Misplaced Pages

#432567

36-720: The South African government announced in July 1970, that it was able to enrich uranium by means of the Helikon vortex separation process , by means of a jet-nozzle to accumulate the uranium 235 isotope . It was a variation of a method developed by Erwin Becker in Karlsruhe, Germany. West German firm Steinkohlen-Elektrizitats (STEAG) facilitated the transfer of the German process to the South Africans. Y-Plant

72-418: A cooling tower or air cooler to reject the waste heat into the atmosphere. In some cases it is possible to use waste heat, for instance in district heating systems. There are many different approaches to transfer thermal energy to electricity, and the technologies to do so have existed for several decades. An established approach is by using a thermoelectric device, where a change in temperature across

108-445: A heat exchanger before heating in homes or power plants . Anthropogenic heat is heat generated by humans and human activity. The American Meteorological Society defines it as "Heat released to the atmosphere as a result of human activities, often involving combustion of fuels. Sources include industrial plants, space heating and cooling, human metabolism, and vehicle exhausts. In cities this source typically contributes 15–50 W/m to

144-412: A by-product. In the majority of applications, energy is required in multiple forms. These energy forms typically include some combination of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning , mechanical energy and electric power . Often, these additional forms of energy are produced by a heat engine running on a source of high-temperature heat. A heat engine can never have perfect efficiency, according to

180-478: A semiconductor material creates a voltage through a phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect . A related approach is the use of thermogalvanic cells , where a temperature difference gives rise to an electric current in an electrochemical cell. The organic Rankine cycle , offered by companies such as Ormat , is a very known approach, whereby an organic substance is used as working fluid instead of water. The benefit

216-446: A separating element with a very small stage cut (the ratio of product flow to feed flow) of about 1/20, and high process-operating pressures. Due to the extremely difficult plumbing required to link stages together, the design was developed into a cascade design technique (dubbed Helikon), in which 20 separation stages are combined into one module, and all 20 stages share a common pair of axial-flow compressors . A basic requirement for

252-462: A source of waste heat by releasing waste heat into the outdoor ambient air whilst cooling indoor spaces. This expelling of waste heat from air conditioning can worsen the urban heat island effect. Waste heat from air conditioning can be reduced through the use of passive cooling building design and zero-energy methods like evaporative cooling and passive daytime radiative cooling , the latter of which sends waste heat directly to outer space through

288-410: A spiral or vortex motion within the tube, and two gas streams are withdrawn at opposite ends of the vortex tube; centrifugal force providing the isotopic separation. The spiral swirling flow decays downstream of the feed inlet due to friction at the tube wall. Consequently, the inside diameter of the tube is typically tapered to reduce decay in the swirling flow velocity. This process is characterized by

324-472: Is advantageous, e.g. In simplicity, lack of precision required, even if more expensive. The South African enrichment plant was closed on 1 February 1990. In the vortex separation process a mixture of uranium hexafluoride gas and hydrogen is injected tangentially into a tube at one end through nozzles or holes, at velocities close to the speed of sound . The tube tapers to a small exit aperture at one or both ends. This tangential injection of gas results in

360-413: Is disposed of by various thermoregulation methods such as sweating and panting . Low temperature heat contains very little capacity to do work ( Exergy ), so the heat is qualified as waste heat and rejected to the environment. Economically most convenient is the rejection of such heat to water from a sea , lake or river . If sufficient cooling water is not available, the plant can be equipped with

396-404: Is lost to the environment may instead be used to advantage. Industrial processes, such as oil refining , steel making or glass making are major sources of waste heat. Although small in terms of power, the disposal of waste heat from microchips and other electronic components, represents a significant engineering challenge. This necessitates the use of fans, heatsinks , etc. to dispose of

SECTION 10

#1733094144433

432-432: Is not normally calculated in state-of-the-art global climate simulations. Equilibrium climate experiments show statistically significant continental-scale surface warming (0.4–0.9 °C) produced by one 2100 AHF scenario, but not by current or 2040 estimates. Simple global-scale estimates with different growth rates of anthropogenic heat that have been actualized recently show noticeable contributions to global warming, in

468-416: Is one contributor to urban heat islands . Other human-caused effects (such as changes to albedo , or loss of evaporative cooling) that might contribute to urban heat islands are not considered to be anthropogenic heat by this definition. Anthropogenic heat is a much smaller contributor to global warming than greenhouse gases are. In 2005, anthropogenic waste heat flux globally accounted for only 1% of

