158-770: Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat ( red meat , poultry , seafood , insects , and the flesh of any other animal ). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter . A person who practices vegetarianism is known as a vegetarian . Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient animal life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental , cultural, aesthetic , economic , taste-related , or relate to other personal preferences . There are many variations of
316-441: A Brahmin father. Mu Raghava Iyengar speculated that "valluva" in his name is a variation of "vallabha", the designation of a royal officer. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai derived his name from "valluvan" (a Paraiyar caste of royal drummers) and theorized that he was "the chief of the proclaiming boys analogous to a trumpet-major of an army". The traditional biographies not only are inconsistent, but also contain incredulous claims about
474-576: A (non-lacto) vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and low bone mineral density . A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at the femoral neck and lumbar spine compared to omnivores. A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a lacto-vegetarian diet exhibited normal growth and development. A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children. Vegetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to help people with type 2 diabetes . Meta-analyses have reported
632-456: A 16th-century Jain text. "It's the author's innate nature to select the best virtues found in all the known literature and present them in a manner that is acceptable to all." — Parimelalhagar about Valluvar, 13th century CE Valluvar's writings, according to scholars, also suggest that he might have belonged to Hinduism. Hindu teachers have mapped his teachings in the Kural literature to
790-584: A branch. Those species that seek pest insects are considered beneficial 'biological control agents' and their presence encouraged in biological pest control programmes. Combined, insectivorous birds eat 400–500 million metric tons of arthropods annually. Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds , sunbirds , lories, and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co-adapted flowers. Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates; shorebirds' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in
948-630: A common man's virtues. Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on moral vegetarianism or veganism. Vegetarianism in ancient India Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who are (held to be) wicked men, and live apart from others. ... In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in
1106-414: A drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation). Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood–brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation. There are short-term signals of satiety that arise from the head, the stomach, the intestines, and
1264-458: A feature common to "international and Indian folklore". The alleged low birth, high birth and being a pariah in the traditional accounts are also doubtful. Traditionally, Valluvar is believed to have married to Vasuki and had a friend and a disciple named Elelasingan . In a manner similar to speculations of the author's biography, there has been much speculation about his religion with no historical evidence. In determining Valluvar's religion,
1422-480: A few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%, and 58% of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet. Vitamin B 12 is not generally present in plants but
1580-456: A form of strict vegetarianism . It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period and, prior to the coinage of the word "vegetarianism", vegetarians were referred to in English as " Pythagoreans ". Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by
1738-727: A good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body. Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates. See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages, the Vegetarian Resource Group and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on
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#17328633534071896-844: A high metabolic rate . Mammals that weigh less than about 18 ounces (510 g; 1.1 lb) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of an herbivore. Larger animals, on the other hand, generate more heat and less of this heat is lost. They can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process (carnivores that feed on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive process (herbivores). Furthermore, mammals that weigh more than 18 ounces (510 g; 1.1 lb) usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves. The only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects ( ants or termites ). Some mammals are omnivores and display varying degrees of carnivory and herbivory, generally leaning in favor of one more than
2054-508: A man rather than a king. The text is a comprehensive pragmatic work that presents philosophy in the first part, political science in the second and poetics in the third. Of the three books of the Kural literature, the second one on politics and kingdom ( poruḷ ) is about twice the size of the first, and three times that of the third. In the 700 couplets on poruḷ (53 percent of the text), Valluvar mostly discusses statecraft and warfare. While other Sangam texts approved of, and even glorified,
2212-560: A manner similar to the Hindu text Arthasastra . For example, according to the text, an army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice. Valluvar's mentioning of God Vishnu in couplets 610 and 1103 and Goddess Lakshmi in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 suggests the Vaishnavite beliefs of the author. P. R. Natarajan lists at least 24 different usage of Hindu origin in 29 different couplets across
2370-584: A mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-range farming or the consumption of game (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat. Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct, as do some sects of Hinduism . Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, but Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate
2528-510: A meal. The control of food intake is a physiologically complex, motivated behavioral system. Hormones such as cholecystokinin , bombesin , neurotensin , anorectin , calcitonin , enterostatin , leptin and corticotropin-releasing hormone have all been shown to suppress food intake. Eating rapidly leads to obesity and overeating, probably because the feelings of satiety can be slower. There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger . There are environmental signals, signals from
2686-591: A reduced risk in all-cause mortality in vegetarians. A 2017 review found a lower mortality (−25%) from ischemic heart disease. Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids , but relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B 12 . Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens , leafy greens , tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fiber, folic acid , vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of
2844-664: A reduced risk of death from ischemic heart disease and from cerebrovascular disease among vegetarians. Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association with depression and anxiety , particularly among people under 26 years old. Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety. The American Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders , indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder". A 2012 study found
3002-498: A risk factor for several health disorders, including anemia , neurological deficits , gastrointestinal problems, platelet disorders, and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases . The recommended daily dietary intake of B 12 in the United States and Canada is 0.4 mcg (ages 0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female). While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B 12
