136-561: Valkyria may refer to: A variant of valkyrie , or valkyrja , a supernatural female figure in Norse mythology Valkyria (roller coaster) , a roller coaster at Liseberg , Gothenburg, Sweden Valkyria Chronicles , a series of tactical role-playing video games Valkyria Chronicles (video game) , the first game in the series "Valkyria", song by Amon Amarth See also [ edit ] Valkyrie (disambiguation) Topics referred to by
272-496: A kenning for "Valkyrie". Valkyries are mentioned or appear in the Poetic Edda poems Völuspá , Grímnismál , Völundarkviða , Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar , Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , Helgakviða Hundingsbana II and Sigrdrífumál . In stanza 30 of the poem Völuspá , a völva (a travelling seeress in Norse society) tells Odin that "she saw" valkyries coming from far away who are ready to ride to "the realm of
408-487: A "natural religion based on animism". Dunn suggested that for Anglo-Saxon pagans, most everyday interactions would not have been with major deities but with such "lesser supernatural beings". She also suggested that these entities might have exhibited similarities with later English beliefs in fairies . Later Anglo-Saxon texts refer to beliefs in ælfe (elves), who are depicted as male but who exhibit gender-transgressing and effeminate traits; these ælfe may have been
544-478: A better alternative, although Carver cautioned against this, noting that Britain in the 5th to the 8th century was replete with new ideas and thus belief systems of that period were not particularly "traditional". The term "pre-Christian" religion has also been used; this avoids the judgemental connotations of "paganism" and "heathenism" but is not always chronologically accurate. Surviving primary textual source material derives from later authors, such as Bede and
680-418: A conversation between a valkyrie and a raven, largely consisting of the life and deeds of Harald I of Norway . The poem begins with a request for silence among noblemen so that the skald may tell the deeds of Harald Fairhair. The narrator states that they once overheard a "high-minded", "golden-haired" and "white-armed" maiden speaking with a "glossy-beaked raven". The valkyrie considers herself wise, understands
816-630: A cremation urn's lid discovered at Spong Hill in Norfolk, which was interpreted as a possible depiction of Woden on a throne. Also found on many crematory urns are a variety of symbols; of these, the swastikas have sometimes been interpreted as symbols associated with Thunor. Many Anglo-Saxonists have also assumed that Anglo-Saxon paganism was animistic in basis, believing in a landscape populated by different spirits and other non-human entities, such as elves , dwarves , and dragons . The English literature scholar Richard North for instance described it as
952-518: A development from an older Germanic paganism . The scholar Michael Bintley cautioned against this approach, noting that this "'Germanic' paganism" had "never had a single ur -form" from which later variants developed. Anglo-Saxon paganism only existed for a relatively short time-span, from the fifth to the eighth centuries. Our knowledge of the Christianisation process derives from Christian textual sources. Both Latin and ogham inscriptions and
1088-462: A dream is it,' said Óðinn, in which just before daybreak, I thought I cleared Valhǫll, for coming of slain men? I waked the Einherjar, bade valkyries rise up, to strew the bench, and scour the beakers, wine to carry, as for a king's coming, here to me I expect heroes' coming from the world, certain great ones, so glad is my heart. The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound
1224-519: A god known as Ingwine and the writer Asser mentioned a god known as Gēat . The Christian monk known as the Venerable Bede also mentioned two further goddesses in his written works: Eostre , who was celebrated at a spring festival, and Hretha , whose name meant "glory". References to idols can be found in Anglo-Saxon texts. No wooden carvings of anthropomorphic figures have been found in
1360-460: A great oath that she would never wed a man who knew fear. Sigurd asks Sigrdrífa to share with him her wisdom of all worlds. The poem continues in verse, where Sigrdrífa provides Sigurd with knowledge in inscribing runes , mystic wisdom, and prophecy. In the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , valkyries are first mentioned in chapter 36 of the book Gylfaginning , where
1496-430: A great ruler and pledges herself to him. At the beginning of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , a prose narrative says that King Sigmund (son of Völsung ) and his wife Borghild (of Brálund) have a son named Helgi, who they named for Helgi Hjörvarðsson (the protagonist of the earlier Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar ). After Helgi has killed King Hunding in stanza 4, a prose narrative says that Helgi escapes, consumes
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#17328843129391632-445: A guide to understanding the beliefs of pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon England, caution has been expressed as to the utility of this approach. Stenton assumes that the connection between Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian paganism occurred "in a past which was already remote" at the time of the Anglo-Saxon migration to Britain, and claims that there was clear diversity among the pre-Christian belief systems of Scandinavia itself, further complicating
1768-546: A number of stone carvings from the period, such as the Gosforth Cross , which included images of Ragnarök . The English church found that it needed to conduct a new conversion process to Christianise the incoming Scandinavian population. It is not well understood how the Christian institutions converted these settlers, in part due to a lack of textual descriptions of this conversion process equivalent to Bede's description of
1904-554: A part of older pagan beliefs. Elves seem to have had some place in earlier pre-Christian beliefs, as evidenced by the presence of the Anglo-Saxon language prefix ælf in early given names, such as Ælfsige (elf victory), Ælfwynn (elf friend), Ælfgar (elf spear), Ælfgifu (elf gift), Ælfric (elf power) and Ælfred (modern "Alfred", meaning "elf counsel"), amongst others. Various Old English place names reference þyrsas (giants) and dracan (dragons). However, such names did not necessarily emerge during
2040-462: A political purpose as a religious one. Metalwork items discovered by metal detectorists have also contributed to the interpretation of Anglo-Saxon paganism. The world-views of the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxons would have impinged on all aspects of everyday life, making it particularly difficult for modern scholars to separate Anglo-Saxon ritual activities as something distinct from other areas of daily life. Much of this archaeological material comes from
2176-515: A polytheistic cosmos, clouded from us by centuries of Christian theology and Enlightenment rationalism, we can discern the existence of a handful of potential deities, who though long deceased have perhaps left their mark in place-names, royal genealogies, and the accounts of proselytizing monks. Such sources have led scholars to put together a pantheon for early medieval England, populated by such murky figures as Woden, Þunor, Tiw, and Frig." — Historian Ethan Doyle White, 2014 Anglo-Saxon paganism
2312-582: A problem. In the latter decades of the ninth century during the Late Anglo-Saxon period, Scandinavian settlers arrived in Britain, bringing with them their own, kindred pre-Christian beliefs . No cultic sites used by Scandinavian pagans have been archaeologically identified, although place names suggest some possible examples. For instance, Roseberry Topping in North Yorkshire was known as Othensberg in
