157-441: Vanadium is a chemical element ; it has symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery-grey, malleable transition metal . The elemental metal is rarely found in nature, but once isolated artificially, the formation of an oxide layer ( passivation ) somewhat stabilizes the free metal against further oxidation . Spanish - Mexican scientist Andrés Manuel del Río discovered compounds of vanadium in 1801 by analyzing
314-655: A lithium cobalt oxide cathode. Vanadium phosphates have been proposed as the cathode in the lithium vanadium phosphate battery , another type of lithium-ion battery. Vanadium has a more significant role in marine environments than terrestrial ones. Several species of marine algae produce vanadium bromoperoxidase as well as the closely related chloroperoxidase (which may use a heme or vanadium cofactor) and iodoperoxidases . The bromoperoxidase produces an estimated 1–2 million tons of bromoform and 56,000 tons of bromomethane annually. Most naturally occurring organobromine compounds are produced by this enzyme, catalyzing
471-419: A mound . Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thor's hammer deep within the earth and that no one will ever know where the hammer is unless Freyja is brought to him as his wife. Loki flies back, the cloak whistling, and returns to the courts of the gods. Loki tells Thor of Þrymr's conditions. The two go to see the beautiful Freyja. The first thing that Thor says to Freyja is that she should dress herself and put on
628-738: A pure element . In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons . Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one isotope. For example, a copper wire is 99.99% chemically pure if 99.99% of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each. However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69% Cu and 31% Cu, with different numbers of neutrons. However, pure gold would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, Au. Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing
785-429: A bride's head-dress , for they shall drive to Jötunheimr. At that, Freyja is furious—the halls of the gods shake, she snorts in anger, and from the goddess the necklace Brísingamen falls. Indignant, Freyja responds: The gods and goddesses assemble at a thing and debate how to solve the problem. The god Heimdallr proposes to dress Thor up as a bride, complete with bridal dress, head-dress, jingling keys, jewelry, and
942-426: A byproduct of uranium mining. It is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys such as high-speed tool steels , and some aluminium alloys . The most important industrial vanadium compound, vanadium pentoxide , is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid . The vanadium redox battery for energy storage may be an important application in the future. Large amounts of vanadium ions are found in
1099-512: A challenge. In an aqueous solution, vanadium(V) forms an extensive family of oxyanions as established by V NMR spectroscopy . The interrelationships in this family are described by the predominance diagram , which shows at least 11 species, depending on pH and concentration. The tetrahedral orthovanadate ion, VO 4 , is the principal species present at pH 12–14. Similar in size and charge to phosphorus(V), vanadium(V) also parallels its chemistry and crystallography. Orthovanadate V O 4
1256-540: A considerable amount of time. (See element naming controversy ). Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium . Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium , in reference to
1413-477: A different element in nuclear reactions , which change an atom's atomic number. Historically, the term "chemical element" meant a substance that cannot be broken down into constituent substances by chemical reactions, and for most practical purposes this definition still has validity. There was some controversy in the 1920s over whether isotopes deserved to be recognized as separate elements if they could be separated by chemical means. The term "(chemical) element"
1570-643: A few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 (since named oganesson ) was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 ( tennessine ) was reported in April 2010. Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium , atomic number 43; promethium , number 61; astatine , number 85; francium , number 87; neptunium , number 93; and plutonium , number 94. These 94 elements have been detected in
1727-525: A few elements, such as silver and gold , are found uncombined as relatively pure native element minerals . Nearly all other naturally occurring elements occur in the Earth as compounds or mixtures. Air is mostly a mixture of molecular nitrogen and oxygen , though it does contain compounds including carbon dioxide and water , as well as atomic argon , a noble gas which is chemically inert and therefore does not undergo chemical reactions. The history of
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#17330934905341884-498: A few organisms, possibly as a toxin . The oxide and some other salts of vanadium have moderate toxicity. Particularly in the ocean, vanadium is used by some life forms as an active center of enzymes , such as the vanadium bromoperoxidase of some ocean algae . Vanadium was discovered in Mexico in 1801 by the Spanish mineralogist Andrés Manuel del Río . Del Río extracted the element from
2041-425: A golden necklace, and it was nearly done. Looking at the necklace, the dwarfs thought Freyja to be most fair, and she the necklace. Freyja offered to buy the collar from them with silver and gold and other items of value. The dwarfs said that they had no lack of money, and that for the necklace the only thing she could offer them would be a night with each of them. "Whether she liked it better or worse", Freyja agreed to
2198-565: A golden necklace. In the work, the Æsir once lived in a city called Asgard , located in a region called "Asialand or Asiahome". Odin was the king of the realm, and made Njörðr and Freyr temple priests. Freyja was the daughter of Njörðr, and was Odin's concubine. Odin deeply loved Freyja, and she was "the fairest of woman of that day". Freyja had a beautiful bower , and when the door was shut no one could enter without Freyja's permission. Chapter 1 records that one day Freyja passed by an open stone where dwarfs lived. Four dwarfs were smithying
2355-442: A malicious witch, and conjures a scenario where Freyja was once astride her brother when all of the gods, laughing, surprised the two. Njörðr interjects—he says that a woman having a lover other than her husband is harmless, and he points out that Loki has borne children, and calls Loki a pervert. The poem continues in turn. The poem Þrymskviða features Loki borrowing Freyja's cloak of feathers and Thor dressing up as Freyja to fool
2512-542: A myth involving Heimdallr recovering Freyja's necklace from Loki. In chapter 17, the jötunn Hrungnir finds himself in Asgard, the realm of the gods, and becomes very drunk. Hrungnir boasts that he will move Valhalla to Jötunheimr, bury Asgard, and kill all of the gods—with the exception of the goddesses Freyja and Sif, who he says he will take home with him. Freyja is the only one of them that dares to bring him more to drink. Hrungnir says that he will drink all of their ale. After
2669-496: A natural abundance of 0.25%. V has a nuclear spin of 7 ⁄ 2 , which is useful for NMR spectroscopy . Twenty-four artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 40 to 65. The most stable of these isotopes are V with a half-life of 330 days, and V with a half-life of 16.0 days. The remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour, most below 10 seconds. At least four isotopes have metastable excited states . Electron capture
2826-406: A new lead -bearing mineral he called "brown lead". Though he initially presumed its qualities were due to the presence of a new element, he was later erroneously convinced by French chemist Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils that the element was just chromium . Then in 1830, Nils Gabriel Sefström generated chlorides of vanadium, thus proving there was a new element, and named it "vanadium" after