3160-441: A social occasion. At their highest level of sophistication, these places become "theatrical spectacles of global cosmopolitanism and myth ." At picnics , potlucks , and food festivals , eating is the primary purpose of a social gathering. At many social events, food and beverages are made available to attendees. People usually have two or three meals a day. Snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Doctors in
3318-453: A specialist in any particular field. He never indulged in specifics but always stressed on the basic principles of morality. This can be seen across the Kural text: while Valluvar talks about worshiping God, he refrains from mentioning the way of worshiping; he refers to God as an "ultimate reality" without calling him by any name; he talks about land, village, country, kingdom, and king but never refers them by any name; though he mentions about
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#17328633534073476-535: A total of 1,330 couplets. All the couplets are in kural venba metre , and all the 133 chapters have an ethical theme and are grouped into three parts, or "books": Tirukkuṟaḷ "Virtue will confer heaven and wealth; what greater source of happiness can man possess?" (Kural 31; Drew , 1840). The book on aṟam (virtue) contains 380 verses, that of poruḷ (wealth) has 700 and that of inbam or kāmam (love) has 250. Each kural or couplet contains exactly seven words, known as cir s, with four cir s on
3634-399: A universal, moral and practical approach to life. According to Mahadevan, Valluvar is more considerate about the substance than the linguistic appeal of his writing throughout the work. The Kural text is marked by pragmatic idealism , focused on "man in the totality of his relationships". Despite being a classic, the work has little scope for any poetic excellence. According to Zvelebil,
3792-421: A variety of plant sources are available and consumed. Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli,
3950-686: A vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists , the Rastafari movement , the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas . Sikhism does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet. While there are no dietary restrictions in the Baháʼí Faith , `Abdu'l-Bahá , the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains
4108-516: A vegetarian diet. A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life. Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people. Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand , and various European countries, confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as
4266-423: A vegetarian or vegan diet. Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight. Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of vitamin D. For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, vitamin D supplementation may be necessary. Vitamin D 2 , or ergocalciferol
4424-460: A violent offensive, at the right place and right time, when the situation so demands and particularly against morally weak and corrupt kingdoms. A good and strong kingdom must be protected with forts made of thick, high and impenetrable walls. The text recommends a hierarchical military organization staffed with fearless soldiers who are willing to die in war, drawing from the Hindu concepts of non-mystic realism and readiness for war. "The sceptre of
4582-636: A vitamin D 2 supplement according to study. For example, vitamin D 2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable. By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms, or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested. Choline
4740-529: A way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include: Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society , which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh. Consumption of eggs is not considered to be a part of a vegetarian diet in India, as egg is an animal product that gives birth to
4898-403: A wide range of social and political topics such as king, ministers, taxes, justice, forts, war, greatness of army and soldier's honor, death sentence for the wicked, agriculture, education, and abstinence from alcohol and intoxicants. It also includes chapters on friendship, love, sexual unions, and domestic life. The text effectively denounced previously held misbeliefs that were common during
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5056-405: Is "undoubtedly patterned" and "very carefully structured." There are no structural gaps in the text, with every couplet indispensable for the structured whole. There are two distinct meanings for every couplet, namely, a structural one and a proverbial one. In their isolated form, that is, when removed from the context of the 10-couplet chapter, the couplets lose their structural meaning but retain
5214-416: Is a carnivorous diet (and includes insectivorous diets). Other mammals, called herbivores , eat plants, which contain complex carbohydrates such as cellulose. An herbivorous diet includes subtypes such as granivory (seed eating), folivory (leaf eating), frugivory (fruit eating), nectarivory (nectar eating), gummivory (gum eating) and mycophagy (fungus eating). The digestive tract of an herbivore
5372-595: Is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans , cashews , hempseed , kidney beans , broccoli , lentils , oatmeal , raisins , jaggery , spinach , cabbage , lettuce, black-eyed peas , soybeans , many breakfast cereals , sunflower seeds , chickpeas , tomato juice , tempeh , molasses , thyme , and whole-wheat bread . The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron. Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and
5530-483: Is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet. With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism an ideology and a social movement . Ethical reasons for choosing vegetarianism vary and are usually predicated on the interests of non-human animals . In many societies, controversies and debates have arisen over
5688-423: Is based on the language of the text, its allusions to the earlier works, and its borrowing from some Sanskrit treatises. Zvelebil notes that the text features several grammatical innovations that are absent in the older Sangam literature. The text also features a higher number of Sanskrit loan words compared with these older texts. According to Zvelebil, besides being part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition,
5846-448: Is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of palanquin or the rider in it. According to Albert Schweitzer , the idea that good must be done for its own sake comes from various couplets across the Kural text. In his 1999 work, Japanese Indologist Takanobu Takahashi noted that Valluvar dealt with virtues in terms of good rather than in terms of caste-based duties and when he discussed politics he addressed simply
6004-462: Is found in fungus (except alfalfa which is a plantae ) and created from viosterol , which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activates ergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as a sterol from ergot ). Any UV -irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D 2 . Human bioavailability of vitamin D 2 from vitamin D 2 -enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from
6162-400: Is host to bacteria that ferment these complex substances, and make them available for digestion, which are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum. Some mammals are coprophagous , consuming feces to absorb the nutrients not digested when the food was first ingested. An omnivore eats both prey and plants. Carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract because
6320-725: Is implicit in the last five chapters of Book I. The components of aṟam , poruḷ and inbam encompasses both the agam and puram genres of the Tamil literary tradition as explained in the Tolkappiyam. According to Sharma, dharma ( aṟam ) refers to ethical values for the holistic pursuit of life, artha ( poruḷ ) refers to wealth obtained in ethical manner guided by dharma , and kāma ( Inbam ) refers to pleasure and fulfilment of one's desires, also guided by dharma . The corresponding goals of poruḷ and inbam are desirable, yet both need to be regulated by aṟam , according to J. Arunadevi. On
