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121-749: Nordenskiöld had already conducted a series of expeditions in the Arctic, including to Svalbard , West Greenland , the Kara Sea and the Yenisei River . In 1877, Nordenskiöld began planning the expedition to find the Northeast Passage, and in July he presented a detailed plan to King Oscar II , who accepted the proposal. Additional funds were provided by members of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography and

242-508: A demilitarized zone , as the treaty prohibits the establishment of military installations on the islands. However, since the treaty recognizes Norway as the sovereign power in the archipelago, the country claims exclusive rights in the maritime zone around the islands; rights which Norway argues permit the Norwegian Coast Guard to conduct fishery and other maritime surveillance and enforcement in these waters. Certain other parties to

363-575: A Norwegian coal mining company, owns 4%, Arktikugol , a Russian coal mining company, owns 0.4%, while other private owners hold 0.4%. As Svalbard is north of the Arctic Circle , it experiences midnight sun in summer and polar night in winter. At 74° north, the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days, while the respective figures at 81° north are 141 and 128 days. In Longyearbyen, midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August, and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February. In winter,

484-543: A Russian crew for an expedition in 1795. After the Anglo-Russian War in 1809, Russian activity on Svalbard diminished, and had ceased by the 1820s. Norwegian whaling was abandoned about the same time as the Russians left, but whaling continued around Spitsbergen until the 1830s, and around Bjørnøya until the 1860s. By the 1890s, Svalbard had become a destination for Arctic tourism , coal deposits had been found, and

605-567: A breeding ground, and it is home to polar bears , reindeer , the Arctic fox , and certain marine mammals. Seven national parks and 23 nature-reserves cover two-thirds of the archipelago, protecting the largely untouched fragile environment. Norway announced new regulations regarding tourism in February 2024, including a maximum of 200 people on a ship, to protect flora and fauna in Svalbard. While part of

726-675: A full part of the Kingdom of Norway. The Svalbard Treaty established Svalbard as a free economic zone and restricts the military use of the archipelago. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies in place. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries, with the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault playing critical roles in

847-546: A garrison in the islands, which was done in May 1942 during Operation Fritham . Meanwhile, the Germans responded to the destruction of the weather station by establishing a reporting station of their own, codenamed "Banso" , in October 1941. They were chased away in October by a visit from what the Germans mistook to be four British warships, but later returned. A second station, "Knospe",

968-462: A global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases . Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to

1089-426: A maximum speed is 22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) with more than 60 days endurance and the complement is up to 100 people. The first ship, KV Jan Mayen , was delivered in early 2023. These vessels will complement NoCGV  Svalbard which predominantly serves Svalbard and the surrounding waters. In 2023, Norway also announced the acquisition of six MH-60R helicopters which are to be initially deployed with

1210-451: A maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of the continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of

1331-544: A number of islands. These include those controlled by surrounding countries, and independent island states and territories. Of the non-coastal islands, there are two broad clusters: one around Madagascar, and one south of India. A few other oceanic islands are scattered elsewhere. In contrast to the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It

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1452-463: A period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in

1573-787: A process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), cheetah ( Acynonix jubatus ), elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), and lion ( Panthera leo ). This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area")

1694-522: A separate policy called "Regulations relating to rejection and expulsion of persons from Svalbard". Among the requirements is that residents must have the means to be able to reside on Svalbard. These requirements apply to both foreigners and Norwegian citizens, and the Governor of Svalbard may reject persons who do not meet the requirements. Russia retains a consulate in Barentsburg . In September 2010,

1815-536: A significant garbage patch . Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played a key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and geopolitical concerns in the region include the effects of climate change , piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when

1936-501: A source of income can be rejected by the governor. No one is required to have a visa or residence permit on Svalbard. Regardless of citizenship, persons can live and work in Svalbard indefinitely. The Svalbard Treaty grants treaty nationals equal right of abode as Norwegian nationals. So far, non-treaty nationals have been admitted visa-free as well. While there is no visa requirement, everyone must meet certain requirements in order to stay in Svalbard. These requirements are governed by