2448-399: A prose narrative relates that Helgi and his immense fleet of ships are heading to Frekastein, but encounter a great storm. Lightning strikes one of the ships. The fleet sees nine valkyries flying through the air, among whom they recognise Sigrún. The storm abates, and the fleets arrive safely at land. Helgi dies in battle, yet returns to visit Sigrún from Valhalla once in a burial mound, and at
2584-454: A prose narrative states that, after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him. The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál . It describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death. The poem begins with comments by Odin (as Old Norse Óðinn ): 'What kind of
2720-492: A purported common Indo-European root. The historian Clive Tolley has cautioned that any Anglo-Saxon world tree would likely not be directly comparable to that referenced in Norse textual sources. "The world of the Anglo-Saxon gods will forever remain a mystery to us, existing just beyond the reach of written history. This pagan world sits in an enigmatic realm that is in many respects prehistoric, an alien headspace far removed from our own intellectual universe. Situated within
2856-505: A quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided (see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail about the poem and another translation): What sort of dream is that, Odin? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val-hall for slain people. I aroused the Einheriar, bade them get up to strew the benches, clean the beer-cups, the valkyries to serve wine for
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#17328843129392992-447: A quote is given from the work Húsdrápa by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason . In the poem, Úlfr describes mythological scenes depicted in a newly built hall, including valkyries and ravens accompanying Odin at Baldr's funeral feast: There I perceive valkyries and ravens, accompanying the wise victory-tree [Odin] to the drink of the holy offering [Baldr's funeral feast] Within have appeared these motifs. Further in chapter 2,
3128-529: A reference to older Anglo-Saxon practices. Various scholars, among them historical geographer Della Hooke and Price, have contrastingly believed that these reflected the continuing practice of veneration at wells and trees at a popular level long after the official Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon society. Various elements of English folklore from the Medieval period onwards have been interpreted as being survivals from Anglo-Saxon paganism. For instance, writing in
3264-547: A reference to the cultural heritage of the Scandinavian population rather than their religious heritage. For instance, many Norse mythological themes and motifs are present in the poetry composed for the court of Cnut the Great , an eleventh-century Anglo-Scandinavian king who had been baptised into Christianity and who otherwise emphasised his identity as a Christian monarch. "The pagan hierarchical structure disintegrated rapidly in
3400-437: A spell used by the accused Ragnhild Tregagás to end the marriage of her former lover, a man named Bárd. The charm contains a mention of the valkyrie Göndul being "sent out": Anglo-Saxon paganism Anglo-Saxon paganism , sometimes termed Anglo-Saxon heathenism , Anglo-Saxon pre-Christian religion , Anglo-Saxon traditional religion , or Anglo-Saxon polytheism refers to the religious beliefs and practices followed by
3536-425: A time after the death of their first converted king. However, by the end of the 680s, all of the Anglo-Saxon peoples were at least nominally Christian. Blair noted that for most Anglo-Saxons, the "moral and practical imperatives" of following one's lord by converting to Christianity were a "powerful stimulus". It remains difficult to determine the extent to which pre-Christian beliefs retained their popularity among
3672-427: A wound received in battle. A narrative at the end of the poem says that Helgi and his valkyrie wife Sváva "are said to be reincarnated". In the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane sits in the corpse-strewn battlefield of Logafjöll. A light shines from the fell , and from that light strike bolts of lightning. Flying through the sky, helmeted valkyries appear. Their waist-length mail armour
3808-699: Is Woden , as "traces of his cult are scattered more widely over the rolling English countryside than those of any other heathen deity". Place names containing Wodnes- or Wednes- as their first element have been interpreted as references to Woden, and as a result his name is often seen as the basis for such place names as Woodnesborough ("Woden's Barrow") in Kent , Wansdyke ("Woden's Dyke") in Wiltshire , and Wensley ("Woden's Woodland Clearing" or "Woden's Wood") in Derbyshire . The name Woden also appears as an ancestor of
3944-741: Is attested is Tiw . In the Anglo-Saxon rune poem , Tir is identified with the star Polaris rather than with a deity, although it has been suggested that Tiw was probably a war deity. Dunn has suggested that Tiw might have been a supreme creator deity who was nevertheless deemed distant. The name Tiw has been identified in such place-names as Tuesley ("Tiw's Wood or Clearing") in Surrey , Tysoe ("Tiw's Hill-Spur") in Warwickshire , and Tyesmere ("Tiw's Pool") in Worcestershire . It has been suggested that
4080-508: Is coming from, and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand. Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon arrive in Valhalla. Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall, if it is indeed he. A witchcraft trial held in 1324 in Bergen , Norway , records
4216-402: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Valkyrie In Norse mythology , a valkyrie ( / ˈ v æ l k ɪ r i / VAL -kirr-ee or / v æ l ˈ k ɪər i / val- KEER -ee ; from Old Norse : valkyrja , lit. 'chooser of the slain') is one of a host of female figures who guide souls of
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4352-406: Is drenched in blood; their spears shine brightly: Then light shone from Logafell, and from that radiance there came bolts of lightning; wearing helmets at Himingvani [came the valkyries]. Their byrnies were drenched in blood; and rays shone from their spears. In the stanza that follows, Helgi asks the valkyries (who he refers to as "southern goddesses") if they would like to come home with
4488-404: Is known about pagan conceptions of an afterlife, although such beliefs likely influenced funerary practices , in which the dead were either inhumed or cremated, typically with a selection of grave goods . The belief system also likely included ideas about magic and witchcraft , and elements that could be classified as a form of shamanism . The deities of this religion provided the basis for
4624-509: Is known about the cosmological beliefs of Anglo-Saxon paganism. Carver, Sanmark, and Semple suggested that every community within Anglo-Saxon England likely had "its own take on cosmology", although suggested that there might have been "an underlying system" that was widely shared. The later Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm mentions seven worlds, which may be a reference to an earlier pagan cosmological belief. Similarly, Bede claimed that
