A calf ( pl. : calves ) is a young domestic cow or bull . Calves are reared to become adult cattle or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal , and their hide .
52-401: Veal is the meat of calves , in contrast to the beef from older cattle. Veal can be produced from a calf of either sex and any breed ; however, most veal comes from young male calves of dairy breeds which are not used for breeding. Generally, veal is more expensive by weight than beef from older cattle. Veal production is a way to add value to dairy bull calves and to utilize whey solids,
104-705: A management issue, not only leading to facility damage from chewing, kicking, and repetitive motion, but also lead to health consequences for the animal if not addressed. Asiatic black bears and Malayan sun bears also exhibit stereotypies when they are caged. Common stereotypies in these species include head throwing and jaw clamping. Stereotypies can also be seen in dogs . Common stereotypic behaviours in dogs include circling, light fixation and fly snapping. Stereotypical behaviour can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by environmental enrichment , including larger and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (such as objects, sounds, or scents) to
156-701: A beef heifer reaches puberty if she is well grown. Calves suffer from few congenital abnormalities but the Akabane virus is widely distributed in temperate to tropical regions of the world. The virus is a teratogenic pathogen which causes spontaneous abortions , stillbirths, premature births and congenital abnormalities, but occurs only during some years. Calves commonly face on-farm acquired diseases, often of infectious nature. Preweaned calves most commonly experience conditions such as diarrhea, omphalitis, lameness and respiratory diseases. Diarrhea, omphalitis and lameness are most common in calves aged up to two weeks, while
208-473: A bottle or bucket. Purebred female calves of dairy cows are reared as replacement dairy cows. Most purebred dairy calves are produced by artificial insemination (AI). By this method each bull can serve many cows, so only a very few of the purebred dairy male calves are needed to provide bulls for breeding. The remainder of the male calves may be reared for beef or veal. Only a proportion of purebred heifers are needed to provide replacement cows, so often some of
260-678: A byproduct from the manufacturing of cheese . There are several types of veal, and terminology varies by country. Similar terms are used in the US, including calf, bob, intermediate, milk-fed, and special-fed. In Italian , French and other Mediterranean cuisines , veal is often in the form of cutlets, such as the Italian cotoletta or the famous Austrian dish Wiener Schnitzel . Some classic French veal dishes include fried escalopes , fried veal Grenadines (small, thick fillet steaks), stuffed paupiettes , roast joints, and blanquettes . Because veal
312-413: A cage. Research suggests that some common stereotypic behaviours seen in mice, wire-gnawing for example, may originate from such exploratory behaviours. It has been noted that when mice climb on the bars of the cage, they frequently attempt to sniff outside the cage by putting their nose between the bars of the cage. During this process, mice will occasionally bite the bars. Over time, the frequency of biting
364-499: A calf of her own is called a heifer ( / ˈ h ɛ f ər / ). In the American Old West , a motherless or small, runty calf was sometimes referred to as a dodie. The term "calf" is also used for some other species. See " Other animals " below. Calves may be produced by natural means, or by artificial breeding using artificial insemination or embryo transfer . Calves are born after nine months. They usually stand within
416-432: A confound in behavioural research. Since much of the behavioural research done on animals requires the subject to have a certain level of normal behavioural functioning, any stereotypic behaviour exhibited by the subjects could compromise the results. However, expressions of stereotypic behaviour can also present a unique opportunity for researchers. Just as human research into basal ganglia dysfunction provided insight into
468-692: A diet of milk replacer for the first six to eight weeks and then move on to a mostly corn-based diet. A farm veterinarian creates and provides a health program for the herd. Veal calves need proper amounts of water, adequate nutrition, and safe and comfortable environments to thrive. Veal production has been a controversial topic. The ethics of veal production have been challenged by animal welfare advocates and some methods are cited as animal cruelty by multiple animal welfare organizations. These organizations and some of their members consider several practices and procedures of veal production to be inhumane. Public efforts by these organizations are placing pressure on
520-420: A factor in the development of stereotypies in rodents and other animals. The interruption or cease of a habit is much more tedious and difficult than that of the initial behaviour. As stereotypies develop, they become more readily elicited, so much so that they are no longer just expressed during the original circumstances and may be expressed in the absence of any apparent stress or conflict. The development of