2057-464: A strong coastal and open ocean upwelling , which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to

2178-496: A summer population of 180. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute has outposts at Bjørnøya and Hopen, with ten and four inhabitants, respectively. Both can also house temporary research staff. Poland operates the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund , with ten permanent residents. The Soviet mining settlement of Pyramiden was abandoned in 1998, leaving Barentsburg as the only permanently inhabited Russian settlement. It

2299-499: A treaty was signed between Russia and Norway fixing the boundary between the Svalbard archipelago and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago . Increased interest in petroleum exploration in the Arctic raised interest in a resolution of the dispute. The agreement takes into account the relative positions of the archipelagos, rather than being based simply on northward extension of the continental border of Norway and Russia. Svalbard constitutes

2420-651: A view to using them as a base of operations to send supplies to north Russia, but the idea was rejected as impractical. Instead, with the agreement of the Soviets and the Norwegian government in exile, in August 1941 the Norwegian and Soviet settlements on Svalbard were evacuated, and facilities there destroyed, in Operation Gauntlet . However, the Norwegian government in exile decided it would be important politically to establish

2541-499: Is Wijdefjorden (108 km or 67 mi), followed by Isfjorden (107 km or 66 mi), Van Mijenfjorden (83 km or 52 mi), Woodfjorden (64 km or 40 mi), and Wahlenbergfjorden (46 km or 29 mi). Svalbard is part of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province , and experienced Norway's strongest earthquake on 6 March 2009 at magnitude 6.5. The Dutchman Willem Barentsz made

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2662-495: Is 61,022 km (23,561 sq mi), and dominated by the island of Spitsbergen, which constitutes more than half the archipelago, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. All settlements are on Spitsbergen, except the meteorological outposts on Bjørnøya and Hopen . The Norwegian state took possession of all unclaimed land, or 95.2% of the archipelago, at the time the Svalbard Treaty entered into force; Store Norske ,

2783-510: Is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean . North of mainland Europe , it lies about midway between the northern coast of Norway and the North Pole . The islands of the group range from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The largest island is Spitsbergen , followed in size by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya . The largest settlement is Longyearbyen on

2904-614: Is a modern Norwegian analogue of Svalbarði , which in turn derives from svalr ('cold') and barð ('edge', 'ridge', 'turf', 'beard'). The Icelandic Annals record that Svalbarði was discovered in 1194, while the Landnámabók places it four days' sailing north of Langanes . The word dægr "day" might mean either 12 or 24 hours; Isachsen took the latter interpretation, thus discounting Jan Mayen as Svalbarði . Cultural studies academic Roald Berg says Svalbarði more likely referred to part of Greenland , but

3025-487: Is a company town: all facilities are owned by Arktikugol, which operates a coal mine. In addition to the mining facilities, Arktikugol has opened a hotel and souvenir shop, catering to tourists taking day trips or hikes from Longyearbyen. The village features a school, library, sports center, community center, swimming pool, farm, and greenhouse. Pyramiden features similar facilities; both are built in typical post-World War II Soviet architectural and planning style and contain

3146-464: Is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands ,

3267-416: Is a permanent research settlement in the northwest of Spitsbergen and the northernmost functional civilian settlement in the world. Formerly a mining town, it is still a company town operated by the Norwegian state-owned Kings Bay company. While some tourism to the outpost is permitted, Norwegian authorities limit access to minimize impact on scientific work. Ny-Ålesund has a winter population of 35 and

3388-505: Is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of the Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break ) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with

3509-670: Is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of the Malacca , Sunda and Torres Straits . The Gulf of Carpentaria is located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of

3630-463: Is not governed by Norway's policies on migration and does not issue visas or residence permits itself. Foreigners do not need a visa or work and residence permits from the Norwegian authorities to travel to Svalbard. However, foreign citizens with a visa requirement for the Schengen Area must have a Schengen visa when travelling to and from Svalbard via mainland Norway. The Svalbard Act established

3751-468: Is now named after India , which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It is the only ocean named after a country. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere . Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on