504-474: Is that this process can reject heat at lower temperatures for the production of electricity than the regular water steam cycle. An example of use of the steam Rankine cycle is the Cyclone Waste Heat Engine . Waste of the by-product heat is reduced if a cogeneration system is used, also known as a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system. Limitations to the use of by-product heat arise primarily from

540-563: Is the Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta , Canada, which, by using a cluster of boreholes in bedrock for interseasonal heat storage, obtains 97 percent of its year-round heat from solar thermal collectors on the garage roofs. Another STES application is storing winter cold underground, for summer air conditioning. On a biological scale, all organisms reject waste heat as part of their metabolic processes , and will die if

576-526: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1978 , to curtail the sale of nuclear material. Two American brokering firms, Edlow International and SWUCO Inc, procured uranium fuel for South Africa and sent it to France for processing before being sent to the former country. The US State Department were aware of the deal in 1982 but had not discouraged it. In 1985, it was estimated that the Valindaba plant

612-466: The energy flux created by anthropogenic greenhouse gases. The heat flux is not evenly distributed, with some regions higher than others, and significantly higher in certain urban areas. For example, global forcing from waste heat in 2005 was 0.028 W/m , but was +0.39 and +0.68 W/m for the continental United States and western Europe, respectively. Although waste heat has been shown to have influence on regional climates, climate forcing from waste heat

648-452: The infrared window . The electrical efficiency of thermal power plants is defined as the ratio between the input and output energy. It is typically only 33% when disregarding usefulness of the heat output for building heat. The images show cooling towers , which allow power stations to maintain the low side of the temperature difference essential for conversion of heat differences to other forms of energy. Discarded or "waste" heat that

684-554: The laws of thermodynamics . Waste heat has lower utility (or in thermodynamics lexicon a lower exergy or higher entropy ) than the original energy source. Sources of waste heat include all manner of human activities, natural systems, and all organisms, for example, incandescent light bulbs get hot, a refrigerator warms the room air, a building gets hot during peak hours, an internal combustion engine generates high-temperature exhaust gases, and electronic components get warm when in operation. Instead of being "wasted" by release into

720-639: The second law of thermodynamics , therefore a heat engine will always produce a surplus of low-temperature heat. This is commonly referred to as waste heat or "secondary heat", or "low-grade heat". This heat is useful for the majority of heating applications, however, it is sometimes not practical to transport heat energy over long distances, unlike electricity or fuel energy. The largest proportions of total waste heat are from power stations and vehicle engines. The largest single sources are power stations and industrial plants such as oil refineries and steelmaking plants. Conventional air conditioning systems are

756-453: The ambient environment, sometimes waste heat (or cold) can be used by another process (such as using hot engine coolant to heat a vehicle), or a portion of heat that would otherwise be wasted can be reused in the same process if make-up heat is added to the system (as with heat recovery ventilation in a building). Thermal energy storage , which includes technologies both for short- and long-term retention of heat or cold, can create or improve

SECTION 20

#1733094144433

792-506: The ambient temperature is too high to allow this. Anthropogenic waste heat can contribute to the urban heat island effect. The biggest point sources of waste heat originate from machines (such as electrical generators or industrial processes, such as steel or glass production) and heat loss through building envelopes. The burning of transport fuels is a major contribution to waste heat. Machines converting energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce heat as

828-463: The engineering cost/efficiency challenges in effectively exploiting small temperature differences to generate other forms of energy. Applications utilizing waste heat include swimming pool heating and paper mills . In some cases, cooling can also be produced by the use of absorption refrigerators for example, in this case it is called trigeneration or CCHP (combined cooling, heat and power). Waste heat can be used in district heating . Depending on

864-621: The enrichment plant and the destruction of all scientific material and knowledge. On 1 February 1990, the Y-Plant at Valindaba was closed and dismantled. The 18 month timetable was completed in July 1991 and South Africa joined the NPT on 10 July 1991. They then joined the IAEA in September and on 10 October 1991 disclosed its nuclear materials, facilities and program. On 24 March 1993, President FW de Klerk announced to