2983-500: A pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15K). However, for phosphorus, the reference state is white phosphorus even though it is not the most stable allotrope, and the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes. In thermochemistry , an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its reference state. Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to
3140-483: A pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations. The density at selected standard temperature and pressure (STP)
3297-497: A sample of Mexican "brown lead" ore, later named vanadinite . He found that its salts exhibit a wide variety of colors, and as a result, he named the element panchromium (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, del Río renamed the element erythronium (Greek: ερυθρός "red") because most of the salts turned red upon heating. In 1805, French chemist Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils , backed by del Río's friend Baron Alexander von Humboldt , incorrectly declared that del Río's new element
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#17330934905343454-466: A small amount, 40 to 270 ppm, of vanadium in Wootz steel significantly improved the strength of the product, and gave it the distinctive patterning. The source of the vanadium in the original Wootz steel ingots remains unknown. Vanadium can be used as a substitute for molybdenum in armor steel, though the alloy produced is far more brittle and prone to spalling on non-penetrating impacts. The Third Reich
3611-456: A small group, (the metalloids ), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors . A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table. This system restricts the terms "metal" and "nonmetal" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in
3768-494: A spell so that each time one of their numbers falls in battle, they will again spring up and fight again. And that this must go on eternally, unless a Christian man of a particular stature goes into the battle and smites them, only then will they stay dead. Freyja agreed. Although the Christianization of Scandinavia sought to demonize the native gods, belief and reverence in the gods, including Freyja, persisted throughout
3925-578: A stanza that mentions Freyja, referring to her as "Óð's girl"; Freyja being the wife of her husband, Óðr . The stanza recounts that Freyja was once promised to an unnamed builder, later revealed to be a jötunn and subsequently killed by Thor (recounted in detail in Gylfaginning chapter 42; see Prose Edda section below). In the poem Grímnismál , Odin (disguised as Grímnir ) tells the young Agnar that every day Freyja allots seats to half of those that are slain in her hall Fólkvangr , while Odin owns
4082-460: A titanium alloy with 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium. Several vanadium alloys show superconducting behavior. The first A15 phase superconductor was a vanadium compound, V 3 Si, which was discovered in 1952. Vanadium-gallium tape is used in superconducting magnets (17.5 teslas or 175,000 gauss ). The structure of the superconducting A15 phase of V 3 Ga is similar to that of the more common Nb 3 Sn and Nb 3 Ti . It has been found that
4239-399: A trigonal bipyramidal geometry, such as VOCl 2 (NMe 3 ) 2 . The coordination chemistry of V is dominated by the relatively stable dioxovanadium coordination complexes which are often formed by aerial oxidation of the vanadium(IV) precursors indicating the stability of the +5 oxidation state and ease of interconversion between the +4 and +5 states. The organometallic chemistry of vanadium
4396-430: A vanadium content of 1–5%. For high-speed tool steels, a hardness above HRC 60 can be achieved. HSS steel is used in surgical instruments and tools . Powder-metallurgic alloys contain up to 18% percent vanadium. The high content of vanadium carbides in those alloys increases wear resistance significantly. One application for those alloys is tools and knives. Vanadium stabilizes the beta form of titanium and increases
4553-421: A way to get the necklace. Howling, Loki turned away and went to Freyja's bower but found it locked, and that he could not enter. So Loki transformed himself into a fly, and after having trouble finding even the tiniest of entrances, he managed to find a tiny hole at the gable-top, yet even here he had to squeeze through to enter. Having made his way into Freyja's chambers, Loki looked around to be sure that no one
4710-440: A while, the gods grow bored of Hrungnir's antics and invoke the name of Thor. Thor immediately enters the hall, hammer raised. Thor is furious and demands to know who is responsible for letting a jötunn in to Asgard, who guaranteed Hrungnir safety, and why Freyja "should be serving him drink as if at the Æsir 's banquet". In chapter 18, verses from the 10th century skald 's composition Þórsdrápa are quoted. A kenning used in
4867-474: A whole number. For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37. Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than ~1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element. Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of
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5024-404: Is 10 (for tin , element 50). The mass number of an element, A , is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass number, which is written as a superscript on the left hand side of the chemical symbol (e.g., U). The mass number is always an integer and has units of "nucleons". Thus, magnesium-24 (24
5181-883: Is a chemical substance whose atoms all have the same number of protons . The number of protons is called the atomic number of that element. For example, oxygen has an atomic number of 8, meaning each oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, known as isotopes of the element. Two or more atoms can combine to form molecules . Some elements are formed from molecules of identical atoms , e. g. atoms of hydrogen (H) form diatomic molecules (H 2 ). Chemical compounds are substances made of atoms of different elements; they can have molecular or non-molecular structure. Mixtures are materials containing different chemical substances; that means (in case of molecular substances) that they contain different types of molecules. Atoms of one element can be transformed into atoms of
5338-606: Is a mixture of C (about 98.9%), C (about 1.1%) and about 1 atom per trillion of C. Most (54 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable. All elements have radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes); most of these radioisotopes do not occur naturally. Radioisotopes typically decay into other elements via alpha decay , beta decay , or inverse beta decay ; some isotopes of
5495-406: Is a dimensionless number equal to the atomic mass divided by the atomic mass constant , which equals 1 Da. In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its relative atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 Da; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and because of
5652-497: Is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen , rides a chariot pulled by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers . By her husband Óðr , she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi . Along with her twin brother Freyr , her father Njörðr , and her mother ( Njörðr's sister , unnamed in sources), she
5809-506: Is a member of the Vanir . Stemming from Old Norse Freyja , modern forms of the name include Freya , Freyia , and Freja . Freyja rules over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr , where she receives half of those who die in battle. The other half go to the god Odin 's hall, Valhalla . Within Fólkvangr lies her hall, Sessrúmnir . Freyja assists other deities by allowing them to use her feathered cloak,
5966-442: Is absent, Freyja stays behind and in her sorrow she weeps tears of red gold. High notes that Freyja has many names, and explains that this is because Freyja adopted them when looking for Óðr and traveling "among strange peoples". These names include Gefn , Hörn , Mardöll , Sýr , and Vanadís . Freyja plays a part in the events leading to the birth of Sleipnir , the eight-legged horse. In chapter 42, High recounts that, soon after