572-483: A few minutes of calving, and suckle within an hour. However, for the first few days they are not easily able to keep up with the rest of the herd, so young calves are often left hidden by their mothers, who visit them several times a day to suckle them. By a week old the calf is able to follow the mother all the time. Some calves are ear tagged soon after birth, especially those that are stud cattle in order to correctly identify their dams (mothers), or in areas (such as
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#1733086208683624-512: A learned response. Research with domesticated dogs has shown that dogs who exhibit common stereotypic behaviours have higher resistance to extinction in a simple experimental task than other dogs. This correlation suggests that stereotypic behaviours in dogs may have been reinforced in some way early in their development and have persisted because these dogs are highly resistant to extinction. Many stereotypies can be induced by confinement; for example, cats pace in zoo cages. Pregnant sows whose feed
676-532: A motivation to escape the cage. The continuance of a stereotypic behaviour can be explained by its impact on the basal ganglia and the establishment of a habit in its expression. Research in humans suggests that damage to the dorsal basal ganglia can make it very difficult for a person to switch between two motor behaviours, thus they will continuously perform the same behaviour. Similar difficulties in switching between motor behaviours have been seen in bank voles which suggests that basal ganglia dysfunction might be
728-614: A replacement dairy cow. Some dairy heifers grow up to be mothers of beef cattle. Male dairy calves are generally reared for beef or veal; relatively few are kept for use as breeding stock. In English , the term "calf" is used by extension for the young of various other large species of mammal . In addition to other bovid species (such as bison , yak and water buffalo ), these include the young of camels , dolphins , elephants , giraffes , hippopotamuses , deer (such as moose , elk (wapiti) and red deer ), rhinoceroses , porpoises , whales , walruses and larger seals . (Generally,
780-405: A sort of quarantine, and then moved to groupings of two or more calves. Milk-fed veal calves consume a diet consisting of milk replacer, formulated with mostly milk-based proteins and added vitamins and minerals supplemented with solid feeds. This type of diet is similar to infant formula and is also one of the most common diets used for calves in the veal industry. Grain-fed calves normally consume
832-465: Is a yearling . The birth of a calf is known as calving . A calf that has lost its mother is an orphan calf, also known as a poddy or poddy-calf in British. Bobby calves are young calves which are to be slaughtered for human consumption. A vealer is a calf weighing less than about 330 kg (730 lb) which is at about eight to nine months of age. A young female calf from birth until she has had
884-534: Is a general increase in knee and hock swelling as crate width decreases. Under natural conditions calves continue to suckle 3 to 6 times a day for up to 5 months. Veal crates prevented this social interaction. Furthermore, some calves were reared in crates with solid walls that prevented visual or tactile contact with their neighbours. It has been shown that calves will work for social contact with other calves. To maintain personal hygiene and help prevent disease, calves lick themselves to groom; cattle naturally lick all
936-761: Is a term for a group of phenotypic behaviours that are repetitive, morphologically identical and which possess no obvious goal or function. These behaviours have been defined as " abnormal ", as they exhibit themselves solely in animals subjected to barren environments, scheduled or restricted feedings, social deprivation and other cases of frustration, but do not arise in "normal" animals in their natural environments. These behaviours may be maladaptive, involving self-injury or reduced reproductive success, and in laboratory animals can confound behavioural research. Stereotypical behaviours are thought to be caused ultimately by artificial environments that do not allow animals to satisfy their normal behavioural needs. Rather than refer to
988-413: Is also common in captive giraffes; although they perform a wide range of stereotypies, they predominantly lick inanimate objects, which may be related to limitations on natural foraging and feeding behaviour. Stereotypies are well known in stabled horses , usually developing as a result of being confined, particularly with insufficient exercise. They are colloquially called stable vices . They present
1040-651: Is known to be dangerous to an animal which is being cared for is prohibited, as well as failing to give nutrients the lack of which is known to cause the animal to fall ill. The Finnish Animal Welfare Act of 1996 and the Finnish Animal Welfare Decree of 1996 provided general guidelines for the housing and care of animals, and effectively banned veal crates in Finland. Veal crates are not specifically banned in Switzerland, but most calves are raised outdoors. In 2007,