4760-421: Is not clear why such names are rarer or non-existent in certain parts of the country; it may be due to changes in nomenclature brought about by Scandinavian settlement in the Late Anglo-Saxon period or because of evangelising efforts by later Christian authorities. In 1941, Stenton suggested that "between fifty and sixty sites of heathen worship" could be identified through the place-name evidence, although in 1961
4896-611: Is partial and far from complete, archaeology is beginning to reveal more." — Archaeologist Martin Welch, 2011. According to Wilson, the archaeological evidence is "prolific and hence is potentially the most useful in the study of paganism" in Anglo-Saxon England. Archaeologically, the realms of religion, ritual, and magic can only be identified if they affected material culture . As such, scholarly understandings of pre-Christian religion in Anglo-Saxon England are reliant largely on rich burials and monumental buildings, which exert as much of
5032-549: Is performed annually in the village of Abbots Bromley in Staffordshire , has also been claimed, by some, to be a remnant of Anglo-Saxon paganism. The antlers used in the dance belonged to reindeer and have been carbon dated to the eleventh century, and it is therefore believed that they originated in Norway and were brought to England some time in the late Mediaeval period, as by that time reindeer were extinct in Britain. Little
5168-526: Is problematic. Historically, many early scholars of the Anglo-Saxon period used these terms to describe the religious beliefs in England before its conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. Several later scholars criticised this approach; as the historian Ian N. Wood stated, using the term "pagan" when discussing the Anglo-Saxons forces the scholar to adopt "the cultural constructs and value judgements of
5304-453: Is set not in England but in Scandinavia , and revolves around a Geatish warrior named Beowulf who travels to Denmark to defeat a monster known as Grendel , who is terrorising the kingdom of Hrothgar , and later, Grendel's Mother as well. Following this, he later becomes the king of Geatland before finally dying in battle with a dragon. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it
5440-431: Is then provided. In Hákonarmál , Odin sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to "choose among the kings' kinsmen" and who in battle should dwell with Odin in Valhalla. A battle rages with great slaughter, and part of the description employs the kenning "Skögul's-stormblast" for "battle". Haakon and his men die in battle, and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft. Göndul comments that "groweth now
5576-605: The Nafnaþulur . Óskmey may be related to the Odinic name Óski (roughly meaning "wish fulfiller"), referring to the fact that Odin receives slain warriors in Valhalla. The name Randalín , which Aslaug is called in Ragnars saga loðbrókar , when she joins her sons to avenge their brothers Agnarr and Eric in Sweden, is probably from Randa- Hlín , which means "shield-goddess", i.e.
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5712-661: The Poetic Edda (a book of poems compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources), the Prose Edda , the Heimskringla (both by Snorri Sturluson ) and the Njáls saga (one of the Sagas of Icelanders ), all written—or compiled—in the 13th century. They appear throughout the poetry of skalds , in a 14th-century charm , and in various runic inscriptions . The Old English cognate term wælcyrge appears in several Old English manuscripts, and scholars have explored whether
5848-404: The Anglo-Saxon migration in the mid 5th century, and remained the dominant belief system in England until the forced Christianisation of its kingdoms between the 7th and 8th centuries, with some aspects gradually blending into folklore . The pejorative terms paganism and heathenism were first applied to this religion by Christianised Anglo-Saxons, and it does not appear that the followers of
5984-464: The Anglo-Saxons between the 5th and 8th centuries AD, during the initial period of Early Medieval England . A variant of Germanic paganism found across much of north-western Europe, it encompassed a heterogeneous variety of beliefs and cultic practices, with much regional variation. Developing from the earlier Iron Age religion of continental northern Europe, it was introduced to Britain following
6120-609: The Franks Casket , an artwork depicting both the pre-Christian myth of Weland the Smith and the Christian myth of the Adoration of the Magi . Blair noted that even in the late eleventh century, "important aspects of lay Christianity were still influenced by traditional indigenous practices". Both secular and church authorities issued condemnations of alleged non-Christian pagan practices, such as
6256-434: The Franks Casket . There are moreover two place-names recorded in tenth century charters that include Weyland's name. This entity's mythological stories are better fleshed out in Norse stories. The only surviving Anglo-Saxon epic poem is the story of Beowulf , known only from a surviving manuscript that was written down by the Christian monk Sepa sometime between the eighth and eleventh centuries AD. The story it tells
6392-895: The Merseburg Incantations . He is also often interpreted as being cognate with the Norse god Óðinn and the Old High German Uuodan. Additionally, he appears in the Old English ancestor of Wednesday , Ƿōdenesdæġ ( a calque from its Latin equivalent, as are the rest of the days of the week ). It has been suggested that Woden was also known as Grim—a name which appears in such English place-names as Grimspound in Dartmoor , Grimes Graves in Norfolk and Grimsby ("Grim's Village") in Lincolnshire —because in recorded Norse mythology,
6528-620: The Ruin of Britain by Gildas suggest that the leading families of Dumnonia and other Brittonic kingdoms had already adopted Christianity in the 6th century. In 596, Pope Gregory I ordered a Gregorian mission to be launched in order to convert the Anglo-Saxons to the Roman Catholic Church . The leader of this mission, Augustine , probably landed in Thanet , then part of the Kingdom of Kent , in
6664-689: The Welsh Marches , the majority of Wales (excepting Gwent ), Lancashire , and the south-western peninsula, are totally lacking evidence for Christianity in this period. Britons who found themselves in the areas now dominated by Anglo-Saxon elites possibly embraced the Anglo-Saxons' pagan religion in order to aid their own self-advancement, just as they adopted other trappings of Anglo-Saxon culture. This would have been easier for those Britons who, rather than being Christian, continued to practise indigenous polytheistic belief systems, and in areas this Late Iron Age polytheism could have syncretically mixed with
6800-450: The skjaldborg , and sees a warrior lying there—asleep and fully armed. Sigurd removes the helmet of the warrior, and sees the face of a woman. The woman's corslet is so tight that it seems to have grown into the woman's body. Sigurd uses his sword Gram to cut the corslet, starting from the neck of the corslet downwards, he continues cutting down her sleeves, and takes the corslet off of her. The woman wakes, sits up, looks at Sigurd, and
6936-458: The "T"-rune which appears on some weapons and crematory urns from the Anglo-Saxon period may be references to Tiw. Also, there is Tīƿesdæġ , which in Modern English has become " Tuesday ." "A worm came creeping, he tore a man in two, then Woden took nine Glory-Twigs, then struck the adder, that it flew apart into nine [bits] ... [Woden] established [the nine herbs] and sent [them] into