6123-453: Is also present in bauxite and deposits of crude oil , coal , oil shale , and tar sands . In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported. When such oil products are burned, traces of vanadium may cause corrosion in engines and boilers. An estimated 110,000 tons of vanadium per year are released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels . Black shales are also a potential source of vanadium. During WWII some vanadium
6280-424: Is an important component of mixed metal oxide catalysts used in the oxidation of propane and propylene to acrolein , acrylic acid or the ammoxidation of propylene to acrylonitrile . The vanadium redox battery , a type of flow battery , is an electrochemical cell consisting of aqueous vanadium ions in different oxidation states. Batteries of this type were first proposed in the 1930s and developed commercially from
6437-812: Is an ongoing area of scientific study. The lightest elements are hydrogen and helium , both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium . Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis . On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation . New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay , beta decay , spontaneous fission , cluster decay , and other rarer modes of decay. Of
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6594-460: Is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold" rather than "aurum" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings " aluminium " and "caesium" over the U.S. spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", and the U.S. "sulfur" over British "sulphur". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use
6751-448: Is dominated by the vanadyl center, VO, which binds four other ligands strongly and one weakly (the one trans to the vanadyl center). An example is vanadyl acetylacetonate (V(O)(O 2 C 5 H 7 ) 2 ). In this complex, the vanadium is 5-coordinate, distorted square pyramidal, meaning that a sixth ligand, such as pyridine, may be attached, though the association constant of this process is small. Many 5-coordinate vanadyl complexes have
6908-469: Is equal to the minus value of the logarithm of the total vanadium concentration/M). The formation of the divanadate ion is analogous to the formation of the dichromate ion. As the pH is reduced, further protonation and condensation to polyvanadates occur: at pH 4–6 [H 2 VO 4 ] is predominant at pV greater than ca. 4, while at higher concentrations trimers and tetramers are formed. Between pH 2–4 decavanadate predominates, its formation from orthovanadate
7065-399: Is good to pray to her concerning love affairs". In chapter 29, High recounts the names and features of various goddesses, including Freyja. Regarding Freyja, High says that, next to Frigg, Freyja is highest in rank among them and that she owns the necklace Brísingamen. Freyja is married to Óðr , who goes on long travels, and the two have a very fair daughter by the name of Hnoss . While Óðr
7222-514: Is insane for dredging up his terrible deeds, and that Frigg knows the fate of everyone , though she does not tell it. Loki tells her to be silent, and says that he knows all about her—that Freyja is not lacking in blame, for each of the gods and elves in the hall have been her lover. Freyja objects. She says that Loki is lying, that he is just looking to blather about misdeeds, and since the gods and goddesses are furious at him, he can expect to go home defeated. Loki tells Freyja to be silent, calls her
7379-469: Is invoked in matters of fertility and love, and is frequently sought after by powerful jötnar who wish to make her their wife. Freyja's husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent. She cries tears of red gold for him, and searches for him under assumed names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn , Hörn , Mardöll , Sýr , Vanadís , and Valfreyja . Freyja is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in
7536-651: Is mentioned in the sagas Egils saga , Njáls saga , Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka , and in Sörla þáttr . In Egils saga , when Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat, his daughter Þorgerðr (here anglicized as "Thorgerd") says she will go without food and thus starve to death, and in doing so will meet the goddess Freyja: Thorgerd replied in a loud voice, "I have had no evening meal, nor will I do so until I join Freyja. I know no better course of action than my father's. I do not want to live after my father and brother are dead." In
7693-454: Is not provided). After the Æsir–Vanir War ends in a stalemate, Odin appoints Freyr and Njörðr as priests over sacrifices. Freyja becomes the priestess of sacrificial offerings and it was she who introduced the practice of seiðr to the Æsir, previously only practiced by the Vanir. In chapter 10, Freyja's brother Freyr dies, and Freyja is the last survivor among the Æsir and Vanir. Freyja keeps up
7850-524: Is now unattested. In addition to Freyja , Old Norse sources refer to the goddess by the following names: Scholar Richard North theorizes that Old English geofon and Old Norse Gefjun and Freyja's name Gefn may all descend from a common origin; gabia a Germanic goddess connected with the sea, whose name means "giving". In the Poetic Edda , Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems Völuspá , Grímnismál , Lokasenna , Þrymskviða , Oddrúnargrátr , and Hyndluljóð . Völuspá contains
8007-436: Is often used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm ). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements. When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope
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#17330934905348164-404: Is oxidized from +4 to +6, and vanadium is reduced from +5 to +4: The catalyst is regenerated by oxidation with air: Similar oxidations are used in the production of maleic anhydride : Phthalic anhydride and several other bulk organic compounds are produced similarly. These green chemistry processes convert inexpensive feedstocks to highly functionalized, versatile intermediates. Vanadium
8321-496: Is rare in nature (known as native vanadium ), having been found among fumaroles of the Colima Volcano , but vanadium compounds occur naturally in about 65 different minerals . Vanadium began to be used in the manufacture of special steels in 1896. At that time, very few deposits of vanadium ores were known. Between 1899 and 1906, the main deposits exploited were the mines of Santa Marta de los Barros (Badajoz), Spain. Vanadinite
8478-503: Is recorded connecting Freyja with sheet lightning in this respect. Writer Johan Alfred Göth recalled a Sunday in 1880 where men were walking in fields and looking at nearly ripened rye , where Måns in Karryd said: "Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe". Along with this, Göth recalls another mention of Freyja in the countryside: When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days. When
8635-446: Is reduced with hydrogen or magnesium . Many other methods are also used, in all of which vanadium is produced as a byproduct of other processes. Purification of vanadium is possible by the crystal bar process developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It involves the formation of the metal iodide, in this example vanadium(III) iodide , and the subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal: Most vanadium
8792-414: Is represented by this condensation reaction: In decavanadate, each V(V) center is surrounded by six oxide ligands . Vanadic acid, H 3 VO 4 , exists only at very low concentrations because protonation of the tetrahedral species [H 2 VO 4 ] results in the preferential formation of the octahedral [VO 2 (H 2 O) 4 ] species. In strongly acidic solutions, pH < 2, [VO 2 (H 2 O) 4 ]
8949-464: Is revealed that the builder is, in fact, himself a jötunn, and he is killed by Thor. In the meantime, Loki, in the form of a mare, has been impregnated by the jötunn's horse, Svaðilfari , and so gives birth to Sleipnir. In support, High quotes the Völuspá stanza that mentions Freyja. In chapter 49, High recalls the funeral of Baldr and says that Freyja attended the funeral and there drove her cat-chariot,