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3872-659: Is part of University Hospital of North Norway , while the airport is operated by state-owned Avinor . Ny-Ålesund and Barentsburg remain company towns with all infrastructure owned by Kings Bay and Arktikugol. Other public offices with presence on Svalbard are the Norwegian Directorate of Mining , the Norwegian Polar Institute , the Norwegian Tax Administration , and the Church of Norway . Svalbard

3993-623: Is possible to ski from Sørkapp in the south to the north of Spitsbergen, with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier. Kvitøya is 99.3% covered by glacier. The landforms of Svalbard were created through repeated ice ages , when glaciers cut the former plateau into fjords, valleys, and mountains. The tallest peak is Newtontoppen (1,717 m or 5,633 ft), followed by Perriertoppen (1,712 m or 5,617 ft), Ceresfjellet (1,675 m or 5,495 ft), Chadwickryggen (1,640 m or 5,380 ft), and Galileotoppen (1,637 m or 5,371 ft). The longest fjord

4114-464: Is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during

4235-704: Is subordinate to Nord-Troms District Court and Hålogaland Court of Appeal , both in Tromsø . Although Norway is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and the Schengen Agreement , Svalbard is not part of the Schengen Area or the EEA. Non-EU and non-Nordic Svalbard residents do not need Schengen visas for Svalbard itself, but those travelling via mainland Norway require visas to pass through Norway. People without

4356-610: The East African Rift valley , the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) and Speke's gazelle ( Gazella spekei ); the Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) and hamadryas baboon ( Papio hamadryas ). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia,

4477-505: The European Economic Area . Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country-code "SJ". Both areas are administered by Norway, though they are separated by a distance of over 950 kilometres (510 nautical miles) and have very different administrative structures. The name Svalbard was officially adopted for the archipelago by Norway under the 1925 Svalbard Act which formally annexed it. The former name Spitsbergen

4598-588: The European Space Research Organisation . Petroleum test drilling was started in 1963 and continued until 1984, but no commercially viable fields were found. From 1960, regular charter flights were made from the mainland to a field at Hotellneset ; in 1975, Svalbard Airport, Longyearbyen opened, allowing year-round services. During the Cold War , the Soviet Union comprised about two-thirds of

4719-532: The Heerodden helicopter accident , which killed three people. Longyearbyen remained purely a company town until 1989 when utilities, culture, and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift. In 1993, it was sold to the national government and the University Centre was established. Through the 1990s, tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and mining. Longyearbyen

4840-746: The International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally , the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian , running south from Cape Agulhas , South Africa, and from

4961-773: The Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves . Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre,

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5082-668: The Orthodox Church . Catholics on the archipelago are pastorally served by the Territorial Prelature of Tromsø . The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 established full Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago. The islands are, unlike the Norwegian Antarctic territories , a part of the Kingdom of Norway and not a dependency . The treaty came into effect in 1925, following the Svalbard Act. All forty-eight signatory countries of

5203-727: The Royal Society of Sciences and Letters in Gothenburg , and private individuals, notably Swedish industrialist and philanthropist Oscar Dickson (1823-1897) and Russian industrialist Alexander Sibiryakov (1849–1933). The steamship Vega , constructed in 1872 at Bremerhaven as a sealer and whaler, was bought for the expedition, and was converted at the Karlskrona naval shipyards in Blekinge , Sweden, with government funding. Sibiryakov also equipped another steamship, Lena , which would accompany

5324-504: The Shelf break , also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that the "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica ." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with

5445-453: The Svalbard Act regulated the archipelago and the first governor , Johannes Gerckens Bassøe , took office. The archipelago has traditionally been known as Spitsbergen, and the main island as West Spitsbergen. During the 1920s, Norway renamed the archipelago Svalbard, and the main island became Spitsbergen. Kvitøya , Kong Karls Land , Hopen , and Bjørnøya were not regarded as part of

5566-752: The Zambezi , Ganges - Brahmaputra , Indus , Jubba , and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab , Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on the Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans . Marginal seas , gulfs, bays and straits of

5687-616: The runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow . This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36  PSU ) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In