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#17328843129397072-448: The 1720s, Henry Bourne stated his belief that the winter custom of the Yule log was a leftover from Anglo-Saxon paganism, however this is an idea that has been disputed by some subsequent research by the likes of historian Ronald Hutton , who believe that it was only introduced into England in the seventeenth century by immigrants arriving from Flanders . The Abbots Bromley Horn Dance , which
7208-534: The Anglo-Saxon populace from the seventh century onward. Theodore's Penitential and the Laws of Wihtred of Kent issued in 695 imposed penalties on those who provided offerings to "demons". However, by two or three decades later, Bede could write as if paganism had died out in Anglo-Saxon England. Condemnations of pagan cults also do not appear in other canons from this later period, again suggesting that ecclesiastical figures no longer considered persisting paganism to be
7344-777: The Burgundian and Birinus the Italian . The next phase of the conversion took place between c. 653 and 664, and entailed the Northumbrian sponsored conversion of the rulers of the East Saxons, Middle Anglians, and Mercians. In the final phase of the conversion, which took place during the 670s and 680s, the final two Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to be led by pagan rulers—in Sussex and the Isle of Wight—saw their leaders baptised. As with other areas of Europe,
7480-624: The Christian God and references to tales from Biblical mythology , such as that of Cain and Abel . Given the restricted nature of literacy in Anglo-Saxon England, it is likely that the author of the poem was a cleric or an associate of the clergy. Nonetheless, some academics still hold reservations about accepting it as containing information pertaining to Anglo-Saxon paganism, with Patrick Wormald noting that "vast reserves of intellectual energy have been devoted to threshing this poem for grains of authentic pagan belief, but it must be admitted that
7616-497: The Christian king Oswald of Northumbria defeated a pagan rival at a sacred plain or meadow called Heavenfield ( Hefenfelth ), which may be a reference to a pagan belief in a heavenly plain. The Anglo-Saxon concept corresponding to fate was wyrd , although the "pagan" nature of this conception is subject to some debate; Dorothy Whitelock suggested that it was a belief held only after Christianisation, while Branston maintained that wyrd had been an important concept for
7752-614: The Old English and Old Norse forms, philologist Vladimir Orel reconstructs the Proto-Germanic form * walakuzjǭ . However, the term may have been borrowed into Old English from Old Norse: see discussion in the Old English attestations section below. Other terms for valkyries in Old Norse sources include óskmey ("wish maid"), appearing in the poem Oddrúnargrátr , and Óðins meyjar (" Odin 's maids"), appearing in
7888-535: The Scandinavian god Týr . Archaeologically, the introduction of Norse paganism to Britain in this period is mostly visited in the mortuary evidence. A number of Scandinavian furnished burial styles were also introduced that differed from the Christian churchyard burials then dominant in Late Anglo-Saxon England. Whether these represent clear pagan identity or not is however debated among archaeologists. Norse mythological scenes have also been identified on
8024-508: The anonymous author of the Life of St Wilfrid , who wrote in Latin rather than in Old English. These writers were not interested in providing a full portrait of the Anglo-Saxons' pre-Christian belief systems, and thus our textual portrayal of these religious beliefs is fragmentary and incidental. Also perhaps useful are the writings of those Christian Anglo-Saxon missionaries who were active in converting
8160-413: The archaeologist Audrey Meaney concluded that there exists "very little undoubted evidence for Anglo-Saxon paganism, and we remain ignorant of many of its essential features of organisation and philosophy". Similarly, the Old English specialist Roy Page expressed the view that the surviving evidence was "too sparse and too scattered" to permit a good understanding of Anglo-Saxon paganism. During most of
8296-494: The archaeologist David Wilson commented that written sources "should be treated with caution and viewed as suggestive rather than in any way definitive". Far fewer textual records discuss Anglo-Saxon paganism than the pre-Christian belief systems found in nearby Ireland, Francia, or Scandinavia. There is no neat, formalised account of Anglo-Saxon pagan beliefs as there is for instance for Classical mythology and Norse mythology . Although many scholars have used Norse mythology as
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#17328843129398432-477: The archaeologists Martin Carver , Alex Sanmark, and Sarah Semple, Anglo-Saxon paganism was "not a religion with supraregional rules and institutions but a loose term for a variety of local intellectual world views." Carver stressed that, in Anglo-Saxon England, neither paganism nor Christianity represented "homogenous intellectual positions or canons and practice"; instead, there was "considerable interdigitation" between
8568-569: The area that once encompassed Anglo-Saxon England that are comparable to those found in Scandinavia or continental Europe. It may be that such sculptures were typically made out of wood, which has not survived in the archaeological record. Several anthropomorphic images have been found, mostly in Kent and dated to the first half of the seventh century; however, identifying these with any particular deity has not proven possible. A seated male figure appears on
8704-402: The arrival of a prince. In chapter 31, poetic terms for referring to a woman are given, including "[a] woman is also referred to in terms of all Asyniur or valkyries or norns or dísir ". In chapter 41, while the hero Sigurd is riding his horse Grani , he encounters a building on a mountain. Within this building Sigurd finds a sleeping woman wearing a helmet and a coat of mail . Sigurd cuts
8840-401: The conversion to Christianity was facilitated by the aristocracy. These rulers may have felt themselves to be members of a pagan backwater in contrast to the Christian kingdoms in continental Europe. The pace of Christian conversion varied across Anglo-Saxon England, with it taking almost 90 years for the official conversion to succeed. Most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms returned to paganism for
8976-490: The dead to the god Odin 's hall Valhalla . There, the deceased warriors become einherjar ('single fighters' or 'once fighters'). When the einherjar are not preparing for the cataclysmic events of Ragnarök , the valkyries bear them mead . Valkyries also appear as lovers of heroes and other mortals, where they are sometimes described as the daughters of royalty, sometimes accompanied by ravens and sometimes connected to swans or horses . Valkyries are attested in
9112-515: The earlier Anglo-Saxon conversion. However, it appears that the Scandinavian migrants had converted to Christianity within the first few decades of their arrival. The historian Judith Jesch suggested that these beliefs survived throughout Late Anglo-Saxon England not in the form of an active non-Christian religion, but as "cultural paganism", the acceptance of references to pre-Christian myths in particular cultural contexts within an officially Christian society. Such "cultural paganism" could represent
9248-487: The early medieval [Christian] missionaries" and thus obscures scholarly understandings of the so-called pagans' own perspectives. At present, while some Anglo-Saxonists have ceased using the terms "paganism" or "pagan" when discussing the early Anglo-Saxon period, others have continued to do so, viewing these terms as a useful means of designating something that is not Christian yet which is still identifiably religious. The historian John Hines proposed "traditional religion" as