9106-405: Is stable against alkalis and sulfuric and hydrochloric acids . It is oxidized in air at about 933 K (660 °C, 1220 °F), although an oxide passivation layer forms even at room temperature. It also reacts with hydrogen peroxide. Naturally occurring vanadium is composed of one stable isotope , V, and one radioactive isotope, V. The latter has a half-life of 2.71×10 years and
9263-473: Is stable in acidic solutions. In alkaline solutions, species with 2, 3 and 4 peroxide groups are known; the last forms violet salts with the formula M 3 V(O 2 ) 4 nH 2 O (M= Li, Na, etc.), in which the vanadium has an 8-coordinate dodecahedral structure. Twelve binary halides , compounds with the formula VX n (n=2..5), are known. VI 4 , VCl 5 , VBr 5 , and VI 5 do not exist or are extremely unstable. In combination with other reagents, VCl 4
9420-445: Is the main decay mode for isotopes lighter than V. For the heavier ones, the most common mode is beta decay . The electron capture reactions lead to the formation of element 22 ( titanium ) isotopes, while beta decay leads to element 24 ( chromium ) isotopes. The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of the four adjacent oxidation states 2–5. In an aqueous solution , vanadium forms metal aquo complexes of which
9577-426: Is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons). Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus an integer, the atomic mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide") of the element is the mass of a single atom of that isotope, and is typically expressed in daltons (symbol: Da), or universal atomic mass units (symbol: u). Its relative atomic mass
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#17330934905349734-426: Is the predominant species, while the oxide V 2 O 5 precipitates from solution at high concentrations. The oxide is formally the acid anhydride of vanadic acid. The structures of many vanadate compounds have been determined by X-ray crystallography. Vanadium(V) forms various peroxo complexes, most notably in the active site of the vanadium-containing bromoperoxidase enzymes. The species VO(O 2 )(H 2 O) 4
9891-532: Is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon ( amorphous carbon , graphite , and diamond ) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm , respectively. The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures : cubic , body-centered cubic , face-centered cubic, hexagonal , monoclinic , orthorhombic , rhombohedral , and tetragonal . For some of
10048-498: Is used as a steel alloy called ferrovanadium . Ferrovanadium is produced directly by reducing a mixture of vanadium oxide, iron oxides and iron in an electric furnace. The vanadium ends up in pig iron produced from vanadium-bearing magnetite. Depending on the ore used, the slag contains up to 25% of vanadium. Approximately 85% of the vanadium produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. The considerable increase of strength in steel containing small amounts of vanadium
10205-404: Is used as a catalyst for the polymerization of dienes . Like all binary halides, those of vanadium are Lewis acidic , especially those of V(IV) and V(V). Many of the halides form octahedral complexes with the formula VX n L 6− n (X= halide; L= other ligand). Many vanadium oxyhalides (formula VO m X n ) are known. The oxytrichloride and oxytrifluoride ( VOCl 3 and VOF 3 ) are
10362-430: Is used in protein crystallography to study the biochemistry of phosphate. Besides that, this anion also has been shown to interact with the activity of some specific enzymes. The tetrathiovanadate [VS 4 ] is analogous to the orthovanadate ion. At lower pH values, the monomer [HVO 4 ] and dimer [V 2 O 7 ] are formed, with the monomer predominant at a vanadium concentration of less than c. 10M (pV > 2, where pV
10519-417: Is used in two different but closely related meanings: it can mean a chemical substance consisting of a single kind of atoms, or it can mean that kind of atoms as a component of various chemical substances. For example, molecules of water (H 2 O) contain atoms of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), so water can be said as a compound consisting of the elements hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) even though it does not contain
10676-511: Is used to produce iron, most of the vanadium goes to the slag and is extracted from it. Vanadium is mined mostly in China , South Africa and eastern Russia . In 2022 these three countries mined more than 96% of the 100,000 tons of produced vanadium, with China providing 70%. Fumaroles of Colima are known of being vanadium-rich, depositing other vanadium minerals, that include shcherbinaite (V 2 O 5 ) and colimaite (K 3 VS 4 ). Vanadium
10833-429: Is very strong; fullerenes , which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes , which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'. The reference state of an element is defined by convention, usually as the thermodynamically most stable allotrope and physical state at
10990-415: Is well–developed. Vanadocene dichloride is a versatile starting reagent and has applications in organic chemistry. Vanadium carbonyl , V(CO) 6 , is a rare example of a paramagnetic metal carbonyl . Reduction yields V (CO) 6 ( isoelectronic with Cr(CO) 6 ), which may be further reduced with sodium in liquid ammonia to yield V (CO) 5 (isoelectronic with Fe(CO) 5 ). Metallic vanadium
11147-585: Is widely used. For example, the French chemical terminology distinguishes élément chimique (kind of atoms) and corps simple (chemical substance consisting of a single kind of atoms); the Russian chemical terminology distinguishes химический элемент and простое вещество . Almost all baryonic matter in the universe is composed of elements (among rare exceptions are neutron stars ). When different elements undergo chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged into new compounds held together by chemical bonds . Only
11304-526: The Germanic peoples . They have connected her to the valkyries , female battlefield choosers of the slain, and analyzed her relation to other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology , including the thrice-burnt and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr , the goddesses Gefjon , Skaði , Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa , Menglöð , and the 1st century CE "Isis" of the Suebi . In Scandinavia, Freyja's name frequently appears in
11461-480: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) had recognized a total of 118 elements. The first 94 occur naturally on Earth , and the remaining 24 are synthetic elements produced in nuclear reactions. Save for unstable radioactive elements (radioelements) which decay quickly, nearly all elements are available industrially in varying amounts. The discovery and synthesis of further new elements
11618-625: The Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names. According to IUPAC, element names are not proper nouns; therefore, the full name of an element is not capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun , as in californium and einsteinium . Isotope names are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235 . Chemical element symbols (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below). In
11775-549: The Minas Ragra in Peru. Later, the demand for uranium rose, leading to increased mining of that metal's ores. One major uranium ore was carnotite , which also contains vanadium. Thus, vanadium became available as a by-product of uranium production. Eventually, uranium mining began to supply a large share of the demand for vanadium. In 1911, German chemist Martin Henze discovered vanadium in
11932-633: The New World . It was used extensively as such by American publications before the international standardization (in 1950). Before chemistry became a science , alchemists designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules . With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules. Freyja In Norse mythology , Freyja ( Old Norse "(the) Lady ")