5808-544: The 1820s, when the Dutch, British, and Danish whalers moved elsewhere in the Arctic. By the late 17th century, Russian hunters arrived; they overwintered to a greater extent and hunted land mammals such as the polar bear and fox. Norwegian hunting—mostly for walrus—started in the 1790s. The first Norwegian citizens to reach Spitsbergen proper were a number of Coast Sámi people from the Hammerfest region, who were hired as part of

5929-478: The 1925 renaming cemented Norwegian sovereignty as recognised by the 1920 Spitsbergen Treaty (now the Svalbard Treaty ). The name Spitsbergen originated with Dutch navigator and explorer Willem Barentsz , who in 1596 described the "pointed mountains" or, in Dutch, spitse bergen that he saw on the west coast of the main island. Barentsz did not recognize that he had discovered an archipelago, and consequently

6050-453: The Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when

6171-404: The Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea

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6292-632: The Chukchi language to such a degree that he managed to make a dictionary from Swedish to Chukchi. The expedition spent the winter there. Vega could be freed from the ice only the next summer, on 18 August 1879, and it reached Bering Strait on 20 August. Vega stopped in Japan for repairs for almost two months, and returned to Sweden through the Indian Ocean and the Suez Canal . It returned to Stockholm on 24 April 1880. Svalbard Svalbard ( / ˈ s v ɑː l b ɑːr ( d )/ SVAHL -bar(d) , Urban East Norwegian: [ˈsvɑ̂ːɫbɑr] ), previously known as Spitsbergen or Spitzbergen ,

6413-424: The Coast Guard, though they are to be prepared to be equipped for anti-submarine operations as well. The Royal Norwegian Navy patrols waters of the Svalbard Archipelago at least once a year with a Fridtjof Nansen -class frigate . Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of

6534-462: The Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspots nine (or 25%) are located on

6655-403: The East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre , this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel , and back to Australia in

6776-421: The Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez . The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal , which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz . In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from

6897-507: The Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In

7018-436: The Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while the Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb . In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from

7139-457: The Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries . Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina , are important to bird life. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are

7260-424: The Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in

7381-666: The Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems : the Agulhas Current , Somali Coastal Current , Red Sea , Arabian Sea , Bay of Bengal , Gulf of Thailand , West Central Australian Shelf , Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf . Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of

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7502-432: The Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude , similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24  Gt . Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes

7623-411: The Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming

7744-466: The Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf . In terms of geology, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots . The climate of the Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons . It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with

7865-427: The Kingdom of Norway since 1925, Svalbard is not part of geographical Norway; administratively, the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county , but forms an unincorporated area . This means that it is administered directly by the Norwegian government through an appointed governor , and is a special jurisdiction subject to the Svalbard Treaty that is outside of the Schengen Area , the Nordic Passport Union , and

7986-428: The Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ( lit.   ' Indian Eastern Ocean ' ) is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean , a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean ( Atlantic ) before the Pacific was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used. The Hindi name for

8107-408: The Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming , Heinrich , and Younger Dryas . The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in

8228-399: The Norwegians returned and re-established their presence. In September 1944, the Germans set up their last weather station, Operation Haudegen in Nordaustlandet ; it functioned until after the German surrender. On 4 September 1945, the soldiers were picked up by a Norwegian seal hunting vessel and surrendered to its captain. This group of men were the last German troops to surrender after

8349-426: The Ocean is हिंद महासागर ( Hind Mahāsāgar ; lit. transl.  Ocean of India ). Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during the Ming dynasty ) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography , the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea . The borders of the Indian Ocean , as delineated by

8470-450: The Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are ( order 5 )

8591-415: The Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf . The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of

8712-488: The Second World War. After the war, the Soviet Union proposed common Norwegian and Soviet administration and military defence of Svalbard. This was rejected in 1947 by Norway, which two years later joined NATO . The Soviet Union retained high civilian activity on Svalbard, in part to ensure that the archipelago was not used by NATO. After the war, Norway re-established operations at Longyearbyen and Ny-Ålesund, while

8833-556: The Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by

8954-536: The Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone . North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude , temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of

9075-516: The Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth , was discovered off Sulawesi Island , Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in

