of its construction, it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world for 24 years. In 1897, the Lumière brothers filmed Liverpool, including what is believed to be the world's first tracking shot , taken from the Liverpool Overhead Railway , the world's first elevated electrified railway. The Overhead Railway

4500-561: The River Dee continued to silt up, Liverpool began to grow with increasing rapidity. The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715. Substantial profits from the slave trade and tobacco helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow, although several prominent local men, including William Rathbone , William Roscoe and Edward Rushton , were at the forefront of the local abolitionist movement . The 19th century saw Liverpool rise to global economic importance. Pioneering, world first , technology and civic facilities launched in

4625-630: The United States were horse-powered. The first mill to use this method was the Beverly Cotton Manufactory , built in Beverly, Massachusetts . It was started on 18 August 1788 by entrepreneur John Cabot and brothers. It was operated in joint by Moses Brown, Israel Thorndike , Joshua Fisher, Henry Higginson, and Deborah Higginson Cabot. The Salem Mercury reported that in April 1788 the equipment for

4750-469: The West Derby Hundred before growing in to a small town of farmers, fishermen and tradesmen and tactical army base for King John of England . The town was planned with its own castle , although due to outbreaks of disease and its subordinance to the nearby Roman port of Chester , the town's growth and prosperity stagnated until the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Substantial growth took place in

4875-624: The government implemented protectionist policies such as bans and tariffs to restrict Indian imports. At the same time, the East India Company's rule in India contributed to its deindustrialization , opening up a new market for foreign goods, while the capital accumulated in Bengal after establishing direct control in 1757 was used by the East India Company to invest in British industries such as textile manufacturing, which contributed greatly to

5000-482: The sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice. The initiative was designed to highlight growing threats to the UK's flower species and also ask the public about which flowers best represented their county. Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups, such as the Beatles , as well as the city's world-class art galleries, museums and landmarks, tourism and culture have become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy. In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started

5125-421: The water frame . The water frame was developed from the spinning frame that Arkwright had developed with (a different) John Kay , from Warrington . The original design was again claimed by Thomas Highs: which he purposed he had patented in 1769. Arkwright used waterwheels to power the textile machinery. His initial attempts at driving the frame had used horse power, but a mill needed far more power. Using

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5250-484: The " Merseybeat " sound, which became synonymous with the Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands. Influenced by American rhythm and blues and rock music, they also in turn strongly affected American music. The Beatles became internationally known in the early 1960s and performed around the world together ; they were, and continue to be, the most commercially successful and musically influential band in popular history. Their co-founder, singer, and composer John Lennon

5375-533: The 1800s to serve Liverpool's growing German, Greek, Nordic and Jewish communities, respectively. One of Liverpool's oldest surviving churches, St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church , served the Polish community in its final years as a place of worship. The 20th century saw Liverpool's established rank as a global economic powerhouse challenged. Its strategic location as an international seaport made it particularly vulnerable in two World wars . Economic depressions (both in

5500-557: The 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine . While many Irish settled during this time in the city, a large percentage also emigrated to the United States or moved to the industrial centres of Lancashire , Yorkshire and the Midlands . In her poetical illustration "Liverpool" (1832), which celebrates the city's worldwide commerce, Letitia Elizabeth Landon refers specifically to

5625-453: The 18th century, the manufacture of cloth was performed by individual workers, in the premises in which they lived and goods were transported around the country by packhorses or by river navigations and contour-following canals that had been constructed in the early 18th century. In the mid-18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk , wool , and linen fabrics were being eclipsed by cotton which became

5750-472: The 1920s and 1930s. In the 1920s and 1930s, as much as 15% of the city's population (around 140,000 people) was relocated from the inner-city to new purpose built, lower density suburban housing estates, based on the belief that this would improve their standard of living, though the overall benefits have been contested. Numerous private homes were also built during this era. During the Great Depression of

5875-411: The 19th century, some Welsh publications used the name " Lle'r Pwll " ("(the) place (of) the pool"), a reinterpretation of Lerpwl , probably in the belief that " Lle'r Pwll " was the original form. Another name, which is widely known even today, is Llynlleifiad , again a 19th-century coining. " Llyn " is pool, but " lleifiad " has no obvious meaning. G. Melville Richards (1910–1973),