6478-646: Is in microgram amounts, deficiency of the vitamin through strict practice of a vegetarian diet without supplementation can increase the risk of several chronic diseases. Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy , walnuts , pumpkin seeds, canola oil , kiwifruit , hempseed , algae , chia seed , flaxseed , echium seed and leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach , cabbage and purslane . Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Olives (and olive oil ) are another important plant source of unsaturated fatty acids. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid which
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6636-425: Is more complex, but is typically an activity of daily living . Physicians and dieticians consider a healthful diet essential for maintaining peak physical condition. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice: as part of a diet or as religious fasting. Limited consumption may be due to hunger or famine. Overconsumption of calories may lead to obesity and
6794-405: Is naturally found in foods of animal origin. Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B 12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from manufactured fortified foods (including plant-based products and breakfast cereals ) and dietary supplements. A strict vegan diet avoiding consumption of all animal products risks vitamin B 12 deficiency, which can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia ,
6952-491: Is no evidence of later revisions or insertions into the couplets. Thus, in spite of these later subdivisions by the medieval commentators, both the domestic and ascetic virtues in Book I are addressed to the householder or commoner. As Yu Hsi puts it, "Valluvar speaks to the duties of the commoner acting in different capacities as son, father, husband, friend, citizen, and so forth." According to A. Gopalakrishnan, ascetic virtues in
7110-515: Is not a sufficient cause. Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards. Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic. Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider
7268-433: Is not possible, as is often the case when recovering from surgery , alternatives are enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition . To maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive—mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways. Some eat other animals—this
7426-427: Is praised by scholars for his innate nature to select the virtues found in all the known works and present them in a manner that is considered common and acceptable to everyone. The author is remembered and cherished for his universal secular values, and his treatise has been called Ulaga Podhu Marai (the universal scripture). The Kural is structured into 133 chapters, each containing 10 couplets (or kurals), for
7584-559: Is the work of a single author because it has a consistent "language, formal structure and content-structure", states Zvelebil. Neither is the Kural an anthology nor is there any later additions to the text. The division into three parts ( muppāl ) is probably the author's work. However, the subdivisions beyond these three, known as iyal s, as found in some surviving manuscripts and commentaries, are likely later additions because there are variations between these subtitles found in manuscripts and those in historical commentaries. Starting from
7742-449: Is to provide a just rule, be impartial and have courage in protecting his subjects and in meting out justice and punishment. The text supports death penalty for the wicked in the book of poruḷ , but does so only after emphasizing non-killing as every individual's personal virtue in the book of aṟam . The Kural cautions against tyranny, appeasement and oppression, with the suggestion that such royal behavior causes natural disasters, depletes
7900-463: Is typically done to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and nutrients and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating
8058-640: Is typically not specifically addressed. Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened with bone char , cheeses that use animal rennet ( enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones, and connective tissue ), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar ) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon , while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients. In
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#17328633534078216-407: Is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Some species such as pigeons and some psittacine species do not have a gallbladder . Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein stored in many parts of their bodies, including protein from
8374-422: Is venerated for his selection of virtues found in the known literature and presenting them in a manner that is considered common and acceptable to all. The Tamil people and the government of Tamil Nadu have long celebrated and upheld the text with reverence. The term Tirukkuṟaḷ is a compound word made of two individual terms, tiru and kuṟaḷ . Tiru is an honorific Tamil term that corresponds to
8532-519: Is well documented that some ungulates such as giraffes, camels, and cattle, will gnaw on bones to consume particular minerals and nutrients. Also, cats, which are generally regarded as obligate carnivores, occasionally eat grass to regurgitate indigestible material (such as hairballs ), aid with hemoglobin production, and as a laxative. Birds' diets are varied and often include nectar , fruit, plants, seeds, carrion , and various small animals, including other birds. The digestive system of birds
8690-598: The Kural ( Tamil : குறள் ), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals , of seven words each. The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue ( aram ), wealth ( porul ) and love ( inbam ), respectively. It is widely acknowledged for its universality and secular nature. Its authorship is traditionally attributed to Valluvar , also known in full as Thiruvalluvar. The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. The traditional accounts describe it as
8848-618: The Ancient Romans . Ancient Hebrews also adopted this posture for traditional celebrations of Passover . Compulsive overeating, or emotional eating , is "the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions". Empirical studies have indicated that anxiety leads to decreased food consumption in people with normal weight and increased food consumption in the obese . Many laboratory studies showed that overweight individuals are more emotionally reactive and are more likely to overeat when distressed than people of normal weight. Furthermore, it
9006-500: The Bhagavad Gita , the Kural is one of the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics . The work largely reflects the first three of the four ancient Indian aims in life, known as purushaarthas , viz., virtue ( dharma ), wealth ( artha ) and love ( kama ). The fourth aim, namely, salvation ( moksha ) has been omitted from being dealt with as the fourth book since it does not lend itself to didactic treatment, but
9164-455: The Colonial era , to claim the work and its author as one of their own. The 19th-century Christian missionary George Uglow Pope , for example, claimed that Valluvar must have lived in the 9th century CE, come in contact with Christian teachers such as Pantaenus of Alexandria , imbibed Christian ideas and peculiarities of Alexandrian teachers and then wrote the "wonderful Kurral" with an "echo of
9322-503: The Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria ), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese. In Japan in 675, the Emperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in
9480-629: The Renaissance , becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom; Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay , though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived. The International Vegetarian Union , an association of the national societies,