9196-408: The Soviet Union established mining in Barentsburg, Pyramiden , and Grumant . The mine at Ny-Ålesund had several fatal accidents, killing 71 people while it was in operation from 1945 to 1954 and from 1960 to 1963. The Kings Bay Affair , caused by the 1962 accident killing 21 workers, forced Gerhardsen's Third Cabinet to resign. From 1964, Ny-Ålesund became a research outpost, and a facility for

9317-506: The Spitsbergen archipelago. Russians have traditionally called the archipelago Grumant ( Грумант ). The Soviet Union retained the name Spitsbergen ( Шпицберген ) to support undocumented claims that Russians were the first to discover the island. In 1928, Italian explorer Umberto Nobile and the crew of the airship Italia crashed on the icepack off the coast of Foyn Island . The subsequent rescue attempts were covered extensively in

9438-746: The Vega was traveling by the Chukchi peninsula which was inhabited by the local Chukchis , the temperature affected the engines making the ship stop in its tracks. During the stop near the Pitlekaj settlement, three boats with an estimated 30 Chukchis approached the Vega while shouting. As the Chukchis began boarding the ship, the Swedes had to fire their rifles – presumably into the air – to restore order. The crew member Vega-Sven recounts

9559-579: The archipelago, the Norwegian Coast Guard embarked on a significant modernization program. As of 2023, the Coast Guard is replacing its older Nordkapp -class offshore patrol vessels with significantly larger ice-capable ships, each displacing just under 10,000 tonnes. The three new Jan Mayen -class offshore patrol vessels are armed with a 57 mm (2.2 in) main gun and are capable of operating up to two medium-sized helicopters. The ships have

9680-519: The archipelago, the seat of the governor and the only incorporated town. The town features an airport , hospital, primary and secondary school , university , sports center with a swimming pool, library, culture center, cinema, bus transport, hotels, a bank, and several museums. The newspaper Svalbardposten is published weekly. Very little mining activity remains at Longyearbyen; coal mines at Sveagruva and Lunckefjellet suspended operations in 2017 and were closed permanently in 2020. Ny-Ålesund

9801-502: The atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation , resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts a significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution , including

9922-722: The austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud ) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to

10043-400: The bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea , and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in

10164-686: The centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia - Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut ( Cordeauxia edulus ) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen ( Cyclamen somalense ), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet ( Carduelis johannis ) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of

10285-452: The combination of full moon and reflective snow can give additional light. Due to the Earth's tilt and the high latitude, Svalbard has extensive twilights. Longyearbyen sees the first and last day of polar night having seven and a half hours of twilight, whereas the perpetual light lasts for two weeks longer than the midnight sun. On the summer solstice, the sun bottoms out at 12° sun angle in

10406-541: The continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude ) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes . Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by

10527-602: The eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in

10648-425: The event: " I dag på morgonen så kom där till oss 3 båtar med människor, de var vilda, de ville gå ombord men vi måtte ta oss ett gevär och skjuta innan vi kunde styra dän. Deras båtar var av sälhud, de var en 30 stycken människor, ludna, bruna fulingar. " However, the intent of the Chukchis was not malicious, and tensions shortly thereafter de-escalated. The Swedes would accept the Chukchis' offer of hospitality. As

10769-530: The expedition until the Lena River in Siberia . Louis Palander (1842–1920) was appointed captain of the expedition. Palander was a Swedish naval officer and an experienced sailor who had already made several trips in the Arctic and had previously participated in other Nordenskiöld expeditions. It also included scientists, officers and a crew of 21 men. Noted members of the international team included: The purpose of

10890-575: The expedition was to collect scientific material from the Arctic and to circumnavigate Asia. The expedition had been approved by the Swedish king himself Oscar II in 1877 and was to be led by the Swedish-Finnish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld . Vega left Karlskrona on 22 June 1878, making a stop in Tromsø from 17 until 21 July. In Tromsø, Vega was joined by the cargo ship Lena , commanded by Edvard Holm Johanssen. The ships reached Cape Chelyuskin ,