6000-500: The Americas, and forming the basis of a new indigenous industry, initially producing Fustian for the domestic market, though more importantly triggering the development of a series of mechanised spinning and weaving technologies, to process the material. This mechanised production was concentrated in new cotton mills , which slowly expanded till by the beginning of the 1770s seven thousand bales of cotton were imported annually, and pressure

6125-814: The Blind , Mechanics' Institute , High School for Girls, council house, and Juvenile Court were all founded in Liverpool. Charities such as the RSPCA , NSPCC , Age Concern , Relate , and Citizen's Advice Bureau all evolved from work in the city. The first lifeboat station, public bath and wash-house, sanitary act, medical officer for health ( William Henry Duncan ), district nurse, slum clearance , purpose-built ambulance, X-ray medical diagnosis, school of tropical medicine ( Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine ), motorised municipal fire-engine, free school meal, cancer research centre, and zoonosis research centre all originated in Liverpool. The first British Nobel Prize

6250-637: The Lincolnshire Vegetarian Society. Liverpool Liverpool is a cathedral city , port city , and metropolitan borough in Merseyside , England. It had a population of 496,770 in 2022. The city is located on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary , adjacent to the Irish Sea , and is approximately 178 miles (286 km) northwest of London . Liverpool is the fifth largest city in

6375-519: The Mersey, and the CSS Shenandoah surrendered there (being the final surrender at the end of the war). The city was also the center of Confederate purchasing war materiel, including arms and ammunition, uniforms, and naval supplies to be smuggled by British blockade runners to the South . For periods during the 19th century, the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London, and Liverpool's Custom House

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6500-718: The National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the Olympic Charter . A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis , the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool in 1879. Sir Alfred Lewis Jones , a shipowner, introduced bananas to the UK via Liverpool's docks in 1884. The Mersey Railway , opened in 1886, incorporated

6625-529: The Queen recognised Liverpool as "one of the most distinctive and energetic parts of the United Kingdom", and paid tribute to the city's "major orchestras, world-class museums and galleries". She also acknowledged Liverpool's bid to become the European Capital of Culture . To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers ;

6750-515: The UK's first Underwriters' Association and the first Institute of Accountants . The Western world's first financial derivatives (cotton futures) were traded on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange in the late 1700s. In the arts, Liverpool was home to the first lending library ( The Lyceum ), athenaeum society ( Liverpool Athenaeum ), arts centre ( Bluecoat Chambers ), and public art conservation centre ( National Conservation Centre ). It

6875-414: The United Kingdom and across the world), changing housing patterns and containerisation in the maritime industry contributed to a downtrend in the city's productivity and prosperity. Despite this, the city's influence on global popular culture excelled and by the end of the century, the continuing process of urban renewal paved the way for the redefined modern city of the 21st century. The period after

7000-582: The United Kingdom and the largest settlement in Merseyside. It is part of the Liverpool City Region , a combined authority with a population of over 1.5 million. Established as a borough in Lancashire in 1207, Liverpool became a significant town in the late 17th century, when the port at nearby Chester began to silt up. The Port of Liverpool became heavily involved in the Atlantic slave trade , with

7125-483: The adult workers in cotton factories in mid-19th-century Britain were workers who had begun work as child labourers. The growth of this experienced adult factory workforce helps to account for the shift away from child labour in textile factories. Cromford Mill was an early Arkwright mill and was the model for future mills. The site at Cromford had year-round supply of warm water from the sough which drained water from nearby lead mines, together with another brook. It

7250-411: The area. More immigrants arrived after World War II, mostly settling in older inner-city areas such as Toxteth , where housing was less expensive. The black population of Liverpool was recorded at 1.90% in 2011. In the 2021 Census , 5.2% described themselves as black African, Caribbean, mixed white and black African, mixed white and Caribbean or 'other black'. In the 1960s, Liverpool was the centre of

7375-426: The blowing rooms, some spinning and ancillary processes like winding. The four storey range facing Bradford Road was used for warehousing and offices. The mill was built by David Bellhouse , but it is suspected that William Fairbairn was involved in the design. It is built from brick, and has slate roofs. Fireproof internal construction was now standard. Brunswick was built using cast iron columns and beams, each floor

7500-563: The canal. It was taken over by the Lancashire Cotton Corporation in the 1930s and passed to Courtaulds in 1964. Production finished in 1967. The Brunswick mill was built around 1840 in one phase. The main seven storey block that faces the Ashton Canal was used for spinning. The preparation was done on the second floor and the self-acting mules with 400 spindles were arranged transversely on the floors above. The wings contained