12089-484: The Poetic Edda section above. High adds that Freyja has a large, beautiful hall called Sessrúmnir , and that when Freyja travels she sits in a chariot and drives two cats, and that Freyja is "the most approachable one for people to pray to, and from her name is derived the honorific title whereby noble ladies are called fruvor [noble ladies]". High adds that Freyja has a particular fondness for love songs, and that "it
12246-523: The Proto-Germanic feminine noun * frawjōn ('lady, mistress'), it is cognate with Old Saxon frūa ('lady, mistress') or Old High German frouwa ('lady'; cf. modern German Frau ). Freyja is also etymologically close to the name of the god Freyr , meaning 'lord' in Old Norse. The theonym Freyja is thus considered to have been an epithet in origin, replacing a personal name that
12403-409: The hemovanadin proteins found in blood cells (or coelomic cells) of Ascidiacea (sea squirts). Vanadium is an average-hard, ductile , steel-blue metal. Vanadium is usually described as "soft", because it is ductile, malleable , and not brittle . Vanadium is harder than most metals and steels (see Hardnesses of the elements (data page) and iron ). It has good resistance to corrosion and it
12560-423: The kinetic isotope effect is significant). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six electrons, even though they may have 6 to 8 neutrons. That is why atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight , is considered the identifying characteristic of an element. The symbol for atomic number is Z . Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with
12717-405: The nuclear binding energy and electron binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 Da and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 Da. However, the relative atomic mass of each isotope is quite close to its mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is C, which has a mass of 12 Da; because
12874-496: The sheet lightning flared at the night, Katrina said: "Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood" [...] I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way. In Värend , Sweden, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake
13031-402: The +5/+4 couple and the other uses the +3/+2 couple. Conversion of these oxidation states is illustrated by the reduction of a strongly acidic solution of a vanadium(V) compound with zinc dust or amalgam. The initial yellow color characteristic of the pervanadyl ion [VO 2 (H 2 O) 4 ] is replaced by the blue color of [VO(H 2 O) 5 ], followed by the green color of [V(H 2 O) 6 ] and then
13188-518: The 13th century from earlier traditional sources; in the Prose Edda and Heimskringla , composed by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; in several Sagas of Icelanders ; in the short story " Sörla þáttr " ; in the poetry of skalds ; and into the modern age in Scandinavian folklore . Scholars have debated whether Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common among
13345-442: The 1910s and 1920s from carnotite ( K 2 (UO 2 ) 2 (VO 4 ) 2 ·3H 2 O ) vanadium became available as a side product of uranium production. Vanadinite ( Pb 5 (VO 4 ) 3 Cl ) and other vanadium bearing minerals are only mined in exceptional cases. With the rising demand, much of the world's vanadium production is now sourced from vanadium-bearing magnetite found in ultramafic gabbro bodies. If this titanomagnetite
13502-406: The 1980s onwards. Cells use +5 and +2 formal oxidization state ions. Vanadium redox batteries are used commercially for grid energy storage . Vanadate can be used for protecting steel against rust and corrosion by conversion coating . Vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to steel because it is compatible with both iron and titanium. The moderate thermal neutron-capture cross-section and
13659-638: The 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium , element 43 and promethium , element 61, which have no stable isotopes). Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected. Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of
13816-487: The French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" (from roots meaning "no life") for "nitrogen". For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol
13973-578: The Scandinavian goddess of beauty and fertility, Vanadís (Freyja). The name was based on the wide range of colors found in vanadium compounds. Del Río's lead mineral was ultimately named vanadinite for its vanadium content. In 1867, Henry Enfield Roscoe obtained the pure element. Vanadium occurs naturally in about 65 minerals and fossil fuel deposits. It is produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag . Other countries produce it either from magnetite directly, flue dust of heavy oil, or as
14130-486: The apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake. However, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use. Many Asatru practitioners today mostly honor Freyja as a goddess of fertility, abundance and beauty. A common rite for modern Freya worshippers is to bake foods that have some connection to love in one way or another, such as chocolate . Freyja
14287-487: The atomic masses of the elements (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers. The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, though at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements,
14444-413: The chemical substances (di)hydrogen (H 2 ) and (di)oxygen (O 2 ), as H 2 O molecules are different from H 2 and O 2 molecules. For the meaning "chemical substance consisting of a single kind of atoms", the terms "elementary substance" and "simple substance" have been suggested, but they have not gained much acceptance in English chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent
14601-496: The colors are lilac [V(H 2 O) 6 ], green [V(H 2 O) 6 ], blue [VO(H 2 O) 5 ], yellow-orange oxides [VO(H 2 O) 5 ], the formula for which depends on pH. Vanadium(II) compounds are reducing agents, and vanadium(V) compounds are oxidizing agents. Vanadium(IV) compounds often exist as vanadyl derivatives, which contain the VO center. Ammonium vanadate(V) (NH 4 VO 3 ) can be successively reduced with elemental zinc to obtain
14758-501: The conditions, and so spent a night with each of the four dwarfs. The conditions were fulfilled and the necklace was hers. Freyja went home to her bower as if nothing happened. As related in chapter 2, Loki, under the service of Odin, found out about Freyja's actions and told Odin. Odin told Loki to get the necklace and bring it to him. Loki said that since no one could enter Freyja's bower against her will, this would not be an easy task, yet Odin told him not to come back until he had found
14915-478: The cytoplasm of such cells. The concentration of vanadium in the blood of ascidian tunicates is as much as ten million times higher than the surrounding seawater, which normally contains 1 to 2 μg/L. The function of this vanadium concentration system and these vanadium-bearing proteins is still unknown, but the vanadocytes are later deposited just under the outer surface of the tunic, where they may deter predation . Chemical element A chemical element
15072-408: The dalton is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state. The standard atomic weight (commonly called "atomic weight") of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit. This number may be a fraction that is not close to
15229-451: The different colors of vanadium in these four oxidation states. Lower oxidation states occur in compounds such as V(CO) 6 , [V(CO) 6 ] and substituted derivatives. Vanadium pentoxide is a commercially important catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid, a reaction that exploits the ability of vanadium oxides to undergo redox reactions. The vanadium redox battery utilizes all four oxidation states: one electrode uses
15386-416: The discovery and use of elements began with early human societies that discovered native minerals like carbon , sulfur , copper and gold (though the modern concept of an element was not yet understood). Attempts to classify materials such as these resulted in the concepts of classical elements , alchemy , and similar theories throughout history. Much of the modern understanding of elements developed from