9638-579: The Sangam era and permanently redefined the cultural values of the Tamil land . The Kural has influenced scholars and leaders across the ethical, social, political, economic, religious, philosophical, and spiritual spheres over its history. These include Ilango Adigal , Kambar , Leo Tolstoy , Mahatma Gandhi , Albert Schweitzer , Ramalinga Swamigal , V. O. Chidambaram Pillai , Karl Graul , George Uglow Pope , Alexander Piatigorsky , and Yu Hsi . The work remains
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#17328633534079796-676: The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services In Western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat , cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre , magnesium , potassium , folate , vitamins C and E , and phytochemicals . Studies have shown that
9954-567: The Universal House of Justice , the governing body of the Baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼí practice and that Baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs. Theravadins in general eat meat. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. However, this does not include eating meat which
10112-421: The gastrointestinal system , and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body's senses . The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food. The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin . Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to
10270-466: The hypothalamus that produce hunger, melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin . MCH plays a bigger role in producing hunger. In mice, MCH stimulates feeding and a mutation causing the overproduction of MCH led to overeating and obesity. Orexin plays a greater role in controlling the relationship between eating and sleeping. Other peptides in the hypothalamus that induce eating are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP). Satiety in
10428-479: The iyal subdivisions, the grouping of the couplets into chapters is the author's. Every topic that Valluvar handles in his work are presented in ten couplets forming a chapter, and the chapter is usually named using a keyword found in the couplets in it. Exceptions to this convention are found in all the three books of the Kural text as in Chapter 1 in the Book of Aram, Chapter 78 in the Book of Porul, and Chapter 117 in
10586-437: The late Sangam works , known in Tamil as Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku . The Kural has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third Sangam and was subjected to a divine test, which it passed. The scholars who believe this tradition, such as Somasundara Bharathiar and M. Rajamanickam, date the text to as early as 300 BCE. Historian K. K. Pillay assigned it to
10744-545: The precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots. Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons. The Council of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of
10902-459: The proteins , lipids and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion. Exceptions to this include baleen whales who also house gut flora in a multi-chambered stomach, like terrestrial herbivores. The size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type ( Allen's rule ). Since small mammals have a high ratio of heat-losing surface area to heat-generating volume, they tend to have high energy requirements and
11060-435: The "wise saying, moral maxim" sense. In isolation, a couplet is "a perfect form, possessing, in varying degree, the prosodic and rhetoric qualities of gnomic poetry." Within the chapter-structure, the couplets acquire their structural meaning and reveal the more complete teaching of the author. This, Zvelebil states, is the higher pattern in the Kural text, and finally, in relation to the entire work, they acquire perfection in
11218-636: The 'Sermon of the Mount'." This theory, however, is ahistorical and discredited. According to Zvelebil, the ethics and ideas in Valluvar's work are not Christian ethics . Albert Schweitzer hints that "the dating of the Kural has suffered, along with so many other literary and historical dates, philosophies and mythologies of India, a severe mauling at the hands of the Christian Missionaries, anxious to post-date all irrefutable examples of religious maturity to
11376-400: The 10th and the 13th centuries CE. Of these, only the works of Manakkudavar, Paridhi, Kaalingar, Pari Perumal, and Parimelalhagar are available today. The works of Dharumar, Dhaamatthar, and Nacchar are only partially available. The commentaries by Thirumalaiyar and Mallar are lost completely. The best known among these are the commentaries by Parimelalhagar, Kaalingar, and Manakkudavar. Among
11534-647: The 21st century, 90% of rennet and chymosin used in cheesemaking are derived from industrial fermentation processes, which satisfy both kosher and halal requirements. Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet, as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish, or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat, while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh. In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian". These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as
11692-573: The 9th century BCE, inculcating tolerance towards all living beings. Parshwanatha and Mahavira , the 23rd and 24th tirthankaras in Jainism , respectively, revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism. In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and
11850-458: The Book of Inbam, where the words used in title of the chapters are not found anywhere in the chapter's couplets. Here again, the titles of all the chapters of the Kural text are given by Valluvar himself. According to S. N. Kandasamy, the naming of the first chapter of the Kural text is in accord with the conventions used in the Tolkappiyam . According to Zvelebil, the content of the Kural text
12008-467: The Christian era." Valluvar is thought to have belonged to either Jainism or Hinduism . This can be observed in his treatment of the concept of ahimsa or non-violence , which is the principal concept of both the religions. In the 1819 translation, Francis Whyte Ellis mentions that the Tamil community debates whether Valluvar was a Jain or Hindu. According to Zvelebil, Valluvar's treatment of
12166-588: The Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity , vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India. Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish. Moreover, the medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals, porpoises , dolphins , barnacle geese , puffins , and beavers . Vegetarianism re-emerged during
12324-564: The Jaina tradition associates the work with Kunda Kunda Acharya , also known as Elachariyar in the Tamil region, the chief of the Southern Pataliputra Dravidian Sanghaat, who lived around the latter half of the first century BCE and the former half of the first century CE. Nevertheless, early Digambara or Śvetāmbara Jaina texts do not mention Valluvar or the Kural text. The first claim of Valluvar as an authority appears in
12482-615: The Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism
12640-493: The Kural does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life, but only refers to giving up immoderate desires and having self-control that is expected of every individual. According to Joanne Punzo Waghorne, professor of religion and South Asian studies at the Syracuse University , the Kural is "a homily on righteous living for the householder." Like the three-part division, and unlike
12798-679: The Kural text. According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of Brahminism , a rational analysis of the Kural text suggests that Valluvar was a Hindu, and not a Jain. Matthieu Ricard believes Valluvar belonged to the Shaivite tradition of South India. According to Thomas Manninezhath – a theology scholar who grew up in South India, the Tirukkuṟaḷ is believed by the natives to reflect Advaita Vedanta philosophy and teaches an "Advaitic way of life". Notwithstanding these debates, Valluvar