11011-489: The first discovery of the archipelago in 1596, when he sighted the coast of the island of Spitsbergen while searching for the Northern Sea Route . The first recorded landing on the islands of Svalbard dates to 1604, when an English ship landed at Bjørnøya , or Bear Island, and started hunting walrus . Annual expeditions soon followed, and Spitsbergen became a base for hunting the bowhead whale from 1611. Because of

11132-509: The institution of the Governor of Svalbard ( Norwegian : Sysselmester , formerly Sysselmannen ), who holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch. Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management, information services, contact with foreign settlements, and judge in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations—albeit never in

11253-580: The islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles , day geckos , and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation . Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird ( Raphus cucullatus ) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests

11374-641: The islands were being used as a base for Arctic exploration . The first mining was along Isfjorden by Norwegians in 1899; by 1904, British interests had established themselves in Adventfjorden and started the first year-round operations. Production in Longyearbyen, by US interests, started in 1908; and Store Norske established itself in 1916, as did other Norwegian interests during the First World War , in part by buying US interests. Discussions to establish

11495-506: The large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline . That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon , the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current . Because of

11616-512: The lawless nature of the area, English , Danish , Dutch , and French companies and authorities tried to use force to keep out other countries' fleets. Smeerenburg was one of the first settlements, established by the Dutch in 1619. Smaller bases were also built by the English, Danish, and French. At first the outposts were merely summer camps, but from the early 1630s, a few individuals started to overwinter . Whaling at Spitsbergen lasted until

11737-591: The local economy. Apart from Longyearbyen, other settlements include the Russian mining-community of Barentsburg , the Norwegian research-station of Ny-Ålesund , and the Swedish-Norwegian mining outpost of Sveagruva (which closed in 2020). Other settlements lie farther north, but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles , aircraft and boats provide inter-settlement transport. Svalbard Airport serves as

11858-477: The longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones . The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of

11979-415: The main gateway. Approximately 60% of the archipelago is covered with glaciers , and the islands feature many mountains and fjords . The archipelago has an Arctic climate , although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude. The flora has adapted to take advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night . Many seabirds use Svalbard as

12100-481: The margins of the Indian Ocean. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons , for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on

12221-450: The middle of the night, being much higher during night than in mainland Norway's polar light areas. However, the daytime strength of the sun remains as low as 35°. Glacial ice covers 36,502 km (14,094 sq mi) or 60% of Svalbard; 30% is barren rock while 10% is vegetated. The largest glacier is Austfonna (8,412 km or 3,248 sq mi) on Nordaustlandet, followed by Olav V Land and Vestfonna . During summer, it

12342-457: The monsoon. Two large gyres , one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current ), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between

12463-602: The monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan , and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys . The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11  Sv , most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In

12584-535: The most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean ;— coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in

12705-423: The name Spitsbergen long remained in use both for the main island and for the archipelago as a whole. Later the main island was sometimes distinguished as West Spitsbergen . The spelling Spitzbergen , with z instead of s, derives from German. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 defines Svalbard as all islands, islets, and skerries from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The land area

12826-625: The northernmost tip of the Eurasian continent, on 19 August 1878. Lena navigated up the Lena river towards Yakutsk on 27 August, with Vega continuing east along the coast, which had only a narrow ice-free strip a couple of miles wide. Vega's progress stopped in pack ice on 28 September 1878, about 1.5 kilometers from the coast at the Chukchi Peninsula at Neshkan , only days from the Bering Strait . As

12947-522: The population on the islands (Norwegians making up the remaining third) with the population of the archipelago slightly under 4,000. Russian activity has diminished considerably since then, falling from 2,500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010. Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962. Pyramiden was closed in 1998. Coal exports from Barentsburg ceased in 2006 because of a fire, but resumed in 2010. The Russians experienced two air accidents: Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801 , which killed 141 people, and

13068-597: The press and Svalbard received short-lived fame as a result. Svalbard, known to both British and Germans as Spitsbergen, was little affected by the German invasion of Norway in April 1940. The settlements continued to operate as before, mining coal and monitoring the weather. In July 1941, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Royal Navy reconnoitered the islands with