1092-457: Is lower in fat than many meats, care must be taken in preparation to ensure that it does not become tough. Veal is often coated in preparation for frying or eaten with a sauce. Veal parmigiana is a common Italian-American dish made with breaded veal cutlets. In addition to providing meat, the bones of calves are used to make a stock that forms the base for sauces and soups such as demi-glace . Calf stomachs are also used to produce rennet , which
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#17330862086831144-516: Is not used in calf raising: tetracycline has been approved, but is not widely used." In 1990, the British government banned transporting calves in close-confinement crates. Veal crates were banned across the European Union (EU) in January 2007. Veal calf production, as such, is not allowed in many northern European countries, such as in Finland. In Finland, giving feed, drink or other nutrition which
1196-405: Is preferred by some as it accustoms the weaners to the presence of people and they are trained to take feed other than grass. Small numbers may also be weaned with their dams with the use of weaning nose rings or nosebands which results in the mothers rejecting the calves' attempts to suckle. Many calves are also weaned when they are taken to the large weaner auction sales that are conducted in
1248-647: Is restricted bite at their stalls' bars and chew without anything in their mouths. In laboratory rats and mice, grooming is the most common activity other than sleep, and grooming stereotypies have been used to investigate several animal models of anxiety and depression. Examples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, rocking, swimming in circles, excessive sleeping, self-mutilation (including feather picking and excessive grooming), and mouthing cage bars. Stereotypies are seen in many species, including primates , birds, and carnivores . Up to 54% of elephants in zoos display stereotypical behaviors. Stereotypic behaviour
1300-407: Is therefore expected to weigh about 250 to 270 kg (550 to 600 lb). Heifers will weigh at least 200 kg (440 lb) at eight months of age. Calves are usually weaned at about eight to nine months of age, but depending on the season and condition of the dam, they might be weaned earlier. They may be paddock weaned, often next to their mothers, or weaned in stockyards . The latter system
1352-414: Is used in the production of cheese. Calf offal is also widely regarded as the most prized animal offal. Male dairy calves are commonly used for veal production as they do not lactate and are therefore surplus to the requirements of the dairy industry. Newborn veal calves are generally separated from the cow within three days. Calves are sometimes raised in individual stalls for the first several weeks as
1404-595: Is used to make calfskin , or tanned into leather and called calf leather, or sometimes in the US "novillo", the Spanish term. The fourth compartment of the stomach of slaughtered milk-fed calves is the source of rennet . The intestine is used to make Goldbeater's skin , and is the source of Calf Intestinal Alkaline Phosphatase (CIP) . Dairy heifers and cows can only produce milk after having calved. Dairy cows need to produce one calf each year in order to remain in milk production. Heifer (female) calves will nearly always become
1456-470: The EU ) where tagging is a legal requirement for cattle. Typically when the calves are about two months old they are branded, ear marked, castrated and vaccinated . The single suckler system of rearing calves is similar to that occurring naturally in wild cattle, where each calf is suckled by its own mother until it is weaned at about nine months old. This system is commonly used for rearing beef cattle throughout
1508-614: The American Veal Association passed a resolution encouraging the entire industry to phase out tethered crate-confinement of calves by 2017, a goal that was met by all milk-fed veal farmers. As of 2015, eight U.S. states ban tethering of calves in veal crates. Nationally, several large veal producers and the American Veal Association are also working to phase out the industry use of tethered veal crates. As of 2017, all American Veal Association members are raising calves in tether free pens and all veal calves are housed in group pens by
1560-558: The US allow sufficient room for the calf to lie down, stand, stretch, and groom itself. Some systems of veal production rear calves that are denied access to any solid feed and are fed a liquid milk replacer. They may also be deprived of bedding to prevent them from eating it. This dietary restriction completely distorts the normal development of the rumen and predisposes the calf to infectious enteritis (scouring or diarrhea) and chronic indigestion. Furthermore, calves with an underdeveloped gut are more likely to be found to have hairballs in
1612-439: The adult males of these same species are called "bulls" and the adult females "cows".) However, common domestic species tend to have their own specific names, such as lamb, foal used for all Equidae , or piglet used for all suidae . Stereotypy (non-human) In animal behaviour , stereotypy , stereotypic or stereotyped behaviour has several meanings, leading to ambiguity in the scientific literature. A stereotypy