12956-462: The Kural text. Despite knowing its seemingly contradictory nature from a purist point of view, the author is said to employ this method to emphasise the importance of the given code of ethic. Following are some of the instances where Valluvar is quoted as employing pseudo-contradictions to expound the virtues. The ethical connections between these verses are widely elucidated ever since the medieval commentaries. For example, Parimelalhagar elucidates
13114-451: The Sanskrit term sri meaning "holy, sacred, excellent, honorable, and beautiful." The term tiru has as many as 19 different meanings in Tamil. Kuṟaḷ means something that is "short, concise, and abridged." Etymologically, kuṟaḷ is the shortened form of kuṟaḷ pāttu , which is derived from kuruvenpāttu , one of the two Tamil poetic forms explained by the Tolkappiyam ,
13272-496: The UK recommend three meals a day (with between 400 and 600 kcal per meal), with four to six hours between. Having three well-balanced meals (described as: half of the plate with vegetables, 1/4 protein food as meat, [...] and 1/4 carbohydrates as pasta, rice) will then amount to some 1800–2000 kcal, which is the average requirement for a regular person. In jurisdictions under Sharia law , it may be proscribed for Muslim adults during
13430-427: The act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value
13588-534: The amount of snacks they ate between meals was greater. One possible explanation that Lowe and Fisher suggest is obese individuals often eat their meals with others and do not eat more than average due to the reduction of distress because of the presence of other people. Another possible explanation would be that obese individuals do not eat more than the others while having meals due to social desirability. Conversely, snacks are usually eaten alone. There are many physiological mechanisms that control starting and stopping
13746-419: The animal suffering or a premature death. To produce milk from dairy cattle , farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption. Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread of factory farming and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without
13904-448: The author asserts as the most important economic activity later in Book II of the Kural text. "The greatest virtue of all is non-killing; truthfulness cometh only next." (Kural 323; Aiyar , 1916). The three books of the Kural base aṟam or dharma (virtue) as their cornerstone, resulting in the work being collectively referred to simply as Aṟam . Valluvar holds that aṟam
14062-472: The author of the Kural text. Along with various versions of his birth circumstances, many state he went to a mountain and met the legendary Agastya and other sages. There are also accounts claiming that, during his return journey, Valluvar sat under a tree whose shadow sat still over him and did not move the entire day, he killed a demon, and many more. Scholars consider these and all associated aspects of these hagiographic stories to be fiction and ahistorical,
14220-414: The author was also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition" as a few of the verses in the Kural text are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses of earlier Indian texts. In the 19th century and the early 20th century, European writers and missionaries variously dated the text and its author to between 400 and 1000 CE. According to Blackburn, the "current scholarly consensus" dates
14378-539: The author), Poyyamoli (the falseless word), Vayurai valttu (truthful praise), Teyvanul (the divine book), Potumarai (the common Veda), Valluva Maalai (garland made by the author), Tamil Manunool (Tamil ethical treatise), Tiruvalluva Payan (fruit of the author), Muppal (the three-fold path), and Tamilmarai (the Tamil Veda). The work is traditionally grouped under the Eighteen Lesser Texts series of
14536-425: The body. The brain stem's involvement of food intake has been researched using rats. Rats that have had the motor neurons in the brain stem disconnected from the neural circuits of the cerebral hemispheres (decerebration), are unable to approach and eat food. Instead, they must obtain their food in a liquid form. This research shows that the brain stem does in fact play a role in eating. There are two peptides in
14694-499: The body. Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher. Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens , mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini . Though calcium can be found in Spinach , swiss chard , beans and beet greens , they are generally not considered to be
14852-406: The brain that a person is hungry. Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs. When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting
15010-796: The case of hyenas , allowing them to consume bones; some extinct groups, notably the Machairodontinae , had saber-shaped canines . Some physiological carnivores consume plant matter and some physiological herbivores consume meat. From a behavioral aspect, this would make them omnivores, but from the physiological standpoint, this may be due to zoopharmacognosy . Physiologically, animals must be able to obtain both energy and nutrients from plant and animal materials to be considered omnivorous. Thus, such animals are still able to be classified as carnivores and herbivores when they are just obtaining nutrients from materials originating from sources that do not seemingly complement their classification. For example, it
15168-507: The chapters on moral vegetarianism and non-killing reflects the Jain precepts. Certain epithets for God and ascetic values found in the text are found in Jainism, states Zvelebil. He theorizes that Valluvar was probably "a learned Jain with eclectic leanings", who was well acquainted with the earlier Tamil literature and also had knowledge of the Sanskrit texts. According to A. Chakravarthy Nainar,
15326-459: The colonial era literature, all inferred from selective sections of his text or hagiographies published since the colonial era started in Tamil Nadu. One traditional version claims that he was a Paraiyar weaver. Another theory is that he must have been from the agricultural caste of Vellalars because he extols agriculture in his work. Another states he was an outcaste, born to a Pariah woman and
15484-443: The comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has. One of the main differences between a vegan and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes
15642-477: The crucial test to be applied according to M. S. Purnalingam Pillai is to analyze what religious philosophy he has not condemned, adding that Valluvar has "not said a word against" the Saiva Siddhanta principles. The Kural text is aphoristic and non-denominational in nature and can be selectively interpreted in many ways. This has led almost every major religious group in India, including Christianity during
15800-446: The daylight hours of Ramadan . Newborn babies do not eat adult foods. They survive solely on breast milk or formula . Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to young infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth and immature digestive systems. Between 8 and 12 months of age,
15958-401: The diet is properly planned. Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese. Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet. Broccoli , bok choy , and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in
16116-522: The different regions of the world, as culture influences the way people eat their meals. For example, most of the Middle Eastern countries, eating while sitting on the floor is most common, and it is believed to be healthier than eating while sitting at a table. Eating in a reclining position was favored by the Ancient Greeks at a celebration they called a symposium , and this custom was adopted by
16274-526: The digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is still limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age, and often have a limited number of incisors . By 18 months, babies often have enough teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults. Learning to eat is a messy process for children, and children often do not master neatness or eating etiquette until they are five or six years old. Eating positions vary according to
