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87-817: The name of the river means "river of the dead" in Chechen . Possibly this river was a border between the Vainakhs and the Iranian peoples who lived in the steppe, and a place of bloody battles. A neighbouring river is named Mardan, which means 'river of the dead' in Ossetic languages. In 1840 two battles were fought at the banks of the river between Caucasian Imamate murids and the Russian Imperial Army advancing towards inner Chechnya. The Russians under Apollon Galafeyev ( first battle ) and Pavel Grabbe (second battle) defeated

174-514: A glottal stop before a " pharyngealized " (actually epiglottalized) vowel. However, it does not have the distribution constraints characteristic of the anterior pharyngealized (epiglottalized) consonants . Although these may be analyzed as an anterior consonant plus / ʢ / (they surface for example as [dʢ] when voiced and [ pʰʜ ] when voiceless ), Nichols argues that given the severe constraints against consonant clusters in Chechen, it

261-460: A harassment and discrimination from the new authorities. These events are perceived by some as an act of an ethnic cleansing of non-Chechens, which has been reflected in the materials of General Prosecutor's office of the Russian Federation . This view is disputed by authors, such as Russian economists Boris Lvin and Andrei Illarionov , who argue that Russian emigration from the area

348-403: A consonant; as a consonant, it has an allophone [ v ] before front vowels. Approximately twenty pharyngealized consonants (marked with superscript ˤ ) also appear in the table above. Labial , alveolar and postalveolar consonants may be pharyngealized, except for ejectives . Except when following a consonant, / ʢ / is phonetically [ ʔˤ ] , and can be argued to be

435-550: A destroyed and no longer existent historical treasury of writings. The Chechen diaspora in Jordan , Turkey , and Syria is fluent but generally not literate in Chechen except for individuals who have made efforts to learn the writing system. The Cyrillic alphabet is not generally known in these countries, and thus for Jordan and Syria, they most use the Arabic alphabet, while in Turkey they use

522-539: A feature of the vowels. However, Nichols argues that this does not capture the situation in Chechen well, whereas it is more clearly a feature of the vowel in Ingush : Chechen [tsʜaʔ] "one", Ingush [tsaʔˤ] , which she analyzes as /tsˤaʔ/ and /tsaˤʔ/ . Vowels have a delayed murmured onset after pharyngealized voiced consonants and a noisy aspirated onset after pharyngealized voiceless consonants. The high vowels /i/, /y/, /u/ are diphthongized, [əi], [əy], [əu] , whereas

609-404: A great final step in creating a modified Arabic script that represents Chechen consonants. However, the Arabic alphabet still was not suitable in representing Chechen vowel sounds. Arabic script itself is an impure abjad , meaning that most but not all vowels are shown with diacritics , which are in most cases left unwritten. The process of transforming Arabic script into a full alphabet for use by

696-612: A large number of postpositions to indicate the role of nouns in sentences. Word order is consistently left-branching (like in Japanese or Turkish ), so that adjectives , demonstratives and relative clauses precede the nouns they modify. Complementizers and adverbial subordinators , as in other Northeast and in Northwest Caucasian languages , are affixes rather than independent words. Chechen also presents interesting challenges for lexicography , as creating new words in

783-467: A medal. The meaning of Valerik as "the river of the dead" is still used metaphorically: the battle of Komsomolskoye was referred as a "Valerik of the late 20th century". Chechen language Chechen ( / ˈ tʃ ɛ tʃ ɛ n / CHETCH -en , / tʃ ə ˈ tʃ ɛ n / chə- CHEN ; Нохчийн мотт , Noxçiyn mott , [ˈnɔxt͡ʃĩː muɔt] ) is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by approximately 1.8 million people, mostly in

870-559: A non-Arabic language has been a common occurrence, and has been done in Uyghur , Kazakh , Kurdish and several more Arabic-derived scripts. Thus a final revision on Chechen Arabic script occurred, in which vowel sounds were standardized. Table below lists the 41 letters of the final iteration of Chechen Arabic Alphabet, as published by Chechen Authorities at the time, prior to 1925, their IPA values, and their Cyrillic equivalents. The single letters and digraphs that count as separate letters of

957-602: A result of long-distance assimilation between vowel sounds. Additionally, the Himoy dialect preserves word-final, post-tonic vowels as a schwa [ə]. Literary Chechen is based on Plains Chechen, spoken around Grozny and Urus-Martan . According to the Russian Census of 2020 , 1,490,000 people reported being able to speak Chechen in Russia. Chechen is an official language of Chechnya . Chechens in Jordan have good relations with