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1664-472: The animal's environment. The enrichment must be varied to remain effective for any length of time. Housing social animals such as primates with other members of their species is also helpful. However, once the behaviour is established, it is sometimes impossible to eliminate due to alterations in the brain. The development and continued expression of stereotypies in captive animals can quickly become an animal welfare concern. Stereotypies are considered one of
1716-409: The bar increases while the frequency of sniffing decreases until the mice are left with only the wire-gnawing stereotypy. Although there is strong evidence to suggest that the development of stereotypies is influenced by exploratory behaviours, the mechanisms behind these exploratory behaviours are still unclear. They may be the result of some attractive stimuli outside of the cage or they may result from
1768-586: The behaviour as abnormal, it has been suggested that it be described as "behaviour indicative of an abnormal environment". Stereotyped behaviour can also refer to normal behaviours that show low variation. For example, mammalian chewing cycles or fish capturing prey using suction feeding. Highly stereotyped movements may be due to mechanical constraint (such as the skull of a viper or fish, in which bones are mechanically linked), tight neural control (as in mammalian chewing), or both. The degree of stereotyping may vary markedly between closely related species engaging in
1820-545: The calf under such systems may mean that it takes a longer time to rear, and in subsistence farming it is therefore common for cows to calve only in alternate years. In more intensive dairy farming , cows can easily be bred and fed to produce far more milk than one calf can drink. In the multi-suckler system, several calves are fostered onto one cow in addition to her own, and these calves' mothers can then be used wholly for milk production. More commonly, calves of dairy cows are fed formula milk from soon after birth, usually from
1872-431: The cows in dairy herds are put to a beef bull to produce crossbred calves suitable for rearing as beef. Veal calves may be reared entirely on milk formula and killed at about 18 or 20 weeks as "white" veal, or fed on grain and hay and killed at 22 to 35 weeks to produce red or pink veal. A commercial steer or bull calf is expected to put on about 32 to 36 kg (71 to 79 lb) per month. A nine-month-old steer or bull
1924-405: The crates may prevent physical contact between adjacent calves, and sometimes also visual contact. In the past, crated calves were often tied to the front of the crate with a tether which restricted movement. Floors were often slatted and sloped, allowing urine and manure to fall under the crate to help maintain a clean environment for the calf. In some veal crate systems, the calves were also kept in
1976-410: The dark without bedding and fed nothing but milk. Veal crates were designed to limit movement of the animal because it was believed by producers that the meat turns redder and tougher if the animals were allowed to exercise. The diet was sometimes highly regulated to control sources of iron, which again makes the meat redder. In the US, the use of tethers in veal crates to prevent movement by veal calves
2028-427: The frequency of respiratory diseases tends to increase with age. These conditions also display seasonal patterns, with omphalitis being more common in the summer months, and respiratory diseases and diarrhea occurring more frequently in the fall. Calf meat for human consumption is called veal , and is usually produced from the male calves of dairy cattle . Also eaten are calf's brains and calf liver . The hide
2080-467: The most important indicators of long-term animal welfare problems. A prolonged display of stereotypies suggests that the welfare of the animal is in a peril state. The welfare of the mink is considered an important aspect from a management standpoint as it has repercussions on the production of the animal. Inadequate welfare has been linked to poor reproductivity and poor growth rate. Extreme displays of stereotypies can be an animal welfare issue as well as
2132-558: The parts of their body they can reach. However, tethering prevents calves from licking the hind parts of their body. Excessive licking of the forelegs (another abnormal behaviour) is common in stall and tether systems. In the US, young milk-fed veal calves may be raised in individual pens up to a maximum of ten weeks of age and are typically in visual and tactile contact with their neighbors. Milk-fed veal calves are never tethered, allowing them to easily groom themselves. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) regulations do not permit
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2184-493: The rumen at slaughter; the accumulation of hairballs in the rumen can impair digestion. Rearing calves in deprived conditions without a teat can lead to the development of abnormal oral behaviour. Some of these may develop into oral stereotypies such as sucking, licking or biting inanimate objects, and by tongue rolling and tongue playing. "Purposeless oral activity" occupies 15% of the time in crated calves but only 2–3% in group-housed calves. Veal calves' dietary intake of iron