9384-471: The end of the poem, a prose epilogue explains that Sigrún later dies of grief. The epilogue details that "there was a belief in the pagan religion, which we now reckon [is] an old wives' tale, that people could be reincarnated" and that "Helgi and Sigrun were thought to have been reborn" as another Helgi and valkyrie couple; Helgi as Helgi Haddingjaskaði and Sigrún as the daughter of Halfdan ; the valkyrie Kára . The epilogue details that further information about
9520-404: The end of the poem, the valkyries sing "start we swiftly with steeds unsaddled—hence to battle with brandished swords!" The prose narrative picks up again, and says that the valkyries tear their loom down and into pieces. Each valkyrie holds on to what she has in her hands. Dörruð leaves the chink in the wall and heads home, and the women mount their horses and ride away; six to the south and six to
9656-596: The enthroned figure of High informs Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) of the activities of the valkyries and mentions a few goddesses. High says "there are still others whose duty it is to serve in Valhalla. They bring drink and see to the table and the ale cups." Following this, High gives a stanza from the poem Grímnismál that contains a list of valkyries. High says "these women are called valkyries, and they are sent by Odin to every battle, where they choose which men are to die and they determine who has victory". High adds that Gunnr ("war" ), Róta , and Skuld—the last of
9792-463: The equivalent term was hæðen ("heathen"), a word that was cognate to the Old Norse heiðinn , both of which may derive from a Gothic word, haiþno . Both pagan and heathen were terms that carried pejorative overtones, with hæðen also being used in Late Anglo-Saxon texts to refer to criminals and others deemed to have not behaved according to Christian teachings. The term "paganism"
9928-506: The existence of such a belief, the possibility that the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxons believed in a cosmological world tree has also been considered. It has been suggested that the idea of a world tree can be discerned through certain references in the Dream of the Rood poem. This idea may be bolstered if it is the case, as some scholars have argued, that their concept of a world tree may be derived from
10064-604: The feature Nafnaþulur section of Skáldskaparmál contain an extended list of 29 valkyrie names (listed as the "valkyries of Viðrir "—a name of Odin). The first stanza lists: Hrist, Mist, Herja, Hlökk, Geiravör, Göll, Hjörþrimul, Guðr, Herfjötra, Skuld, Geirönul, Skögul and Randgníð. The second stanza lists: Ráðgríðr, Göndul, Svipul, Geirskögul, Hildr, Skeggöld, Hrund, Geirdriful, Randgríðr, Þrúðr, Reginleif, Sveið, Þögn, Hjalmþrimul, Þrima and Skalmöld. The fragmentary skaldic poem Hrafnsmál (generally accepted as authored by 9th century Norwegian skald Þorbjörn Hornklofi ) features
10200-399: The foundations for parts of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. Pre-Christian beliefs affected the folklore of the Anglo-Saxon period, and through this continued to exert an influence on popular religion within the late Anglo-Saxon period. The conversion did not result in the obliteration of pre-Christian traditions, but in various ways created a synthesis of traditions, as exhibited for instance by
10336-605: The fourth century, the majority of Britain had been part of the Roman Empire , which—starting in 380 AD with the Edict of Thessalonica —had Christianity as its official religion. However, in Britain, Christianity was probably still a minority religion, restricted largely to the urban centres and their hinterlands. While it did have some impact in the countryside, here it appears that indigenous Late Iron Age polytheistic belief systems continued to be widely practised. Some areas, such as
10472-403: The god Óðinn is also known as Grímnir . Highlighting that there are around twice as many Grim place-names in England as Woden place-names, the place-name scholar Margaret Gelling cautioned against the view that Grim was always associated with Woden in Anglo-Saxon England. The second most widespread deity from Anglo-Saxon England appears to be the god Thunor . It has been suggested that
10608-408: The gods to grant it?" Skogul said: "'Tis owing to us that the issue was won and your foemen fled." Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the "green homes of the godheads" to tell Odin the king will come to Valhalla. The poem continues, and Haakon becomes a part of the einherjar in Valhalla, awaiting to do battle with the monstrous wolf Fenrir . In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna ,
10744-525: The gods". The völva follows this with a list of six valkyries: Skuld (Old Norse, possibly "debt" or "future") who "bore a shield", Skögul ("shaker"), Gunnr ("war"), Hildr ("battle"), Göndul (" wand -wielder") and Geirskögul ("Spear-Skögul"). Afterwards, the völva tells him she has listed the "ladies of the War Lord, ready to ride, valkyries, over the earth". In the poem Grímnismál , Odin (disguised as Grímnir ), tortured, starved and thirsty, tells
10880-431: The gods' following, since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads". Haakon hears "what the valkyries said", and the valkyries are described as sitting "high-hearted on horseback", wearing helmets, carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them. A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul: Hákon said: "Why didst Geirskogul grudge us victory? though worthy we were for
11016-417: The gore-drenched and corpse-reeking raven: "How is it, ye ravens—whence are ye come now with beaks all gory, at break of morning? Carrion-reek ye carry, and your claws are bloody. Were ye near, at night-time, where ye knew of corpses?" The black raven shakes himself, and he responds that he and the rest of the ravens have followed Harald since hatching from their eggs. The raven expresses surprise that
11152-637: The hammer and the swastika were the god's symbols, representing thunderbolts, and both of these symbols have been found in Anglo-Saxon graves, the latter being common on cremation urns. A large number of Thunor place-names feature the Old English word lēah ("wood", or "clearing in a wood"), among them Thunderley and Thundersley in Essex . The deity's name also appears in other compounds too, as with Thunderfield ("Thunor's Open Land") in Surrey and Thunores hlaew ("Thunor's Mound") in Kent. A third Anglo-Saxon god that
11288-438: The harvest has been meagre. The poet may have known that his heroes were pagans, but he did not know much about paganism." Similarly, Christine Fell declared that when it came to paganism, the poet who authored Beowulf had "little more than a vague awareness of what was done 'in those days'." Conversely, North argued that the poet knew more about paganism that he revealed in the poem, suggesting that this could be seen in some of
11424-457: The hut and Dörruð can no longer see them. Dörruð goes to the hut, and looks through a chink in the wall. He sees that there are women within, and that they have set up a particular loom ; the heads of men are the weights, the entrails of men are the warp and weft , a sword is the shuttle , and the reels are composed of arrows. The women sing a song called Darraðarljóð , which Dörruð memorizes. The song consists of 11 stanzas, and within it