15543-522: The doors to her bower were open, yet unbroken, and that her precious necklace was gone. Freyja had an idea of who was responsible. She got dressed and went to Odin. She told Odin of the malice he had allowed against her and of the theft of her necklace, and that he should give her back her jewelry. Odin said that, given how she obtained it, she would never get it back. That is, with one exception: she could have it back if she could make two kings, themselves ruling twenty kings each, battle one another, and cast
15700-575: The element vanadium after Old Norse Vanadís (another name for the Norse Vanir goddess Freyja , whose attributes include beauty and fertility), because of the many beautifully colored chemical compounds it produces. On learning of Wöhler's findings, del Río began to passionately argue that his old claim be recognized, but the element kept the name vanadium . In 1831, the geologist George William Featherstonhaugh suggested that vanadium should be renamed " rionium " after del Río, but this suggestion
15857-406: The elements are available by name, atomic number, density, melting point, boiling point and chemical symbol , as well as ionization energy . The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides , sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of
16014-470: The elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ( "periods" ) in which the columns ( "groups" ) share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. The table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 2021. Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended
16171-480: The elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", though
16328-413: The elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic number greater than 82. Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one stable isotope. The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes for a single element
16485-474: The elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins. Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between metals , which readily conduct electricity , nonmetals , which do not, and
16642-592: The everyday lives of men and women, such as protecting the vegetation and supplying assistance in childbirth were transferred to the Virgin Mary. However, Freyja did not disappear. In Iceland, Freyja was called upon for assistance by way of Icelandic magical staves as late as the 18th century; and as late as the 19th century, Freyja is recorded as retaining elements of her role as a fertility goddess among rural Swedes. The Old Norse poem Þrymskviða (or its source) continued into Scandinavian folk song tradition, where it
16799-492: The existing names for anciently known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the element names either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For example, German speakers use "Wasserstoff" (water substance) for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" (acid substance) for "oxygen" and "Stickstoff" (smothering substance) for "nitrogen"; English and some other languages use "sodium" for "natrium", and "potassium" for "kalium"; and
16956-630: The explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System . At over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any isotope, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements. The heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized . There are now 118 known elements. In this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just
17113-402: The famous Brísingamen. Thor objects but is hushed by Loki, reminding him that the new owners of the hammer will soon be settling in the land of the gods if the hammer is not returned. Thor is dressed as planned and Loki is dressed as his maid. Thor and Loki go to Jötunheimr. In the meantime, Thrym tells his servants to prepare for the arrival of the daughter of Njörðr . When "Freyja" arrives in
17270-473: The final reference to the goddess in Gylfaginning . At the beginning of the book Skáldskaparmál , Freyja is mentioned among eight goddesses attending a banquet held for Ægir. Chapter 56 details the abduction of the goddess Iðunn by the jötunn Þjazi in the form of an eagle. Terrified at the prospect of death and torture due to his involvement in the abduction of Iðunn, Loki asks if he may use Freyja's "falcon shape" to fly north to Jötunheimr and retrieve
17427-435: The first chapter of the 14th century legendary saga Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka , King Alrek has two wives, Geirhild and Signy, and cannot keep them both. He tells the two women that he would keep whichever of them that brews the better ale for him by the time he has returned home in the summer. The two compete and during the brewing process Signy prays to Freyja and Geirhild to Hött ("hood"), a man she had met earlier (earlier in
17584-510: The following reaction (R-H is hydrocarbon substrate): A vanadium nitrogenase is used by some nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms, such as Azotobacter . In this role, vanadium serves in place of the more common molybdenum or iron , and gives the nitrogenase slightly different properties. Vanadium is essential to tunicates , where it is stored in the highly acidified vacuoles of certain blood cell types, designated vanadocytes . Vanabins (vanadium-binding proteins) have been identified in
17741-529: The formation of Earth, they are certain to have completely decayed, and if present in novae, are in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, though trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements. List of
17898-487: The goddess Skaði , he had two beautiful and mighty children (no partner is mentioned); a son, Freyr , and a daughter, Freyja. Freyr is "the most glorious" of the gods, and Freyja "the most glorious" of the goddesses. Freyja has a dwelling in the heavens, Fólkvangr , and that whenever Freyja "rides into battle she gets half the slain, and the other half to Odin [...]". In support, High quotes the Grímnismál stanza mentioned in
18055-473: The goddess and her child Hnoss. Freyja receives a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 75, where a list of goddesses is provided that includes Freyja. The Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga provides a euhemerized account of the origin of the gods, including Freyja. In chapter 4, Freyja is introduced as a member of the Vanir, the sister of Freyr, and the daughter of Njörðr and his sister (whose name
18212-401: The gods built the hall Valhalla , a builder (unnamed) came to them and offered to build for them in three seasons a fortification so solid that no jötunn would be able to come in over from Midgard . In exchange, the builder wants Freyja for his bride, and the sun and the moon . After some debate the gods agree, but with added conditions. In time, just as he is about to complete his work, it
18369-561: The gods journeyed to visit Ægir, one of whom was Freyja. In chapter 49, a quote from a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason employs the kenning "Óðr's bedfellow's eye-rain", which refers to Freyja and means "gold". Chapter 36 explains again that gold can be referring to as Freyja's weeping due to her red gold tears. In support, works by the skalds Skúli Þórsteinsson and Einarr Skúlason are cited that use "Freyja's tears" or "Freyja's weepings" to represent "gold". The chapter features additional quotes from poetry by Einarr Skúlason that references
18526-431: The half-lives predicted for the observationally stable lead isotopes range from 10 to 10 years. Elements with atomic numbers 43, 61, and 83 through 94 are unstable enough that their radioactive decay can be detected. Three of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (90), and uranium (92) have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced
18683-399: The heaviest elements also undergo spontaneous fission . Isotopes that are not radioactive, are termed "stable" isotopes. All known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial nuclide ). The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially produced. Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioisotopes: specifically
18840-543: The heavy elements before the formation of the Solar System. For example, at over 1.9 × 10 years, over a billion times longer than the estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any isotope. The last 24 elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and cannot be produced as daughters of longer-lived elements, and thus are not known to occur in nature at all. 1 The properties of
18997-416: The information that Óttar needs from the jötunn Hyndla . Freyja speaks throughout the poem, and at one point praises Óttar for constructing a hörgr (an altar of stones) and frequently making blót (sacrifices) to her: Freyja appears in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál . In chapter 24 of Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High says that after the god Njörðr split with
19154-495: The ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near Mount Fuji contain as much as 54 μg per liter . Vanadium metal is obtained by a multistep process that begins with roasting crushed ore with NaCl or Na 2 CO 3 at about 850 °C to give sodium metavanadate (NaVO 3 ). An aqueous extract of this solid is acidified to produce "red cake", a polyvanadate salt, which is reduced with calcium metal. As an alternative for small-scale production, vanadium pentoxide
19311-554: The jötnar and, upon sight of it, Thor regains his hammer by force. In the poem Oddrúnargrátr , Oddrún helps Borgny give birth to twins. In thanks, Borgny invokes vættir , Frigg, Freyja, and other unspecified deities. Freyja is a main character in the poem Hyndluljóð , where she assists her faithful servant Óttar in finding information about his ancestry so that he may claim his inheritance. In doing so, Freyja turns Óttar into her boar, Hildisvíni, and, by means of flattery and threats of death by fire, Freyja successfully pries
19468-437: The lusty jötunn Þrymr . In the poem, Thor wakes up to find that his powerful hammer, Mjöllnir , is missing. Thor tells Loki of his missing hammer, and the two go to the beautiful court of Freyja. Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her cloak of feathers, so that he may try to find his hammer. Freyja agrees: Loki flies away in the whirring feather cloak, arriving in the land of Jötunheimr . He spies Þrymr sitting on top of
19625-491: The missing goddess. Freyja allows it, and using her "falcon shape" and a furious chase by eagle-Þjazi, Loki successfully returns her. In chapter 6, a means of referring to Njörðr is provided that refers to Frejya ("father of Freyr and Freyja"). In chapter 7, a means of referring to Freyr is provided that refers to the goddess ("brother of Freyja"). In chapter 8, ways of referring to the god Heimdallr are provided, including "Loki's enemy, recoverer of Freyja's necklace", inferring
19782-408: The modern period and melded into Scandinavian folklore . Britt-Mari Näsström [ sv ] comments that Freyja became a particular target under Christianization: Freyja's erotic qualities became an easy target for the new religion, in which an asexual virgin was the ideal woman [...] Freyja is called "a whore" and "a harlot" by the holy men and missionaries, whereas many of her functions in
19939-422: The morning, Thrym is taken aback by her behavior; her immense appetite for food and mead is far more than what he expected, and when Thrym goes in for a kiss beneath "Freyja's" veil, he finds "her" eyes to be terrifying, and he jumps down the hall. The disguised Loki makes excuses for the bride's odd behavior, claiming that she simply has not eaten or slept for eight days. In the end, the disguises successfully fool
20096-572: The most widely studied. Akin to POCl 3 , they are volatile, adopt tetrahedral structures in the gas phase, and are Lewis acidic. Complexes of vanadium(II) and (III) are reducing, while those of V(IV) and V(V) are oxidants. The vanadium ion is rather large and some complexes achieve coordination numbers greater than 6, as is the case in [V(CN) 7 ]. Oxovanadium(V) also forms 7 coordinate coordination complexes with tetradentate ligands and peroxides and these complexes are used for oxidative brominations and thioether oxidations. The coordination chemistry of V
20253-592: The names of plants, especially in southern Sweden . Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, but it was replaced with the name of the Virgin Mary during the process of Christianization . Rural Scandinavians continued to acknowledge Freyja as a supernatural figure into the 19th century, and Freyja has inspired various works of art. The name Freyja transparently means 'lady, mistress' in Old Norse . Stemming from
20410-406: The other half. In the poem Lokasenna , where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between Loki and Freyja. The introduction to the poem notes that among other gods and goddesses, Freyja attends a celebration held by Ægir . In verse, after Loki has flyted with the goddess Frigg , Freyja interjects, telling Loki that he
20567-418: The periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures). The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus ; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of
20724-426: The periodic tables presented here includes: actinides , alkali metals , alkaline earth metals , halogens , lanthanides , transition metals , post-transition metals , metalloids , reactive nonmetals , and noble gases . In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly,
20881-462: The poem refers to Freyja. In chapter 20, poetic ways to refer to Freyja are provided; "daughter of Njörðr", "sister of Freyr", "wife of Óðr", "mother of Hnoss", "possessor of the fallen slain and of Sessrumnir and tom-cats", possessor of Brísingamen, "Van-deity", Vanadís, and "fair-tear deity". In chapter 32, poetic ways to refer to gold are provided, including "Freyja's weeping" and "rain or shower [...] from Freyja's eyes". Chapter 33 tells that once
21038-412: The pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures ( spatial arrangements of atoms ), known as allotropes , which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond , which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite , which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene , which is a single layer of graphite that
21195-772: The reactive nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals. Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid , liquid , or gas , at standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most elements are solids at STP, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquid at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and 1 atmosphere pressure; caesium and gallium are solid at that temperature, but melt at 28.4°C (83.2°F) and 29.8°C (85.6°F), respectively. Melting and boiling points , typically expressed in degrees Celsius at
21352-919: The remaining 11 elements have half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements. Of these 11 transient elements, five ( polonium , radon , radium , actinium , and protactinium ) are relatively common decay products of thorium and uranium . The remaining six transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium , neptunium , and plutonium ) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements. Elements with atomic numbers 1 through 82, except 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each have at least one isotope for which no radioactive decay has been observed. Observationally stable isotopes of some elements (such as tungsten and lead ), however, are predicted to be slightly radioactive with very long half-lives: for example,
21509-508: The sacrifices and becomes famous. The saga explains that, due to Freyja's fame, all women of rank become known by her name— frúvor ("ladies"), a woman who is the mistress of her property is referred to as freyja , and húsfreyja ("lady of the house") for a woman who owns an estate. The chapter adds that not only was Freyja very clever, but that she and her husband Óðr had two immensely beautiful daughters, Gersemi and Hnoss , "who gave their names to our most precious possessions". Freyja