7625-462: The central government in London. Liverpool in the 1980s has been labelled as Britain's 'shock city'. Once the second city of the British Empire which rivalled the capital city in global significance, Liverpool had collapsed in to its 'nadir' at the depths of post-colonial , post-industrial Britain. In the late 20th century, Liverpool's economy began to recover. The late 1980s saw the opening of

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7750-523: The city and form an important part of the economy. In June 2014, Prime Minister David Cameron launched the International Festival for Business in Liverpool, the world's largest business event in 2014, and the largest in the UK since the Festival of Britain in 1951. The Labour Party has chosen Liverpool numerous times since the mid 2010s for their annual Labour Party Conference . Liverpool hosted

7875-494: The city to serve the accelerating population which was fuelled by an influx of ethnic and religious communities from all around the world. By the start of the 19th century, a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool, and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during

8000-473: The city's docks became largely obsolete, and dock workers were made unemployed. By the early 1980s, unemployment rates in Liverpool were among the highest in the UK, standing at 17% by January 1982 although, this was about half the level of unemployment that had affected the city during the Great Depression some 50 years previously. During this period, Liverpool became a hub of fierce left-wing opposition to

8125-484: The city. By the 2020s, urban regeneration throughout the city continues. Liverpool Waters , a mixed-use development in the city's disused northern docklands, has been identified as one of the largest megaprojects in the UK's history. Everton's new stadium at Bramley-Moore Dock was regarded as the largest single-site private sector development in the United Kingdom at the time of construction. Major events, business and political conferences regularly take place in

8250-587: The company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill. Quarry Bank Mill was built on the River Bollin at Styal in Cheshire . It was initially powered by a water wheel , but installed steam engines in 1810. In 1830, the average power of a mill engine was 48 hp, but Quarry Bank mill installed a new 100 hp water wheel. This was to change in 1836, when Horrocks & Nuttall, Preston took delivery of 160 hp double engine. William Fairbairn addressed

8375-574: The country. Matthew Boulton partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt resulted, in 1775, in the commercial production of the more efficient Watt steam engine which used a separate condensor. Samuel Crompton of Bolton combined elements of the spinning jenny and water frame in 1779, creating the spinning mule . This mule produced a stronger thread than the water frame could. Thus in 1780, there were two viable hand-operated spinning systems that could be easily adapted to run by power of water. Early mules were suitable for producing yarn for use in

8500-496: The division of labour. They narrowed the number and scope of tasks. They included children and women within a common production process. As Manchester mill owner Friedrich Engels decried, the family structure itself was "turned upside down" as women's wages undercut men's, forcing men to "sit at home" and care for children while the wife worked long hours. Factories flourished over manual craftsmanship because they had more efficient production output per worker, keeping prices down for

8625-562: The early 1930s, unemployment peaked at around 30% in the city. Liverpool was the site of Britain's first provincial airport , operating from 1930. During the Second World War , the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill . The city was heavily bombed by the Germans, suffering a blitz second only to London's. The pivotal Battle of the Atlantic

8750-487: The emergence of the Industrial Revolution . Britain eventually surpassed India as the world's leading cotton textile manufacturer in the 19th century. Horace Hayman Wilson , while describing the manner in which British textile manufacturing grew, wrote in The History of British India , "....had not such prohibitory duties and decrees existed, the mills of Paisley and Manchester would have been stopped in their outset, and could scarcely have been again set in motion, even by

8875-430: The end of the 18th century. In 1734 in Bury, Lancashire , John Kay invented the flying shuttle — one of the first of a series of inventions associated with the cotton industry. The flying shuttle increased the width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom . Resistance by workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this technology, even though

9000-417: The first self-acting mule . The Stalybridge mule spinners strike was in 1824, this stimulated research into the problem of applying power to the winding stroke of the mule. The draw while spinning had been assisted by power, but the push of the wind had been done manually by the spinner, the mule could be operated by semiskilled labour. Before 1830, the spinner would operate a partially powered mule with

9125-399: The first slave ship departing from the town in 1699. The port also imported much of the cotton required by the neighbouring Lancashire textile mills , and became a major departure point for English and Irish emigrants to North America. Liverpool rose to global economic importance at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century and was home to the first intercity railway ,