16432-451: The earliest commentaries to the Kural text. Dedicated commentaries on the Kural text began to appear about and after the 10th century CE. There were at least ten medieval commentaries of which only six have survived into the modern era. The ten medieval commentators include Manakkudavar , Dharumar , Dhamatthar , Nacchar , Paridhiyar , Thirumalaiyar , Mallar , Pari Perumal , Kaalingar , and Parimelalhagar , all of whom lived between
16590-442: The early 1st century CE. According to Kamil Zvelebil , a Czech scholar of Tamil literature, these early dates such as 300 BCE to 1 BCE are unacceptable and not supported by evidence within the text. The diction and grammar of the Kural, and Valluvar's indebtedness to some earlier Sanskrit sources, suggest that he lived after the "early Tamil bardic poets," but before Tamil bhakti poets era. In 1959, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai assigned
16748-528: The entire body. In anorexia nervosa, people restrict their calorie intake out of fear of gaining weight. This malnutrition leads to an unhealthy weight, significantly impacting overall health. Bulimia is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating, involving the consumption of a substantial amount of food within a short period. Subsequently, individuals engage in maladaptive behaviors, such as inducing vomiting, excessive physical activity, and using laxatives as compensatory measures. If eating and drinking
16906-626: The entire work, with the shortest ones (kurals 833 and 1304) containing 23 letters and the longest ones (kurals 957 and 1246) containing 39 letters each. Among the 133 chapters, the fifth chapter is the longest with 339 letters and the 124th chapter is the shortest with 280 letters. Of the 1,330 couplets in the text, 40 couplets relate to god, rain, ascetics, and virtue; 340 on fundamental everyday virtues of an individual; 250 on royalty; 100 on ministers of state; 220 on essential requirements of administration; 130 on social morality, both positive and negative; and 250 on human love and passion. Along with
17064-512: The ethical connections between couplets 380 and 620, 481 and 1028, 373 and 396, and 383 and 672 in his commentary. The Kural is one of the most reviewed of all works in Tamil literature , and almost every notable scholar of Tamil has written exegesis or commentaries (explanation in prose or verse), known in Tamil as urai , on it. Some of the Tamil literature that was composed after the Kural quote or borrow its couplets in their own texts. According to Aravindan, these texts may be considered as
17222-519: The ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo , such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms , or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras . Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving
17380-411: The fat stored in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin , and leptin suppresses appetite. Long-term satiety signals from adipose tissue regulates short-term satiety signals. Cessation of eating within two hours of sleeping can reduce body weight. The brain stem can control food intake, because it contains neural circuits that detect hunger and satiety signals from other parts of
17538-461: The first line and three on the second, following the kural metre . A cir is a single or a combination of more than one Tamil word. For example, the term Tirukkuṟaḷ is a cir formed by combining the two words tiru and kuṟaḷ . The Kural text has a total of 9310 cir s made of 12,000 Tamil words, of which about 50 words are from Sanskrit and the remaining are Tamil original words. A manual count has shown that there are in total 42,194 letters in
17696-465: The following subdivisions or iyal s are found in Parimelalhagar 's version, which greatly varies from that of Manakkudavar : Modern scholars and publishers chiefly follow Parimelalhagar's model for couplet numbering, chapter ordering, and grouping the chapters into iyal s. Such subdivisions are likely later additions, but the couplets themselves have been preserved in the original form and there
17854-472: The four immoral deeds of meat-eating , alcohol consumption , polygamy , and prostitution , the Kural literature strongly condemns these as crimes, reportedly for the first time in the history of the Tamil land . In addition to these, the Kural also strongly proscribes gambling. The Kural is based on the doctrine of ahimsa . According to Schweitzer, the Kural "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage." Accordingly, Valluvar dictates
18012-722: The hero as "a one-woman man" without concubines. In a social and political context, the Kural text glorifies valour and victory during war and recommends a death sentence for the wicked only as a means of justice. According to Kaushik Roy, the Kural text in substance is a classic on realism and pragmatism, and it is not a mystic, purely philosophical document. Valluvar presents his theory of state using six elements: army ( patai ), subjects ( kuti ), treasure ( kul ), ministers ( amaiccu ), allies ( natpu ), and forts ( aran ). Valluvar also recommends forts and other infrastructure, supplies and food storage in preparation for siege. A king and his army must always be ready for war, and should launch
18170-489: The householder to renounce the eating of meat "in order that he may become a man of grace." While the Bible and other Abrahamic texts condemns only the taking away of human life, the Kural is cited for unequivocally and exclusively condemning the "literal taking away of life," regardless of whether it is human or animal. The greatest of personal virtues according to the Kural text is non-killing , followed by veracity , and
18328-806: The human body uses to synthesize the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA . EPA and DHA can be obtained directly in high amounts from oily fish, fish oil, or algae oil. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.. Significantly, for vegetarians, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA). Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as
18486-1076: The hypothalamus is stimulated by leptin. Leptin targets the receptors on the arcuate nucleus and suppresses the secretion of MCH and orexin. The arcuate nucleus also contains two more peptides that suppress hunger. The first one is cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), the second is α-MSH (α- melanocyte-stimulating hormone ). Physiologically, eating is generally triggered by hunger , but there are numerous physical and psychological conditions that can affect appetite and disrupt normal eating patterns. These include depression , food allergies , ingestion of certain chemicals, bulimia , anorexia nervosa , pituitary gland malfunction and other endocrine problems, and numerous other illnesses and eating disorders . A chronic lack of nutritious food can cause various illnesses, and will eventually lead to starvation . While changes in appetite can result from various physical and psychological conditions, including depression, allergies, and anxiety; anorexia and bulimia are specific eating disorders that profoundly impact
18644-469: The intestines, as additional energy during migration. Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists, while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists. Avian foraging strategies can vary widely by species. Many birds glean for insects, invertebrates, fruit, or seeds. Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from
18802-556: The king is the firm support of the Vedas of the Brahmin, and of all virtues therein described." (Kural 543; John Lazarus 1885 & A. K. Ananthanathan 1994 ). The Kural text does not recommend democracy; rather it accepts a royalty with ministers bound to a code of ethics and a system of justice. The king in the text, states K. V. Nagarajan, is assigned the "role of producing, acquiring, conserving, and dispensing wealth". The king's duty