11560-536: The incoming Anglo-Saxon religion. Conversely, there is weak possible evidence for limited survival of Roman Christianity into the Anglo-Saxon period, such as the place-name ecclēs , meaning 'church', at two locations in Norfolk and Eccles in Kent . However, Blair suggested that Roman Christianity would not have experienced more than a "ghost-life" in Anglo-Saxon areas. Those Britons who continued to practise Christianity were probably perceived as second-class citizens and were unlikely to have had much of an impact on
11696-493: The indigenous faith had a name for their religion themselves; there has therefore been debate among contemporary scholars as to the appropriateness of continuing to describe these belief systems using this Christian terminology. Contemporary knowledge of Anglo-Saxon paganism derives largely from three sources: textual evidence produced by Christian Anglo-Saxons like Bede and Aldhelm , place-name evidence, and archaeological evidence of cultic practices. Further suggestions regarding
11832-445: The local level... In this way Christianity ultimately penetrated the homes and daily lives of the various Germanic peoples in the centuries after the arrival of the first missionaries." — Historian Karen Louise Jolly, 1996. Although Christianity had been adopted across Anglo-Saxon England by the late seventh century, many pre-Christian customs continued to be practised. Bintley argued that aspects of Anglo-Saxon paganism served as
11968-745: The mail from her, and she awakes. She tells him her name is Hildr, and "she is known as Brynhildr , and was a valkyrie". In chapter 48, poetic terms for "battle" include "weather of weapons or shields, or of Odin or valkyrie or war-kings or their clash or noise", followed by examples of compositions by various skalds that have used the name of valkyries in said manner ( Þorbjörn Hornklofi uses "Skögul's din" for "battlefield", Bersi Skáldtorfuson uses "Gunnr's fire" for "sword" and "Hlökk's snow" for "battle", Einarr Skúlason uses "Hildr's sail" for "shield" and "Göndul's crushing wind" for "battle" and Einarr skálaglamm uses "Göndul's din"). Chapter 49 gives similar information when referring to weapons and armor (though
12104-432: The names of particular deities, while others use terms that refer to cultic practices that took place there. In England, these two categories remain separate, unlike in Scandinavia, where certain place-names exhibit both features. Those place-names which carry possible pagan associations are centred primarily in the centre and south-east of England, while no obvious examples are known from Northumbria or East Anglia . It
12240-534: The names of the days of the week in the English language. What is known about the religion and its accompanying mythology have since influenced both literature and modern paganism . The word pagan is a Latin pejorative term that was used by Gentile Christianity (also: Pagan Christianity ) in Anglo-Saxon England to designate non-Christians. In Old English , the vernacular language of Anglo-Saxon England,
12376-472: The nature of Anglo-Saxon paganism have been developed through comparisons with the better-attested pre-Christian belief systems of neighbouring peoples such as the Norse . Anglo-Saxon paganism was a polytheistic belief system, focused around a belief in deities known as the ése (singular ós ). The most prominent of these deities was probably Woden ; other prominent gods included Thunor and Tiw . There
12512-478: The north. At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða , the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented. The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle, and although he is Christian, he requests that since he has died "among heathens, then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you". The saga relates that shortly after Haakon died on
12648-504: The pagan Anglo-Saxons. He suggested that it was cognate to the Icelandic term Urdr and thus was connected to the concept of three sisters, the Nornir , who oversee fate in recorded Norse mythology. It is possible that the pre-Christian Anglo-Saxons held a belief in an apocalypse that bore similarities with the later Norse myth of Ragnarok . Although we have no evidence directly testifying to
12784-506: The pagan kings and aristocracy which was then emphasising Anglo-Saxon culture and defining itself against British culture. If the British Christians were able to convert any of the Anglo-Saxon elite conquerors, it was likely only on a small community scale, with British Christianity having little impact on the later establishment of Anglo-Saxon Christianity in the seventh century. Prior scholarship tended to view Anglo-Saxon paganism as
12920-408: The pagan period of early Anglo-Saxon England, but could have developed at a later date. In pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon England, legends and other stories were transmitted orally instead of being written down; it is for this reason that very few survive today. In both Beowulf and Deor's Lament there are references to the mythological smith Weyland , and this figure also makes an appearance on
13056-408: The pagan societies of continental Europe, namely Willibrord and Boniface , as well as the writings of the 1st century AD Roman writer Tacitus , who commented upon the pagan religions of the Anglo-Saxons' ancestors in continental Europe. The historian Frank Stenton commented that the available texts only provide us with "a dim impression" of pagan religion in Anglo-Saxon England, while similarly,
13192-417: The period in which pagan beliefs were being supplanted by Christianity, and thus an understanding of Anglo-Saxon paganism must be seen in tandem with the archaeology of the conversion. Based on the evidence available, the historian John Blair stated that the pre-Christian religion of Anglo-Saxon England largely resembled "that of the pagan Britons under Roman rule... at least in its outward forms". However,
13328-452: The place-name scholar Margaret Gelling cautioned that only forty-five of these appeared reliable. The literature specialist Philip A. Shaw has however warned that many of these sites might not have been named by pagans but by later Christian Anglo-Saxons, reflecting spaces that were perceived to be heathen from a Christian perspective. "Although our understanding of Anglo-Saxon pre-Christian religion from written sources and from place names
13464-492: The poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar , a prose narrative says that an unnamed and silent young man, the son of the Norwegian King Hjörvarðr and Sigrlinn of Sváfaland, witnesses nine valkyries riding by while sitting atop a burial mound . He finds one particularly striking; this valkyrie is detailed later in a prose narrative as Sváva , King Eylimi's daughter, who "often protected him in battles". The valkyrie speaks to
13600-488: The poem Völundarkviða relates that the brothers Slagfiðr , Egil and Völund dwelt in a house sited in a location called Úlfdalir ("wolf dales"). There, early one morning, the brothers find three women spinning linen on the shore of the lake Úlfsjár ("wolf lake"), and "near them were their swan's garments ; they were valkyries". Two daughters of King Hlödvér are named Hlaðguðr svanhvít ("swan-white") and Hervör alvitr (possibly meaning "all-wise" or "strange creature" );
13736-445: The poem, Atli flytes with the female jötunn Hrímgerðr . While flyting with Atli, Hrímgerðr says that she had seen 27 valkyries around Helgi, yet one particularly fair valkyrie led the band: Three times nine girls , but one girl rode ahead, white-skinned under her helmet; the horses were trembling, from their manes dew fell into the deep valleys, hail in the high woods; good fortune comes to men from there; all that I saw