9250-545: The first non-combustible warehouse system (the Royal Albert Dock ), and a pioneering elevated electrical railway ; it was granted city status in 1880 and was moved from Lancashire to the newly created county of Merseyside in 1974 . Like many other British cities, it entered a period of decline in the mid-20th century; however, it has experienced significant and ongoing regeneration since the European Union selected it as

9375-503: The formation of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority in a form of devolution . With a devolved budget granted by central government , the authority now oversees and invests in foremost strategic affairs throughout the Liverpool City Region , including major regeneration projects. The authority, along with Liverpool City Council itself, has embarked on long-term plans to grow the population and economy of

9500-462: The hand driven carding machine. A coat of wire slips were placed around a card which was then wrapped around a cylinder. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright and Samuel Crompton , although this came about under great suspicion after a fire at Daniel Bourn's factory in Leominster which specifically used Paul and Wyatt's spindles. Bourn produced a similar patent in

9625-623: The health of vegans in India as they were marked with Vitamin B12 deficiency more than vegetarians consuming dairy products. In the 1960s, Wokes found that serum B12 levels in vegans were much lower than the average levels in vegetarians and meat-eaters. He did not oppose Vitamin B12 injections but suggested that a more efficient and inexpensive method for vegans to get Vitamin B12 was from suitable fortified foods. Wokes married Gladys Winifred Gale in September 1930. They had two children. His brother A. Wokes and his wife from Woodhall were vice-presidents of

9750-639: The higher rate of production generated an increased demand for spun cotton. In 1738, Lewis Paul (one of the community of Huguenot weavers that had been driven out of France in a wave of religious persecution) settled in Birmingham and with John Wyatt , of that town, they patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. This

9875-541: The journal Plant Foods for Human Nutrition . In 1974, it was described as an "international journal devoted to the role of plant foods in human nutrition and designed to discuss methods of dealing with the problem of world food shortage." Wokes authored over one hundred scientific papers on nutrition, some of which were on Vitamin B12. He was consulted by the war time Minister of Food. In 1941, he authored Food: The Deciding Factor which sold over 50,000 copies and converted many to vegetarianism. In his later life, Wokes became

10000-503: The looms after the invention by John Kay in 1734 of the flying shuttle , which made the loom twice as productive. Cloth production moved away from the cottage into manufactories . The first moves towards manufactories called mills were made in the spinning sector. The move in the weaving sector was later. By the 1820s, all cotton, wool, and worsted was spun in mills; but this yarn went to outworking weavers who continued to work in their own homes. A mill that specialized in weaving fabric

10125-545: The manufacture of muslin , and were known as the muslin wheel or the Hall i' th' Wood (pronounced Hall-ith-wood) wheel. As with Kay and Hargreaves, Crompton was not able to exploit his invention for his own profit, and died a pauper. In 1783 a mill was built in Manchester at Shudehill, at the highest point in the city away from the river. Shudehill Mill was powered by a 30 ft diameter waterwheel. Two storage ponds were built, and

10250-558: The mid-late 18th century when the town became the most heavily involved European port in the Atlantic slave trade . King John 's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool (then spelt as Liuerpul ). There is no evidence that the place had previously been a centre of any trade. The creation of the borough was probably due to King John deciding it would be a convenient place to embark men and supplies for his Irish campaigns , in particular John's Irish campaign of 1209 . The original street plan of Liverpool

10375-473: The mill. Surplus power capacity encouraged the construction of more sophisticated power looms working in weaving sheds . The scale of production in the mill towns round Manchester created a need for a commercial structure ; for a cotton exchange and warehousing . The technology was used in woollen and worsted mills in the West Yorkshire and elsewhere. The commencement of the Industrial Revolution

10500-419: The most important textile. Innovations in carding and spinning enabled by advances in cast iron technology resulted in the creation of larger spinning mules and water frames . The machinery was housed in water-powered mills on streams . The need for more power stimulated the production of steam-powered beam engines , and rotative mill engines transmitting the power to line shafts on each floor of

10625-421: The most visited, tourist orientated, cities in the United Kingdom. City leaders are focussing on long-term strategies to grow the city's population and economy, while national government explores the continuous potential for devolution in the city. In 2002, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Liverpool to mark the Golden Jubilee . On speaking to an audience at Liverpool Town Hall ,

10750-453: The move away from home-based production. In 1764, Thorp Mill the first water-powered cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton , Lancashire , England. It was used for carding cotton. The multiple spindle spinning jenny was invented in 1764. James Hargreaves is credited as the inventor. This machine increased the thread production capacity of a single worker — initially eightfold and subsequently much further. Others credit