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1044-454: A specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying adjective agrees. The verb does not agree with person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an optative and an antipassive . Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes. Chechen is an ergative , dependent-marking language using eight cases ( absolutive , genitive , dative , ergative , allative , instrumental , locative and comparative ) and

1131-603: A surprise attack. They surrounded and routed its entire garrison of 10,000 MVD troops, while fighting off the Russian Army units from the Khankala base. The battle ended with a final ceasefire and Grozny was once again in the hands of Chechen separatists. The name was changed to Djohar in 1997 by the President of the separatist Ichkeria republic, Aslan Maskhadov . By this time most of the remaining Russian minority had fled. Grozny

1218-490: A vowel use when needed to avoid confusions. This modification did not persist in Chechen Alphabet. otherwise, the 1910 iteration of the Arabic script continued being used until 1920. In 1920, two Chechen literaturists, A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov, published a document. In this document they proposed new modifications, which were the addition of two new consonants: These modifications by A. Tugaev and T. Eldarkhanov were

1305-492: Is followed by a front vowel. The trill / r / is usually articulated with a single contact, and therefore sometimes described as a tap [ ɾ ] . Except in the literary register , and even then only for some speakers, the voiced affricates / dz / , / dʒ / have merged into the fricatives / z / , / ʒ / . A voiceless labial fricative / f / is found only in European loanwords . / w / appears both in diphthongs and as

1392-459: Is found in handwriting. Usually, palochka uppercase and lowercase forms consistent in print or upright, but only upper-case ⟨Ӏ⟩ is normally used in computers. In 1992, with the de facto secession of Chechen Republic of Ichkeria from Russia, a new Latin Chechen alphabet was introduced and used in parallel with the Cyrillic alphabet. This was the second time a Latin-based orthography

1479-421: Is found. Furthermore, all variants except the ejective are subject to phonemic pharyngealization. Nearly any consonant may be fortis because of focus gemination, but only the ones above are found in roots . The consonants of the t cell and / l / are denti-alveolar ; the others of that column are alveolar . / x / is a back velar , but not quite uvular . The lateral / l / may be velarized , unless it

1566-624: Is masculine in Russian. As most of the residents there were Terek Cossacks , the town grew slowly until the development of oil reserves in the early 20th century. The founder of the Nobel prize , Alfred Nobel , took part in the development of the oil industry of the city of Grozny, as well as members of the Rothschild family . In addition to the Nobels and Rothschilds, British companies played an important role in

1653-467: Is more useful to analyze them as single consonants. Unlike most other languages of the Caucasus, Chechen has an extensive inventory of vowel sounds, putting its range higher than most languages of Europe (most vowels being the product of environmentally conditioned allophonic variation, which varies by both dialect and method of analysis). Many of the vowels are due to umlaut , which is highly productive in

1740-545: Is the capital city of Chechnya , Russia . The city lies on the Sunzha River . According to the 2021 census , it had a population of 328,533  — up from 210,720 recorded in the 2002 census , but still less than the 399,688 recorded in the 1989 census . It was previously known as Groznaya (until 1870). In Russian , "Grozny" means "fearsome", "menacing", or "redoubtable", the same word as in Ivan Grozny ( Ivan

1827-629: Is the Cyrillic alphabet. This script was created and adopted in 1938, replacing the Latin script prior to it. Up until 1992, only the Cyrillic script was used for Chechen. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the de facto secession of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria from Russia, a new Latin script was devised and was used parallel to Cyrillic until the dissolution of the separatist state . Modern alphabet: Lower-case palochka , ⟨ӏ⟩ ,

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1914-573: The Arabic script was introduced for Chechen, along with Islam . The Chechen Arabic alphabet was first reformed during the reign of Imam Shamil , and then again in 1910, 1920 and 1922. At the same time, the alphabet devised by Peter von Uslar , consisting of Cyrillic, Latin, and Georgian letters, was used for academic purposes. In 1911 it too was reformed but never gained popularity among the Chechens themselves. The current official script for Chechen language

2001-550: The Chechen Republic and by members of the Chechen diaspora throughout Russia and the rest of Europe , Jordan , Austria , Turkey , Azerbaijan , Ukraine , Central Asia (mainly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ) and Georgia . Before the Russian conquest , most writings in Chechnya consisted of Islamic texts and clan histories, written usually in Arabic but sometimes also in Chechen using Arabic script. The Chechen literary language

2088-604: The Delimobil car sharing company officially provided the capital of the Chechen Republic with 30 Hyundai Solaris . To drive the automobiles, the user has to book them through the app of the owning company. In the same year the Delisamokat provided the city with 120 electric scooters and some scooter stations. Grozny is home to Russian Football Premier League club FC Akhmat Grozny . After winning promotion by coming 2nd in