18960-828: The last work of the third Sangam , but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period. The Kural text is among the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics. The work is traditionally praised with epithets and alternative titles, including "the Tamil Veda" and "the Divine Book." Written on the ideas of ahimsa , it emphasizes non-violence and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual. In addition, it highlights virtues such as truthfulness, self-restraint, gratitude, hospitality, kindness, goodness of spouse, duty, giving, and so forth, besides covering
19118-409: The liver. The long-term signals of satiety come from adipose tissue . The taste and odor of food can contribute to short-term satiety, allowing the body to learn when to stop eating. The stomach contains receptors to allow us to know when we are full. The intestines also contain receptors that send satiety signals to the brain. The hormone cholecystokinin is secreted by the duodenum , and it controls
19276-420: The majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat. Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors of East Asian Buddhism ) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat, and traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well. Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret
19434-502: The markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat. — Faxian , Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE), A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated by James Legge ) Among the Hellenes , Egyptians , and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual purification purposes. Vegetarianism
19592-431: The medieval era, commentators have multifariously divided the Kural text into different iyal sub-divisions, grouping the Kural chapters diversely under them. The idea of subdividing the Tirukkural into iyal sub-divisions was first put forth by a Tiruvalluva Maalai verse attributed to Nanpalur Sirumedhaviyar . The medieval commentators have variously grouped the chapters of Book I into three and four iyal s, grouping
19750-430: The most translated, the most cited, and the most citable of Tamil literary works. The text has been translated into at least 57 Indian and non-Indian languages, making it one of the most translated ancient works . Ever since it came to print for the first time in 1812, the Kural text has never been out of print. The Kural is considered a masterpiece and one of the most important texts of the Tamil literature . Its author
19908-539: The next generation of the relevant species. On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 – A report issued by
20066-619: The nineteenth century during the Meiji Restoration . In China, during the Song dynasty , Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such as beans , gluten , root vegetables and mushrooms to create meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu , seitan and konjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine. Following
20224-415: The original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely; while Parimelalhagar divided it into three iyal s, others divided it into four, with some 20th-century commentators going up to six. Book II has been variously subdivided between three and six iyal s. The chapters of Book III have been variously grouped between two and five iyal s. For example,
20382-494: The other one being neduvenpāttu . According to Miron Winslow , kuṟaḷ is used as a literary term to indicate "a metrical line of 2 feet, or a distich or couplet of short lines, the first of 4 and the second of 3 feet." Thus, Tirukkuṟaḷ literally comes to mean "sacred couplets." The work is highly cherished in the Tamil culture, as reflected by its twelve traditional titles: Tirukkuṟaḷ (the sacred kural), Uttaravedam (the ultimate Veda ), Tiruvalluvar (eponymous with
20540-596: The other. Since plants and meat are digested differently, there is a preference for one over the other, as in bears where some species may be mostly carnivorous and others mostly herbivorous. They are grouped into three categories: mesocarnivory (50–70% meat), hypercarnivory (70% and greater of meat), and hypocarnivory (50% or less of meat). The dentition of hypocarnivores consists of dull, triangular carnassial teeth meant for grinding food. Hypercarnivores, however, have conical teeth and sharp carnassials meant for slashing, and in some cases strong jaws for bone-crushing, as in
20698-402: The presence or absence of eggs and dairy products in the diet or other reliable B 12 sources, vegetarians may incur a nutritional deficiency . Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients. While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence. The first written use of
20856-453: The rain for being the vitalizer of all life forms on earth. It proceeds to describe the qualities of a righteous person, before concluding the introduction by emphasizing the value of aṟam or virtue. It continues to treat aṟam in every action in life, supplementing it with a chapter on predestination. Valluvar extols rain next only to God for it provides food and serves as the basis of a stable economic life by aiding in agriculture, which
21014-422: The raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein . Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to
21172-437: The rate at which the stomach is emptied. This hormone is thought to be a satiety signal to the brain. Peptide YY 3-36 is a hormone released by the small intestine and it is also used as a satiety signal to the brain. Insulin also serves as a satiety signal to the brain. The brain detects insulin in the blood, which indicates that nutrients are being absorbed by cells and a person is getting full. Long-term satiety comes from
21330-428: The reasons behind it are myriad, however, its prevalence has led some to declare an " obesity epidemic ". Many homes have a large kitchen area devoted to preparation of meals and food, and may have a dining room, dining hall, or another designated area for eating. Most societies also have restaurants , food courts , and food vendors so that people may eat when away from home, when lacking time to prepare food, or as
21488-717: The same lines, Amaladass concludes that the Kural expresses that dharma and artha should not be separated from one another. According to Indian philosophical tradition, one must remain unattached to wealth and possessions, which can either be transcended or sought with detachment and awareness, and pleasure needs to be fulfilled consciously and without harming anyone. The Indian tradition also holds that there exists an inherent tension between artha and kama . Thus, wealth and pleasure must be pursued with an "action with renunciation" ( Nishkama Karma ), that is, one must act without craving in order to resolve this tension. The content of Tirukkuṟaḷ , according to Zvelebil: The Kural text
21646-525: The separation of ecological niches . Loons , diving ducks , penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater, using their wings or feet for propulsion, while aerial predators such as sulids , kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey. Flamingos , three species of prion , and some ducks are filter feeders . Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers. Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7 The Tirukkuṟaḷ ( Tamil : திருக்குறள் , lit. 'sacred verses'), or shortly
21804-403: The state's wealth and ultimately results in the loss of power and prosperity. In the sphere of business, a study employing hermeneutics concludes that the Kural advocates a consciousness and spirit-centered approach to the subject of business ethics on the basis of eternal values and moral principles that should govern the conduct of business leaders. Valluvar remained a generalist rather than
21962-448: The teachings found in Hindu texts. The three parts that the Kural is divided into, namely, aṟam (virtue), poruḷ (wealth) and inbam (love), aiming at attaining veedu (ultimate salvation), follow, respectively, the four foundations of Hinduism, namely, dharma , artha , kama and moksha . While the text extols the virtue of non-violence, it also dedicates many of 700 poruḷ couplets to various aspects of statecraft and warfare in