10875-606: The multi-billion- pound Liverpool ONE development, regeneration continued throughout the 2010s. Some of the most significant redevelopment projects included new buildings in the Commercial District , King's Dock , Mann Island , around Lime Street , the Baltic Triangle , RopeWalks , and Edge Lane . Changes to Liverpool's governance took place in 2014. The local authority of Liverpool City Council decided to pool its power and resources with surrounding boroughs through

11000-435: The original invention to Thomas Highs . Industrial unrest forced Hargreaves to leave Blackburn , but more importantly for him, his unpatented idea was exploited by others. He finally patented it in 1770. As a result, there were over 20,000 spinning jennies in use (mainly unlicensed) by the time of his death. Richard Arkwright first spinning mill, Cromford Mill , Derbyshire , was built in 1771. It contained his invention

11125-663: The power of steam. They were created by the sacrifice of Indian manufacture." During the 18th and 19th centuries, much of the imported cotton came from plantations in the American South . In periods of political uncertainty in North America, during the Revolutionary War and later American Civil War , however, Britain relied more heavily on imports from the Indian subcontinent to supply its cotton manufacturing industry. Ports on

11250-414: The problem of line-shafting and was responsible for improving the efficiency of the mill. In 1815 he replaced the wooden turning shafts that drove the machines at 50rpm, to wrought iron shafting working at 250 rpm, these were a third of the weight of the previous ones and absorbed less power. The mill operated until 1959. In 1830, using an 1822 patent, Richard Roberts manufactured the first loom with

11375-560: The public, and they had much more consistent quality of product. The work-discipline was forcefully instilled upon the workforce by the factory owners, and he found that the working conditions were poor, and poverty levels were at an unprecedented high. Engels was appalled, and his research in Derby played a large role in his and Marx's book ' Das Kapital '. At times, the workers rebelled against poor wages. The first major industrial action in Scotland

11500-401: The quality of the thread, which meant that the cotton industry was no longer dependent on wool or linen to make the warp, and it took spinning away from the artisans' homes to specific locations where fast-flowing streams could provide the water power needed to drive the larger machines. The Western Pennines of Lancashire became the centre for the cotton industry. Not long after the invention of

11625-543: The region's principal port on the Irish Sea . However, as the Dee began to silt up , maritime trade from Chester became increasingly difficult and shifted towards Liverpool on the neighbouring River Mersey . The first of the Liverpool docks was constructed in 1715, and the system of docks gradually grew into a large interconnected system. As trade from the West Indies , including sugar, surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as

11750-502: The same damp climate. The early advances in weaving had been halted by the lack of thread. The spinning process was slow and the weavers needed more cotton and wool thread than their families could produce. In the 1760s, James Hargreaves improved thread production when he invented the Spinning Jenny . By the end of the decade, Richard Arkwright had developed the water frame . This invention had two important consequences: it improved

11875-639: The same year. 1758: Paul and Wyatt based in Birmingham improved their roller spinning machine and took out a second patent. Richard Arkwright later used this as the model for his water frame . The Duke of Bridgewater's canal connected Manchester to the coal fields of Worsley . It was opened in July 1761. Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth , Birmingham in 1762. These were both events that enabled cotton mill construction and

12000-440: The subject of condemnation. Historian Raphael Samuel labelled Graeme Shankland "the butcher of Liverpool". A significant West Indian black community has existed in the city since the first two decades of the 20th century. Like most British cities and industrialised towns, Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants, beginning after World War I with colonial soldiers and sailors who had served in

12125-623: The techniques which had proved so successful in cotton to other materials, such as flax. In 1803, William Radcliffe invented the dressing frame which was patented under the name of Thomas Johnson which enabled power looms to operate continuously. With the Cartwright Loom, the Spinning Mule and the Boulton & Watt steam engine, the pieces were in place to build a mechanised textile industry. From this point there were no new inventions, but

12250-680: The water frame, Samuel Crompton combined the principles of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame to produce his Spinning Mule . This provided even tougher and finer cotton thread. The textile industry was also to benefit from other developments of the period. As early as 1691, Thomas Savery had made a vacuum steam engine. His design, which was unsafe, was improved by Thomas Newcomen in 1698. In 1765, James Watt further modified Newcomen's engine to design an external condenser steam engine. Watt continued to make improvements on his design, producing