2175-697: The October Revolution , on 8 November 1917, the Bolsheviks headed by N. Anisimov seized Grozny. As the Russian Civil War escalated, the Proletariat formed the 12th Red Army, and the garrison held out against numerous attacks by Terek Cossacks from 11 August to 12 November 1918. However, with the arrival of Denikin 's armies, the Bolsheviks were forced to withdraw and Grozny was captured on 4 February 1919, by

2262-682: The Russian First Division in 2007, Akhmat Grozny finished 10th in the Russian Premier League in 2008. The team still plays in the top tier. The club is owned by Ramzan Kadyrov and plays in the recently built city's Akhmat Stadium . Ruud Gullit was the team manager from the beginning of the season 2011, but was later sacked by the club in June. The city is also home to the Fort Grozny motor racing circuit, which opened in 2015. The city

2349-500: The Salishan languages of North America, as well as a large vowel system resembling those of Swedish and German . The Chechen language has, like most indigenous languages of the Caucasus , a large number of consonants : about 40 to 60 (depending on the dialect and the analysis), far more than most European languages . Typical of the region, a four-way distinction between voiced , voiceless , ejective and geminate fortis stops

2436-490: The Second Chechen War , little of the infrastructure of either system was left. The Ministry of Transport of the Chechen Republic, created in 2002, decided not to rebuild the tram system (considered too expensive and no longer meeting the city's needs, as it had by then lost half of its population). Rebuilding of the trolleybus system, however, is still under consideration. The city is served by Grozny Airport . In 2018

2523-625: The Volga River from Astrakhan . The failure to prioritize Grozny, even transferring critical Panzer divisions north to the Siege of Leningrad , was a major factor in Adolf Hitler taking operational level control of the Wehrmacht from his generals who had repeatedly prioritized the two major cities over the oil supplies – against Hitler's express orders. Soviet doctrine however never failed to prioritize

2610-698: The White Army . Underground operations were carried out, but only the arrival of the Caucasus front of the Red Army in 1920 allowed the city to permanently end up with the Russian SFSR on 17 March. Simultaneously it became part of the Soviet Mountain Republic , which was formed on 20 January 1921, and was the capital of the Chechen National Okrug inside it. On 30 November 1922, the mountain republic

2697-409: The administrative centre of Groznensky Municipal District, but not of the corresponding administrative district . For administrative purposes, the city is divided into four city districts: Akhmatovsky , Baysangurovsky , Visaitovsky , Sheikh-Mansurovsky . Grozny is known for its modern architecture and as a spa town and although nearly all the town was destroyed or seriously damaged during

Valerik (river) - Misplaced Pages Continue

2784-494: The diphthongs /je/, /wo/ undergo metathesis , [ej], [ow] . Chechen permits syllable-initial clusters /st px tx/ and non-initially also allows /x r l/ plus any consonant, and any obstruent plus a uvular of the same manner of articulation . The only cluster of three consonants permitted is /rst/ . Numerous inscriptions in the Georgian script are found in mountainous Chechnya, but they are not necessarily in Chechen. Later,

2871-399: The Arabic script was well established among the speakers of Chechen. However, the Arabic alphabet, without modifications, would not be suitable for Chechen, and modifications would be needed. The Arabic alphabet underwent various iterations, improvements and modifications for the Chechen language. Within Chechen society, these modifications were not without controversy. The Muslim clergy and

2958-551: The Chechen Republic. The dialects of the northern lowlands are often referred to as " Oharoy muott " (literally "lowlander's language") and the dialect of the southern mountain tribes is known as " Laamaroy muott " (lit. "mountainer's language"). Oharoy muott forms the basis for much of the standard and literary Chechen language, which can largely be traced to the regional dialects of Urus-Martan and contemporary Grozny . Laamaroy dialects include Chebarloish, Sharoish, Itum-Qalish, Kisti, and Himoish. Until recently, however, Himoy

3045-610: The Chechen Wars, it has since been entirely rebuilt. It is home to Chechen State University and FC Akhmat Grozny , which after a fifteen-year absence from its home town returned to Grozny in March 2008. Also in Grozny is Chechen State Pedagogical Institute and Grozny State Oil Technical University . The first train pulled into the Grozny Railway station on 1 May 1893. On 5 November 1932,