21666-500: The saga revealed to be Odin in disguise). Hött answers her prayer and spits on her yeast. Signy's brew wins the contest. In Sörla þáttr , a short, late 14th century narrative from a later and extended version of the Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar found in the Flateyjarbók manuscript, a euhemerized account of the gods is provided. In the account, Freyja is described as having been a concubine of Odin, who bartered sex to four dwarfs for
21823-495: The same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. The number of protons in the nucleus also determines its electric charge , which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's chemical properties . The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties; except for hydrogen (for which
21980-404: The same number of protons in their nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons . Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, said three isotopes are known as carbon-12 , carbon-13 , and carbon-14 ( C, C, and C). Natural carbon
22137-457: The second half of the 20th century, physics laboratories became able to produce elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for
22294-407: The short half-life of the isotopes produced by neutron capture makes vanadium a suitable material for the inner structure of a fusion reactor . Vanadium can be added in small quantities < 5% to LFP battery cathodes to increase ionic conductivity. Lithium vanadium oxide has been proposed for use as a high energy density anode for lithium-ion batteries , at 745 Wh/L when paired with
22451-411: The strength and temperature stability of titanium. Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys, it is used in jet engines , high-speed airframes and dental implants . The most common alloy for seamless tubing is Titanium 3/2.5 containing 2.5% vanadium, the titanium alloy of choice in the aerospace, defense, and bicycle industries. Another common alloy, primarily produced in sheets, is Titanium 6AL-4V ,
22608-496: The synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures. Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially via human-made nuclear reactions. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive. The longest-lived isotopes of
22765-955: The table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior. Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous in chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics , geology , biology , materials science , engineering , agriculture , medicine , nutrition , environmental health , and astronomy . Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering . The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, their accepted names, and their chemical symbols . The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 to 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals . Since
22922-615: The universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the Solar System , or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium. The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: all are radioactive, with short half-lives; if any of these elements were present at
23079-450: The violet color of [V(H 2 O) 6 ]. Another potential vanadium battery based on VB 2 uses multiple oxidation state to allow for 11 electrons to be released per VB 2 , giving it higher energy capacity by order of compared to Li-ion and gasoline per unit volume. VB 2 batteries can be further enhanced as air batteries, allowing for even higher energy density and lower weight than lithium battery or gasoline, even though recharging remains
23236-528: The work of Dmitri Mendeleev , a Russian chemist who published the first recognizable periodic table in 1869. This table organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (" periods ") in which the columns (" groups ") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties . The periodic table summarizes various properties of the elements, allowing chemists to derive relationships between them and to make predictions about elements not yet discovered, and potential new compounds. By November 2016,
23393-561: Was euhemerized and otherwise transformed over time. In Iceland, the poem became known as Þrylur , whereas in Denmark the poem became Thor af Havsgaard and in Sweden it became Torvisan or Hammarhämtningen . A section of the Swedish Torvisan , in which Freyja has been transformed into "the fair" ( den väna ) Frojenborg , reads as follows: In the province of Småland , Sweden, an account
23550-481: Was an impure sample of chromium . Del Río accepted Collet-Descotils' statement and retracted his claim. In 1831 Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in a new oxide he found while working with iron ores . Later that year, Friedrich Wöhler confirmed that this element was identical to that found by del Río and hence confirmed del Río's earlier work. Sefström chose a name beginning with V, which had not yet been assigned to any element. He called
23707-411: Was awake, and found that Freyja was asleep. He landed on her bed and noticed that she was wearing the necklace, the clasp turned downward. Loki turned into a flea and jumped onto Freyja's cheek and there bit her. Freyja stirred, turning about, and then fell asleep again. Loki removed his flea's shape and undid her collar, opened the bower, and returned to Odin. The next morning Freyja woke and saw that
23864-439: Was discovered in the early 20th century. Vanadium forms stable nitrides and carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of steel. From that time on, vanadium steel was used for applications in axles , bicycle frames, crankshafts , gears, and other critical components. There are two groups of vanadium steel alloys. Vanadium high-carbon steel alloys contain 0.15–0.25% vanadium, and high-speed tool steels (HSS) have
24021-548: Was extracted from alum shales in the south of Sweden. In the universe, the cosmic abundance of vanadium is 0.0001%, making the element nearly as common as copper or zinc . Vanadium is the 19th most abundant element in the crust. It is detected spectroscopically in light from the Sun and sometimes in the light from other stars . The vanadyl ion is also abundant in seawater , having an average concentration of 30 nM (1.5 mg/m). Some mineral water springs also contain
24178-423: Was extracted from these mines. At the beginning of the 20th century, a large deposit of vanadium ore was discovered in the Minas Ragra vanadium mine near Junín, Cerro de Pasco , Peru . For several years this patrónite (VS 4 ) deposit was an economically significant source for vanadium ore. In 1920 roughly two-thirds of the worldwide production was supplied by the mine in Peru. With the production of uranium in
24335-420: Was not followed. As vanadium is usually found combined with other elements, the isolation of vanadium metal was difficult. In 1831, Berzelius reported the production of the metal, but Henry Enfield Roscoe showed that Berzelius had produced the nitride, vanadium nitride (VN). Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of vanadium(II) chloride , VCl 2 , with hydrogen . In 1927, pure vanadium
24492-403: Was one of the most prominent users of such alloys, in armored vehicles like Tiger II or Jagdtiger . Vanadium compounds are used extensively as catalysts; Vanadium pentoxide V 2 O 5 , is used as a catalyst in manufacturing sulfuric acid by the contact process In this process sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ) is oxidized to the trioxide ( SO 3 ): In this redox reaction , sulfur
24649-525: Was produced by reducing vanadium pentoxide with calcium . The first large-scale industrial use of vanadium was in the steel alloy chassis of the Ford Model T , inspired by French race cars. Vanadium steel allowed reduced weight while increasing tensile strength ( c. 1905 ). For the first decade of the 20th century, most vanadium ore were mined by the American Vanadium Company from
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