22120-522: The teachings in the Kural text, according to Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the Arthashastra and Manusmriti (also called the Manavadharmasastra ). In his treatise of Tamil literary history published in 1974, Zvelebil states that the Kural text does not belong to the Sangam period and dates it to somewhere between 450 and 500 CE. His estimate
22278-571: The term "vegetarian" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet. Historically, 'vegetable' could be used to refer to any type of edible vegetation . Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable ( adjective ) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian ). The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847, although it may have appeared in print before 1847. The earliest occurrences of
22436-474: The term seem to be related to Alcott House —a school on the north side of Ham Common, London —which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves . From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College , and the institution then began to publish its own pamphlet, The Healthian . It provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian". The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from
22594-534: The text and the author to approximately 500 CE. In 1921, in the face of incessant debate on the precise date, the Tamil Nadu government officially declared 31 BCE as the year of Valluvar at a conference presided over by Maraimalai Adigal . On 18 January 1935, the Valluvar Year was added to the calendar. "The book without a name by an author without a name." — E. S. Ariel , 1848 The Kural text
22752-422: The text does not feature "true and great poetry" throughout the work, except, notably, in the third book , which deals with love and pleasure. This emphasis on substance rather than poetry, according to scholars, suggests that Valluvar's main aim was not to produce a work of art, but rather an instructive text focused on wisdom, justice, and ethics. The Kural text begins with an invocation of God and then praises
22910-462: The totality of their structure. In terms of structural flow, the text journeys the reader from "the imperfect, incomplete" state of man implicit in the early chapters to the "physically, morally, intellectually and emotionally perfect" state of man living as a husband and citizen, states Zvelebil. In poetic terms, it fuses verse and aphoristic form in diction in a "pithy, vigorous, forceful and terse" manner. Zvelebil calls it an ethics text that expounds
23068-450: The two greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and meat-eating . According to J. M. Nallaswamy Pillai, the Kural differs from every other work on morality in that it follows ethics, surprisingly a divine one, even in its Book of Love. In the words of Gopalkrishna Gandhi , Valluvar maintains his views on personal morality even in the Book of Love, where one can normally expect greater poetic leniency, by describing
23226-567: The value of reading and reciting scriptures, he never names them; he talks about the values of charity without laying down the rules for it; though he repeatedly emphasizes about the importance of learning, he never says what is to be learnt; he recommends taxation in governance but does not suggest any proportion of collection. Scholars claim that Valluvar seldom shows any concern as to what similes and superlatives he used earlier while writing later chapters, purposely allowing for some repetitions and apparent contradictions in ideas one can find in
23384-434: The vegetarian diet: an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products , while a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet includes both. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, a vegan diet excludes all animal products , and can be accompanied by abstention from the use of animal-derived products, such as leather shoes. Vegetarian diets pose some difficulties. For vitamin B 12 , depending on
23542-759: The work to around or after the 6th century CE. His proposal is based on the evidence that the Kural text contains a large proportion of Sanskrit loan words, shows awareness and indebtedness to some Sanskrit texts best dated to the first half of the 1st millennium CE, and the grammatical innovations in the language of the Kural literature. Pillai published a list of 137 Sanskrit loan words in the Kural text. Later scholars such as Thomas Burrow and Murray Barnson Emeneau show that 35 of these are of Dravidian origin and not Sanskrit loan words. Zvelebil states that an additional few have uncertain etymology and that future studies may prove those to be Dravidian. The 102 remaining loan words from Sanskrit are "not negligible", and some of
23700-616: Was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BCE. The Orphics , a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism. Greek teacher Pythagoras , who promoted the altruistic doctrine of metempsychosis , may have practiced vegetarianism, but is also recorded as eating meat. A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears in Ovid 's Metamorphoses , in which he advocates
23858-494: Was authored by Thiruvalluvar ( lit. Saint Valluvar). He is known by various other names including Poyyil Pulavar, Mudharpavalar, Deivappulavar, Nayanar, Devar, Nanmukanar, Mathanubangi, Sennabbodhakar, and Perunavalar. There is negligible authentic information available about Valluvar's life. For all practical purposes, neither his actual name nor the original title of his work can be determined with certainty. The Kural text itself does not name its author. The name Thiruvalluvar
24016-551: Was cited as one of the Ebionites' "errors". At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet. Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society . Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance . Eating Eating (also known as consuming ) is the ingestion of food . In biology, this
24174-502: Was consistently found that obese individuals experience negative emotions more frequently and more intensively than do normal weight persons. The naturalistic study by Lowe and Fisher compared the emotional reactivity and emotional eating of normal and overweight female college students. The study confirmed the tendency of obese individuals to overeat, but these findings applied only to snacks, not to meals. That means that obese individuals did not tend to eat more while having meals; rather,
24332-531: Was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick. He stated that there are no requirements that Baháʼís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian. `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion. While Shoghi Effendi , the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals, both he and
24490-680: Was first mentioned in the later era Shaivite Hindu text known as the Tiruvalluva Maalai , also of unclear date. However, the Tiruvalluva Maalai does not mention anything about Valluvar's birth, family, caste or background. No other authentic pre-colonial texts have been found to support any legends about the life of Valluvar. Starting around early 19th century, numerous inconsistent legends on Valluvar in various Indian languages and English were published. Various claims have been made regarding Valluvar's family background and occupation in
24648-477: Was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns. There are a number of vegetarian diets that exclude or include various foods: Within the " ovo- " groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilized eggs (with balut being an extreme example); however, such distinction
24806-634: Was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Shakyamuni Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant , horse , dog , snake , lion, tiger, leopard, bear , and hyena flesh) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made. In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism , Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including
24964-476: Was promoted by religious groups and philosophers. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism; and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed. The ancient Indian work of the Tirukkuṟaḷ , dated before the 5th century CE, explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing as
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