3132-504: The FSK (former KGB , not long after renamed FSB ); their capture was sometimes cited as one of the reasons for Boris Yeltsin 's decision to openly intervene. In the meantime, Grozny airport and other targets were bombed by unmarked Russian aircraft. During the First Chechen War , Grozny was the site of an intense battle lasting from December 1994 to February 1995 and ultimately ending with

3219-406: The Grozny tram system was opened to the public, and by 1990 it was 85-kilometer (53 mi) long, with 107 new Russian-built KTM-5 trams that it received in the late 1980s, and two depots. The Grozny trolleybus system began operation on 31 December 1975, and by 1990 was approximately 60-kilometer (37 mi) long, with 58 buses and one depot. Both types of transport came under difficult pressure in

3306-652: The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and are able to practice their own culture and language. Chechen language usage is strong among the Chechen community in Jordan. Jordanian Chechens are bilingual in both Chechen and Arabic, but do not speak Arabic among themselves, only speaking Chechen to other Chechens. Some Jordanians are literate in Chechen as well, having managed to read and write to people visiting Jordan from Chechnya. Some phonological characteristics of Chechen include its wealth of consonants and sounds similar to Arabic and

3393-529: The Latin alphabet. Chechen is the most-spoken Northeast Caucasian language . Together with the closely related Ingush , with which there exists a large degree of mutual intelligibility and shared vocabulary, it forms the Vainakh branch . There are a number of Chechen dialects: Aukh , Chebarloish, Malkhish, Nokhchmakhkakhoish, Orstkhoish, Sharoish, Shuotoish, Terloish, Itum-Qalish and Himoish. Dialects of Chechen can be classified by their geographic position within

3480-504: The Russian flag in the centre. Many buildings and even whole areas of the city were systematically destroyed. A month later, it was declared safe to allow the residents to return to their homes, although demolition continued for some time. In 2003, the United Nations called Grozny the most destroyed city on Earth, with not a single building left undamaged. The federal government representatives of Chechnya are based in Grozny. Since 2003,

3567-433: The Russian sphere had all the jobs with higher salaries, while non-Russians were systematically kept out of all government positions. Russians (as well as Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in education, health, oil, machinery, and social services. Non-Russians (excluding Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in agriculture, construction, a long host of undesirable jobs, as well as the so-called "informal sector" (i.e. illegal, due to

Valerik (river) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3654-527: The Terrible ). While the official name in Chechen is the same, informally the city is known as " Соьлжа-Гӏала " (" Sölƶa-Ġala "), which literally means "the city ( гӏала ) on the Sunzha River ( Соьлжа )". In 1996, during the First Chechen War , the authorities of the Chechen republic of Ichkeria renamed the city Dzhokhar-Ghala ( Chechen : Джохар-ГӀала, Dƶoxar-Ġala ), literally Dzhokhar City , or Dzhokhar / Djohar for short, after Dzhokhar Dudayev ,

3741-668: The Transcaucasia–Russia-proper railway. The result was the population almost doubled from 15,600 in 1897 to 30,400 in 1913. In early 1914, the then largest oil company, Royal Dutch Shell , was established in the city thus making Grozny one of the largest industrial centres of the Caucasus . During the Russian Empire , the city was the administrative capital of the Groznensky Okrug of the Terek Oblast . One day after

3828-604: The airport's airworthiness . On 16 November 2009, the airport had its first international flight, taking pilgrims on Hajj to Saudi Arabia via a Boeing 747 . After four years of construction, the Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque was formally opened to the public on 16 October 2008, and is one of the largest mosques in Europe. In 2009, the city of Grozny was honoured by the UN Human Settlements Program for transforming

3915-489: The alphabet, along with their correspondences, are as follows. Those in parentheses are optional or only found in Russian words: In addition, several sequences of letters for long vowels and consonants, while not counted as separate letters in their own right, are presented here to clarify their correspondences: Chechen is an agglutinative language with an ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment . Chechen nouns belong to one of several genders or classes (6), each with

4002-527: The army of Imam Shamil on 11 July and 30 October respectively. After this battle Shamil withdrew from Chechnya and retreated to Caucasian Avaria . The first battle of the Valerik River is described in Mikhail Lermontov 's poem "Valerik". Lermontov was a participant in both battles and gained recognition as a hero, but due to Nicolas I 's personal negative attitude towards Lermontov, he was not awarded

4089-528: The capture of the city by the Russian military. Intense fighting and carpet bombing carried out by the Russian Air Force destroyed much of the city. Thousands of combatants on both sides died in the fighting, alongside civilians , many of whom were reportedly ethnic Russians; unclaimed bodies were later collected and buried in mass graves on the city outskirts. The main federal military base in Chechnya