13872-419: The poem, the hero Sinfjötli flytes with Guðmundr. Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been female, and gibes that Guðmundr was "a witch, horrible, unnatural, among Odin's valkyries", adding that all of the einherjar "had to fight, headstrong woman, on your account". Further in the poem, the phrase "the valkyrie's airy sea" is used for " mist ". Towards the end of the poem, valkyries again descend from
14008-425: The raw meat of cattle he has slaughtered on a beach, and encounters Sigrún. Sigrún, daughter of King Högni, is "a valkyrie and rode through air and sea", and she is the valkyrie Sváva reincarnated. In stanza 7, Sigrún uses the phrase "fed the gosling of Gunn's sisters". Gunnr and her sisters are valkyries, and these goslings are ravens , who feed on the corpses left on the battlefield by warriors. After stanza 18,
14144-523: The royal genealogies of Kent , Wessex , East Anglia and Mercia , resulting in suggestions that after losing his status as a god during the Christianisation process he was euhemerised as a royal ancestor. Woden also appears as the leader of the Wild Hunt , and he is referred to as a magical healer in the Nine Herbs Charm , directly paralleling the role of his continental German counterpart Wodan in
14280-491: The same slab of rock that he was born upon, he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike, and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland . Haakon was buried there in a large burial mound in full armour and his finest clothing, yet with no other valuables. Further, "words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men, and they put him on the way to Valhalla". The poem Hákonarmál
14416-413: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Valkyria . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valkyria&oldid=1162474886 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
14552-457: The seven worlds, for the poor and the rich, a remedy for all, it stands against pain, it fights against poison, it avails against three and against thirty, against foe's hand and against noble scheming, against enchantment of vile creatures." The Nine Herbs Charm . Perhaps the most prominent female deity in Anglo-Saxon paganism was Frig ; however, there is still very little evidence for her worship, although it has been speculated that she
14688-474: The seventh century in the face of Christianity's systematic organization. But folk practices were all-pervasive in everyday life. The animistic character of Germanic belief prior to Christianization, with its emphasis on nature, holistic cures, and worship at wells, trees, and stones, meant that it was hard to counteract on an institutional level of organized religion... The synthesis of Christian and Germanic ideas gradually transformed these practices, undoubtedly at
14824-475: The sky, this time to protect Helgi amid the battle at Frekastein. After the battle, all the valkyries fly away but Sigrún and wolves (referred to as "the troll -woman's mount") consume corpses: Helmeted valkyries came down from the sky —the noise of spears grew loud—they protected the prince; then said Sigrun—the wound-giving valkyries flew, the troll -woman's mount was feasting on the fodder of ravens: The battle won, Sigrún tells Helgi that he will become
14960-433: The speech of birds, is further described as having a white-throat and sparkling eyes, and she takes no pleasure in men: Wise thought her the valkyrie; were welcome never men to the bright-eyed one, her who the birds' speech knew well. Greeted the light-lashed maiden, the lily-throated woman, The hymir 's-skull-cleaver as on cliff he was perching. The valkyrie, previously described as fair and beautiful, then speaks to
15096-433: The subject of works of art, musical works, comic books, video games and poetry. The word valkyrie derives from Old Norse valkyrja (plural valkyrjur ), which is composed of two words: the noun valr (referring to the slain on the battlefield) and the verb kjósa (meaning "to choose"). Together, they mean 'chooser of the slain'. The Old Norse valkyrja is cognate to Old English wælcyrge . From
15232-662: The summer of 597. While Christianity was initially restricted to Kent, it saw "major and sustained expansion" in the period from c. 625 to 642, when the Kentish king Eadbald sponsored a mission to the Northumbrians led by Paulinus, the Northumbrian king Oswald invited a Christian mission from Irish monks to establish themselves, and the courts of the East Anglians and the Gewisse were converted by continental missionaries Felix
15368-482: The term "death-maidens"—Old Norse valmeyjar —instead of "valkyries" is used here), with further examples. In chapter 57, within a list of names of ásynjur (and after alternate names for the goddess Freyja are provided), a further section contains a list of "Odin's maids"; valkyries: Hildr, Göndul, Hlökk, Mist, Skögul. And then an additional four names; Hrund, Eir , Hrist and Skuld. The section adds that "they are called norns who shape necessity". Some manuscripts of
15504-494: The term appears in Old English by way of Norse influence, or reflects a tradition also native among the Anglo-Saxon pagans . Scholarly theories have been proposed about the relation between the valkyries, the Norns , and the dísir , all of which are supernatural figures associated with fate. Archaeological excavations throughout Scandinavia have uncovered amulets theorized as depicting valkyries. In modern culture, valkyries have been
15640-471: The third, daughter of Kjárr of Valland , is named Ölrún (possibly meaning " beer rune " ). The brothers take the three women back to their hall with them—Egil takes Ölrún, Slagfiðr takes Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund takes Hervör alvitr. They live together for seven winters, until the women fly off to go to a battle and do not return. Egil goes off in snow-shoes to look for Ölrún, Slagfiðr goes searching for Hlaðguðr svanhvít and Völund sits in Úlfdalir. In
15776-425: The three he refers to as "the youngest norn "—"always ride to choose the slain and decide the outcome of battle". In chapter 49, High describes that when Odin and his wife Frigg arrived at the funeral of their slain son Baldr , with them came the valkyries and also Odin's ravens . References to valkyries appear throughout the book Skáldskaparmál , which provides information about skaldic poetry. In chapter 2,
15912-530: The twelfth century, a name which derived from the Old Norse Óðinsberg , or 'Hill of Óðin'. A number of place-names also contain Old Norse references to mythological entities, such as alfr , skratii , and troll . A number of pendants representing Mjolnir , the hammer of the god Thor , have also been found in England, reflecting the probability that he was worshipped among the Anglo-Scandinavian population. Jesch argued that, given that there
16048-504: The two can be found in the (now lost) work Káruljóð . In the prose introduction to the poem Sigrdrífumál , the hero Sigurd rides up to Hindarfell and heads south towards "the land of the Franks ". On the mountain Sigurd sees a great light, "as if fire were burning, which blazed up to the sky". Sigurd approaches it, and there he sees a skjaldborg with a banner flying overhead. Sigurd enters
16184-400: The two converse in two stanzas of verse. In the second stanza, the woman explains that Odin placed a sleeping spell on her she could not break, and due to that spell she has been asleep a long time. Sigurd asks for her name, and the woman gives Sigurd a horn of mead to help him retain her words in his memory. The woman recites a heathen prayer in two stanzas. A prose narrative explains that