12375-482: The water from one passed from one to the other turning the wheel. A steam driven pump returned the water to the higher reservoir. The steam engine was of the atmospheric type. An improvement devised by Joshua Wrigley, trialled in Chorlton-upon-Medlock used two Savery engines to supplement the river in driving on overshot waterwheel . In 1784, Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom , and produced

12500-447: The west coast of Britain, such as Liverpool , Bristol , and Glasgow , became important in determining the sites of the cotton industry. Lancashire became a centre for the nascent cotton industry because the damp climate was better for spinning the yarn. As the cotton thread was not strong enough to use as warp , wool or linen or fustian had to be used. Lancashire was an existing wool centre. Likewise, Glasgow benefited from

12625-672: The words of historian Sven Beckert , "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself." Liverpool merchants helped to bring out cotton from ports blockaded by the Union Navy , built ships of war for the Confederacy , and supplied the South with military equipment and credit. During the war, the Confederate Navy ship, the CSS Alabama , was built at Birkenhead on

12750-541: The workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. Sir Robert Peel , a mill owner turned reformer, promoted the 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act , which was intended to prevent pauper children from working more than 12 hours a day in mills. Children had started in the mills at around the age of four, working as mule scavengers under the working machinery until they were eight, they progressed to working as little piecers which they did until they were 15. During this time they worked 14 to 16 hours

12875-419: The world's first tunnel under a tidal estuary and the world's first deep-level underground stations ( Liverpool James Street railway station ). In 1889, borough engineer John Alexander Brodie invented the football goal net. He was also a pioneer in the use of pre-fabricated housing and oversaw the construction of the UK's first ring road ( A5058 ) and intercity highway ( East Lancashire Road ), as well as

13000-444: The world. It has also produced many academics , actors , artists , comedians , filmmakers , poets , scientists , sportspeople , and writers . In sports, it is known as the home of Premier League football teams Everton FC and Liverpool FC . The world's oldest still-operating mainline train station, Liverpool Lime Street , is in the city centre; transport is also served by the underground Merseyrail network. The city's port

13125-420: Was a five-storey mill. Starting in 1772, the mills ran day and night with two 12-hour shifts. It started with 200 workers, more than the locality could provide so Arkwright built housing for them nearby, one of the first manufacturers to do so. Most of the employees were women and children, the youngest being only 7 years old. Later, the minimum age was raised to 10 and the children were given 6 hours of education

13250-586: Was a life-long vegetarian having been born to a vegetarian family. In 1959, he established the Vegetarian Nutritional Research Centre at Stanborough Park , near Watford . Wokes collaborated with the Vegetarian Society to provide nutritional evidence for the benefits of vegetarian diets. The Centre was eventually incorporated into the Vegetarian Society. At the centre he conducted experiments on plant alternatives to cow's milk. In 1968, Wokes co-founded

13375-480: Was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross , professor at the School of Tropical Medicine, the first school of its kind in the world. Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas , and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray . The world's first integrated sewer system was constructed in Liverpool by James Newlands , appointed in 1847 as the UK's first borough engineer. Liverpool also founded

13500-404: Was built before 1235, it survived until it was demolished in the 1720s. By the middle of the 16th century, the population was still around 600, although this was likely to have fallen from an earlier peak of 1000 people due to slow trade and the effects of the plague . In the 17th century, there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for control of the town were waged during

13625-587: Was called a weaving shed . During the second half of the 17th century, the newly established factories of the East India Company in South Asia started to produce finished cotton goods in quantity for the British market. The imported Calico and chintz garments competed with, and acted as a substitute for Indian wool and the linen produce, resulting in local weavers, spinners, dyers, shepherds and farmers petitioning their MPs and in turn Parliament for

13750-447: Was classified as a Grade II listed building in June 1994. While profiting from expertise arriving from overseas (e.g. Lewis Paul ), Britain was very protective of home-grown technology. In particular, engineers with skills in constructing the textile mills and machinery were not permitted to emigrate — particularly to the fledgeling America . The earliest cotton mills in

13875-421: Was exported to Europe it could be used to make fustian . Two systems had developed for spinning: the simple wheel , which used an intermittent process and the more refined, Saxony wheel which drove a differential spindle and flyer with a heck that guided the thread onto the bobbin, as a continuous process. This was satisfactory for use on handlooms, but neither of these wheels could produce enough thread for