13189-709: The same cases as acting as police. Since 2021, Lars Fause has been governor. The institution is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , but reports to other ministries in matters within their portfolio. Since 2002, Longyearbyen Community Council has had many of the same responsibilities of a municipality , including utilities, education, cultural facilities, fire department, roads, and ports. No care or nursing services are available, nor are welfare payments available. Norwegian residents retain pension and medical rights through their mainland municipalities. The hospital

13310-473: The sovereignty of the archipelago commenced in the 1910s, but were interrupted by World War I . On 9 February 1920, following the Paris Peace Conference , the Svalbard Treaty was signed, granting full sovereignty to Norway. However, all signatory countries were granted non-discriminatory rights to fishing, hunting, and mineral resources. The treaty took effect on 14 August 1925, at the same time as

13431-603: The treaty (including Spain, Iceland and particularly Russia) argue that the Treaty provides them with extensive rights beyond Svalbard's territorial sea. Norway claims an exclusive economic zone of more than three-quarters of a million square kilometers around Svalbard, though "Russia does not recognize Norwegian functional rights with respect to the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Area". In the 2020s, in order to strengthen Norway's ability to enforce its claims around

13552-431: The treaty have the right to conduct commercial activities on the archipelago without discrimination, although all activity is subject to Norwegian legislation. The treaty limits Norway's right to collect taxes to that of financing services on Svalbard. Therefore, Svalbard has a lower income tax than mainland Norway, and there is no value added tax . There is a separate budget for Svalbard to ensure compliance. Svalbard

13673-672: The water area of Earth's surface . It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean , or Antarctica , depending on the definition in use. The Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as the Andaman Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Laccadive Sea . Once called the Eastern Ocean, it

13794-503: The west coast of Spitsbergen. Whalers who sailed far north in the 17th and 18th centuries used the islands as a base; subsequently the archipelago was abandoned. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent communities such as Pyramiden or Barentsburg were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the Norwegian Svalbard Act of 1925 made Svalbard

13915-434: The winter progressed, the Swedes spent their time east of the Chukchis town of Pitlekaj in the bay of Koljutjinskaja, thus delaying the expedition by around a year. The relationship between the Swedes and the Chukchis improved, and they would celebrate birthdays and holidays with each other. The discovery of the Chukchis by the Swedes would greatly contribute to the knowledge and awareness about them, one crew member even learned

14036-546: The world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and a maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east , passes through the Ninety East Ridge . Within these waters are

14157-459: The world's two most northerly Lenin statues and other socialist realist art. As of 2013 , a handful of workers are stationed in the largely abandoned Pyramiden to maintain local infrastructure and run its hotel, which has been re-opened to tourism. Most of the population is Christian. Most of the Norwegians are affiliated with the Church of Norway . Russian and Ukrainian population belongs to

14278-478: The world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming , and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole ), events are a trigger to this strong warming in

14399-546: Was established at Ny-Ålesund in 1941, remaining until 1942. In May 1942, after the arrival of the Fritham force, the German unit at Banso was evacuated. In September 1943 in Operation Zitronella a German task force, which included the battleship Tirpitz , was sent to attack the garrison and destroy the settlements at Longyearbyen and Barentsburg. This was achieved, but had little long-term effect: after their departure

14520-407: Was incorporated on 1 January 2002, adopting a community council. In 2016, Svalbard had a population of 2,667, of which 423 were Russian and Ukrainian, 10 Polish, and 322 other non-Norwegians living in Norwegian settlements. The largest non-Norwegian groups in Longyearbyen in 2005 were from Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and Thailand. Longyearbyen is the largest settlement on

14641-459: Was thenceforth restricted to the main island. In 1827 Baltazar Keilhau first proposed that the Old Norse toponym Svalbarði , found in medieval Icelandic sources, referred to Spitsbergen. Keilhau's theory was revived by Gustav Storm in 1890 and Gunnar Isachsen in 1907, at a time when ancient Norse connection to the land would help modern Norway's contested claim to sovereignty. Svalbard

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