900-452: The heat. For example, data centers use electronic components that consume electricity for computing, storage and networking. The French CNRS explains a data center is like a resistor and most of the energy it consumes is transformed into heat and requires cooling systems. Humans, like all animals, produce heat as a result of metabolism . In warm conditions, this heat exceeds a level required for homeostasis in warm-blooded animals, and

936-400: The highly diluted feedstock and suitability for batch processing. This means Helikon-type plants can be relatively small, making the technology a nuclear proliferation concern . Waste heat Waste heat is heat that is produced by a machine , or other process that uses energy , as a byproduct of doing work . All such processes give off some waste heat as a fundamental result of

972-451: The local heat balance, and several hundred W/m in the center of large cities in cold climates and industrial areas." In 2020, the overall anthropogenic annual energy release was 168,000 terawatt-hours; given the 5.1×10 m surface area of Earth, this amounts to a global average anthropogenic heat release rate of 0.04 W/m . Anthropogenic heat is a small influence on rural temperatures, and becomes more significant in dense urban areas. It

1008-484: The pros and cons of the country's nuclear weapons strategy and whether to join the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In November 1989, the committee recommended to end the program and dismantle the nuclear weapons. With a committee composed of persons from AEC and Armscor , an 18-month timetable was created to dismantle and destroy the weapons, the storage of the nuclear material, the decontamination of

1044-437: The success of this method is that the axial-flow compressors successfully transmit parallel streams of different isotopic compositions without significant mixing. A typical Helikon module consists of a large cylindrical steel vessel housing the 20 separator assemblies, along with two compressors (one mounted on each end), and two water-cooled heat exchangers . Advantages of this process are a lack of criticality concerns due to

1080-527: The temperature of the waste heat and the district heating system, a heat pump must be used to reach sufficient temperatures. These are an easy and cheap way to use waste heat in cold district heating systems, as these are operated at ambient temperatures and therefore even low-grade waste heat can be used without needing a heat pump at the producer side. Waste heat can be forced to heat incoming fluids and objects before being highly heated. For instance, outgoing water can give its waste heat to incoming water in

1116-502: The utility of waste heat (or cold). One example is waste heat from air conditioning machinery stored in a buffer tank to aid in night time heating. Another is seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) at a foundry in Sweden. The heat is stored in the bedrock surrounding a cluster of heat exchanger equipped boreholes, and is used for space heating in an adjacent factory as needed, even months later. An example of using STES to use natural waste heat

Valindaba - Misplaced Pages Continue

1152-522: The world the end of the South African nuclear weapons program. Helikon vortex separation process The Helikon vortex separation process is an aerodynamic uranium enrichment process designed around a device called a vortex tube . Paul Dirac thought of the idea for isotope separation and tried creating such a device in 1934 in the lab of Peter Kapitza at Cambridge. Other methods of separation were more practical at that time, but this method

1188-459: Was alleged that in 1980 or 1981, South Africa had received low-enriched uranium from China, which the latter denied, for use as fuel for its Koeberg nuclear power plant rods. The worry at the time was that the newly obtained low-enriched uranium could be used to increase the output of highly enriched uranium. This weapons-grade material could potentially be turned into 2 or 3 nuclear weapons a year. In 1978, President Jimmy Carter had signed into law

1224-536: Was capable of producing 50 kg of highly enriched uranium per year. Early in 1986, the IAEA attempted to negotiate an inspection program for Valindaba with the South Africa government but talks broke down between the two parties. In September 1989, FW de Klerk was appointed president of South Africa with a policy to improve the country's relationship with the rest of the world. He formed an expert committee to investigate

1260-472: Was completed in 1975 by the Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa (UCOR) and started producing HEU in 1978. During the 1970s, it was speculated that Valindaba may have supported the production of nuclear weapons. It was shut down for almost two years following an accident in 1979, but was back in production by 1981 and since then has produced all the fuel required by SAFARI-1 . It

1296-670: Was designed and used in South Africa for producing reactor fuel with a uranium-235 content of around 3–5%, and 80–93% enriched uranium for use in nuclear weapons . The Uranium Enrichment Corporation of South Africa, Ltd. (UCOR) developed the process, operating a facility at Pelindaba (known as the 'Y' plant) to produce hundreds of kilograms of HEU . Aerodynamic enrichment processes require large amounts of electricity and are not generally considered economically competitive because of high energy consumption and substantial requirements for removal of waste heat . There are other ways in which it

#432567