16320-432: The two. As a phenomenon, this belief system lacked any apparent rules or consistency, and exhibited both regional and chronological variation. The archaeologist Aleks Pluskowski suggested that it is possible to talk of "multiple Anglo-Saxon 'paganisms'". Adopting the terminology of the sociologist of religion Max Weber , the historian Marilyn Dunn described Anglo-Saxon paganism as a "world accepting" religion, one which
16456-519: The unnamed man, and gives him the name Helgi (meaning "the holy one" ). The previously silent Helgi speaks; he refers to the valkyrie as "bright-face lady", and asks her what gift he will receive with the name she has bestowed upon him, but he will not accept it if he cannot have her as well. The valkyrie tells him she knows of a hoard of swords in Sigarsholm, and that one of them is of particular importance, which she describes in detail. Further into
16592-440: The use of Scandinavian material to understand that of England. Conversely, the historian Brian Branston argued for the use of Old Norse sources to better understand Anglo-Saxon pagan beliefs, recognising mythological commonalities between the two rooted in their common ancestry. Old English place-names also provide some insight into the pre-Christian beliefs and practices of Anglo-Saxon England. Some of these place-names reference
16728-502: The valkyrie seems unfamiliar with the deeds of Harald, and tells her about his deeds for several stanzas. At stanza 15, a question and answer format begins where the valkyrie asks the raven a question regarding Harald, and the raven responds in turn. This continues until the poem ends abruptly. In chapter 156 of Njáls saga , a man named Dörruð witnesses 12 people riding together to a stone hut on Good Friday in Caithness . The 12 go into
16864-479: The valkyries weave and choose who is to be slain at the Battle of Clontarf (fought outside Dublin in 1014 CE ). Of the 12 valkyries weaving, six have their names given in the song: Hildr, Hjörþrimul , Sanngriðr , Svipul , Guðr and Göndul. Stanza 9 of the song reads: Now awful it is to be without, as blood-red rack races overhead; is the welkin gory with warriors' blood as we valkyries war-songs chanted. At
17000-493: The veneration of wells, trees, and stones, right through to the eleventh century and into the High Middle Ages. However, most of the penitentials condemning such practices—notably that attributed to Ecgbert of York —were largely produced around the year 1000, which may suggest that their prohibitions against non-Christian cultic behaviour may be a response to Norse pagan beliefs brought in by Scandinavian settlers rather than
17136-550: The warriors when night falls (all the while arrows were flying). The battle over, the valkyrie Sigrún ("victory- rune " ), informs him from her horse that her father Högni has betrothed her to Höðbroddr , the son of king Granmar of the Hniflung clan, who Sigrún deems unworthy. Helgi assembles an immense host to ride to wage battle at Frekastein against the Hniflung clan to assist Sigrún in her plight to avoid her betrothment. Later in
17272-471: The woman is named Sigrdrífa and that she is a valkyrie. A narrative relates that Sigrdrífa explains to Sigurd that there were two kings fighting one another. Odin had promised one of these—Hjalmgunnar—victory in battle, yet she had "brought down" Hjalmgunnar in battle. Odin pricked her with a sleeping-thorn in consequence, told her she would never again "fight victoriously in battle", and condemned her to marriage. In response, Sigrdrífa told Odin she had sworn
17408-500: The young Agnar that he wishes that the valkyries Hrist ("shaker") and Mist ("cloud") would "bear him a [drinking] horn ", then provides a list of 11 more valkyries who he says "bear ale to the einherjar "; Skeggjöld ("axe-age"), Skögul, Hildr, Þrúðr ("power"), Hlökk ("noise", or "battle"), Herfjötur ("host-fetter"), Göll ("tumult"), Geirahöð ("spear-fight"), Randgríð ("shield-truce"), Ráðgríð ("council-truce") and Reginleif ("power-truce"). A prose introduction in
17544-536: Was "a goddess of love or festivity". Her name has been suggested as a component of the place-names Fretherne in Gloucestershire , and Freefolk , Frobury , and Froyle in Hampshire . The East Saxon royalty claimed lineage from someone known as Seaxnēat , who might have been a god, in part because an Old Saxon baptismal vow calls on the Christian to renounce "Thunaer, Woden and Saxnot". A runic poem mentions
17680-466: Was "concerned with the here and now" and in particular with issues surrounding the safety of the family, prosperity, and the avoidance of drought or famine. Also adopting the categories of Gustav Mensching , she described Anglo-Saxon paganism as a " folk religion ", in that its adherents concentrated on survival and prosperity in this world. Using the expressions "paganism" or "heathenism" when discussing pre-Christian belief systems in Anglo-Saxon England
17816-447: Was a polytheistic belief system, with its practitioners believing in many deities. However, most Christian Anglo-Saxon writers had little or no interest in the pagan gods, and thus did not discuss them in their texts. The Old English words for a god were ēs and ōs , and they may be reflected in such place-names as Easole ("God's Ridge") in Kent and Eisey ("God's Island") in Wiltshire . The deity for whom we have most evidence
17952-512: Was also a belief in a variety of other supernatural entities which inhabited the landscape, including elves , nicors , and dragons . Cultic practice largely revolved around demonstrations of devotion, including sacrifice of inanimate objects and animals to these deities, particularly at certain religious festivals during the year. There is some evidence for the existence of timber temples, although other cultic spaces might have been open-air, and would have included cultic trees and megaliths. Little
18088-522: Was commonly believed that Beowulf was not an Anglo-Saxon pagan tale, but a Scandinavian Christian one; it was not until the influential critical essay Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics by J. R. R. Tolkien , delivered in 1936, that Beowulf was established as a quintessentially English poem that, while Christian, looked back on a living memory of paganism. The poem refers to pagan practices such as cremation burials, but also contains repeated mentions of
18224-458: Was hateful to me. After Hrímgerðr is turned to stone by the daylight, a prose narrative continues that Helgi, who is now king, goes to Sváva's father—King Eylimi—and asks for his daughter. Helgi and Sváva are betrothed and love one another dearly. Sváva stays at home with King Eylimi, and Helgi goes raiding, and to this the narrative adds that Sváva "was a valkyrie just as before". The poem continues, and, among various other events, Helgi dies from
18360-541: Was one used by Gentile Christians as a form of othering , and as the archaeologist Neil Price put it, in the Anglo-Saxon context, "paganism" is "largely an empty concept defined by what it is not (Christianity)". There is no evidence that anyone living in Anglo-Saxon England ever described themselves as a "pagan" or understood there to be a singular religion, "paganism", that stood as a monolithic alternative to Christianity. These pagan belief systems would have been inseparable from other aspects of daily life. According to
18496-483: Was only evidence for the worship of Odin and Thor in Anglo-Scandinavian England, these might have been the only deities to have been actively venerated by the Scandinavian settlers, even if they were aware of the mythological stories surrounding other Norse gods and goddesses. North however argued that one passage in the Old English rune poem , written in the eighth or ninth century, may reflect knowledge of
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