2236-406: The same behaviour. The display of stereotypies is usually increased in an individual over time due to the changing motivation of the stereotypy. The establishment of a stereotypy may be due to a number of factors within a captive environment. One of the factors within a captive environment that may affect the establishment of stereotypies is exploratory behaviours that are directed to the outside of
2288-581: The severe dietary restrictions needed to create pale meat (requiring fewer antibiotic treatments and resulting in lower calf mortality), and as dairy beef. In 2008 to 2009 in the US, the demand for free-raised veal rose rapidly. Veal crates are a close-confinement system of raising veal calves. Many calves raised for veal, including in Canada and the US, were confined in crates which typically measure approximately 66–76 cm (2 ft 2 in – 2 ft 6 in) wide. The calves were housed individually and
2340-503: The south eastern states of Australia. Victoria and New South Wales have yardings (sale yard numbers) of up to 8,000 weaners (calves) for auction sale in one day. The best of these weaners may go to the butchers. Others will be purchased by re-stockers to grow out and fatten on grass or as potential breeders. In the United States these weaners may be known as feeders and would be placed directly into feedlots . At about 12 months old
2392-542: The stereotypy into a habit and the difficulty of interrupting said habit explain why it is expected that the frequency of stereotypies increases with age. There is also some research that suggests that the persistence of stereotypies might be due to behavioural differences between animals with stereotypies and those without. One of the behavioural differences that has been researched is a higher resistance to extinction seen in animals that exhibit stereotypic behaviours. Resistance to extinction occurs when animals are unable to stop
2444-402: The time they are 10 weeks of age. State-by-state veal crate bans are as follows: Current active legislation in: Calf (animal) The term calf is also used for some other species. See " Other animals " [1] below. "Calf" is the term used from birth to weaning , when it becomes known as a weaner or weaner calf , though in some areas the term "calf" may be used until the animal
2496-473: The use of hormones on veal calves for any reason. They do, however, permit the use of antibiotics in veal raising to treat or prevent disease. In 2004, the USDA expressed concern that the use of illegal drugs might be widespread in the veal industry. In 2004, a USDA official found a lump on a veal calf in a Wisconsin veal farm, which turned out to be an illegal hormone implant. In 2004, the USDA stated that "Penicillin
2548-455: The veal industry to change some of its methods. Some of these practices are relevant to both group and individual housing systems. In the past, one aspect of veal production cited as cruelty in the industry was the lack of space veal calves were provided. Space was often deliberately restricted by the producer to stop the animal from exercising, as exercise was thought to make the meat turn redder and tougher. Modern veal production facilities in
2600-454: The world. Cows kept on poor forage (as is typical in subsistence farming ) produce a limited amount of milk. A calf left with such a mother all the time can easily drink all the milk, leaving none for human consumption. For dairy production under such circumstances, the calf's access to the cow must be limited, for example by penning the calf and bringing the mother to it once a day after partly milking her. The small amount of milk available for
2652-757: Was a principal source of controversy in veal farming. Many veal farmers started improving conditions in their veal farms in the 2000s. Veal tethering is criticized because the ability of the calves to move is highly restricted; the crates may have unsuitable flooring; the calves spend their entire lives indoors, experience prolonged sensory, social, and exploratory deprivation; and the calves are more susceptible to high amounts of stress and disease. Calves need to exercise to ensure normal bone and muscle development. Calves at pasture not only walk but also run about, jump and play. Calves in veal crates cannot turn around, walk or run; this results in calves that may stumble or have difficulty walking when finally taken for slaughter. There
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#17330862086832704-536: Was restricted to achieve a target haemoglobin concentration of around 4.6 mmol/L; normal concentration of haemoglobin in the blood is greater than 7 mmol/L. Calves with blood haemoglobin concentrations of below 4.5 mmol/L may show signs of increased disease susceptibility and immunosuppression. Alternative agricultural uses for male dairy calves include raising bob veal (generally slaughtered at 2–3 days old, though age may be as young as 2 hours or at most 1 month old), raising calves as "red veal" without
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