14000-616: Was killed in New York City in 1980. Liverpool Airport was renamed after him in 2002, the first British airport to be named in honour of an individual. Previously part of Lancashire, and a county borough from 1889, Liverpool became a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside , in 1974. From the mid-1970s onwards, Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries declined due to restructuring of shipping and heavy industry, causing massive losses of jobs. The advent of containerisation meant that

14125-550: Was later used in the first cotton spinning mill during the Industrial Revolution. 1742: Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by donkey ; this was not profitable and was soon closed. 1743: A factory opened in Northampton , fifty spindles turned on five of Paul and Wyatt's machines proving more successful than their first mill. This operated until 1764. 1748: Lewis Paul invented

14250-526: Was never used. The mill structure is classified as a Grade I listed building , it was first classified in June 1950. Brunswick Mill, Ancoats is a cotton spinning mill in Ancoats, Manchester, Greater Manchester. It was built around 1840, part of a group of mills built along the Ashton Canal , and at that time it was one of the country's largest mills. It was built round a quadrangle, a seven-storey block faced

14375-456: Was planned, fought and won from Liverpool. The Luftwaffe made 80  air raids on Merseyside , killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area. Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock , the largest dock project in Britain. Since 1952, Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne , Germany,

14500-456: Was put on Parliament, by the new mill owners, to remove the prohibition on the production and sale of pure cotton cloth, as they wished to compete with the EIC imports. Indian cotton textiles, mainly those from Bengal , continued to maintain a competitive advantage up until the 19th century. In order to compete with Indian goods, British merchants invested in labour-saving technical advancements, while

14625-513: Was that of the Calton weavers in Glasgow, who went on strike for higher wages in the summer of 1787. In the ensuing disturbances, troops were called in to keep the peace and three of the weavers were killed. There was continued unrest. In Manchester in May 1808, 15,000 protesters gathered on St George's Fields and were fired on by dragoons, with one man dying. A strike followed, but was eventually settled by

14750-454: Was the first railway in the world to use electric multiple units , employ automatic signalling, and install an escalator. Liverpool inventor Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture, producing three of the most popular lines of toys in the 20th century: Meccano , Hornby Model Railways (both in 1901), and Dinky Toys in 1934. The British Interplanetary Society , founded in Liverpool in 1933 by Phillip Ellaby Cleator,

14875-485: Was the fourth largest in the UK in 2023, with numerous shipping and freight lines having headquarters and offices there. Residents of Liverpool are often called "Scousers" in reference to scouse , a local stew made popular by sailors in the city, while "Scouse" is also the most common name given to the distinctive local accent . The city's cultural and ethnic diversity has resulted from its history of attracting immigrants, especially from Ireland, Scandinavia, and Wales; it

15000-523: Was the largest store in the world at the time. Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Pierre Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook. The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics. In 1865, Hulley co-founded

15125-575: Was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer . Liverpool was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office. During this century, at least 40% of the world's entire trade passed through Liverpool. In the early 19th century, Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry, in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands

15250-492: Was the wealthiest untitled person in Britain. The gate to Cromford Mill was shut at precisely 6am and 6pm every day and any worker who failed to get through it not only lost a day's pay but was fined another day's pay. In 1779, Arkwright installed a cannon, loaded with grapeshot, just inside the factory gate, as a warning to would-be rioting textile workers, who had burned down another of his mills in Birkacre, Lancashire. The cannon

15375-512: Was to a pool or tidal creek now filled up into which two streams drained". The place appearing as Leyrpole , in a legal record of 1418, may also refer to Liverpool. Other origins of the name have been suggested, including "elverpool", a reference to the large number of eels in the Mersey . The adjective "Liverpudlian" was first recorded in 1833. Although the Old English origin of the name Liverpool

15500-458: Was vaulted with transverse brick arches. There was no wood in the structure. It was powered by a large double beam engine. In 1850 the mill had some 276 carding machines, and 77,000 mule spindles, 20 drawing frames, fifty slubbing frames and eighty one roving frames. The structure was good and it successfully converted to ring spinning in 1920- and was the first mill to adopt mains electricity as its principal source of power. The mill structure

15625-487: Was water to power a watermill . Before the 1760s, textile production was a cottage industry using mainly flax and wool . A typical weaving family would own one handloom , which would be operated by the man with help of a boy; the wife, girls and other women could make sufficient yarn for that loom. The knowledge of textile production had existed for centuries. India had a textile industry that used cotton , from which it manufactured cotton textiles. When raw cotton

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