4176-603: The city has been rebuilt from scratch. Out of several dozens of industrial enterprises, three have been partially rebuilt – the Grozny Machine-Building Factory, the Krasny Molot (Red Hammer) and Transmash factories. Although most of the city's infrastructure was destroyed during the war, the city's sewage, water, electricity and heating systems have since been repaired, along with 250 kilometers (160 mi) of roads, 13 bridges and some 900 shops. Before

4263-416: The city that followed, most of the Russian artillery were directed toward the upper floors of the buildings; although this caused massive destruction of infrastructure, civilian casualties were much less than in the first battles. The final seizure of the city was set in early February 2000, when the Russian military lured the besieged militants to a promised safe passage. Seeing no build-up of forces outside,

4350-464: The city. Originally, Moscow had been backing the political opposition of Umar Avturkhanov  [ ru ] "peacefully" (i.e. without supplying the opposition with weapons and encouraging them to try a coup). However, this changed in 1994, after the coups in neighbouring Georgia and Azerbaijan (both of which Moscow was involved with), when Russia encouraged armed opposition, and occasionally assisted. In August 1994 Avturkhanov attacked Grozny, but

4437-462: The classic of Russian literature Leo Tolstoy , the Decembrist and writer Alexander Bestuzhev and other famous figures of Russian culture visited the fortress. After the annexation of the region by the Russian Empire , the military use of the old fortress was obsolete and on 11 January 1870 [ O.S. 30 December 1869] it was granted town status and renamed Grozny, as the word town, " город ",

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4524-407: The dialect. /æ/, /æː/ and /e/, /eː/ are in complementary distribution ( /æ/ occurs after pharyngealized consonants, whereas /e/ does not and /æː/ —identical with /æ/ for most speakers—occurs in closed syllables, while /eː/ does not) but speakers strongly feel that they are distinct sounds. Pharyngealization appears to be a feature of the consonants, though some analyses treat it as

4611-475: The early 1990s, with frequent theft of equipment, staff not being properly paid and resultant strikes. A major planned trolleybus route extension to the airport was cancelled. With the outbreak of the First Chechen War both transport services stopped operation in November 1994. During the destructive battles, the tram tracks were blocked or damaged, and cars and buses were turned into barricades. The trolleybus system

4698-400: The first president of the republic, killed by the Russian armed forces. In December 2005, the Chechen parliament voted to rename the city "Akhmad-Kala" (after Akhmad Kadyrov )  – a proposition which was rejected by his son Ramzan Kadyrov , the prime minister and later president of the republic. The fortress of Groznaya ( Гро́зная ; lit. fearsome – a feminine form of Grozny, as

4785-432: The food of Ukraine nor the oil of the Caucasus, which resulted in drastic action after Germany's expulsion/retreat in 1943. In 1944, the entire population of Chechens and Ingush was deported after being falsely accused of collaborating with advancing armed forces of Nazi Germany . Large numbers of people who were not deemed fit for transport were "liquidated" on the spot, and the adverse situation with transport and

4872-458: The gun away, all the other guns opened up with grapeshot . When the Chechens recovered their senses and began to carry away the bodies, the guns fired again. When it was over, 200 dead were counted. Thus did the "fearsome" fort receive its baptism of fire. It was a prominent defense centre during the Caucasian War . Russian poets Alexander Griboedov , Alexander Polezhayev , Mikhail Lermontov ,

4959-472: The high-rise apartment blocks prominent in many Soviet cities, as well as a city airport. In 1989, the population of the city was almost 400,000 people. After the collapse of the Soviet Union , Grozny became the seat of a separatist government led by Dzhokhar Dudayev . According to some, many of the remaining Russian and other non-Chechen residents fled or were expelled by groups of militants , adding to

5046-573: The language relies on fixation of whole phrases rather than adding to the end of existing words or combining existing words. It can be difficult to decide which phrases belong in the dictionary, because the language's grammar does not permit the borrowing of new verbal morphemes to express new concepts. Instead, the verb dan (to do) is combined with nominal phrases to correspond with new concepts imported from other languages. Chechen nouns are divided into six lexically arbitrary noun classes . Morphologically, noun classes may be indexed by changes in

5133-581: The letters ص ‎ ( ṣād/sād ) and ض ‎ ( zād/ḍād ) had their usage limited to Arabic loanwords but were not eliminated due to opposition from Clergy and conservative segments of Chechen society. In another short-lasting modification, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed adding a overline (◌ٙ) ( U+0659 ) over letters that can be read as either a consonant or a vowel, namely the letters و ‎ ( waw ) (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "В" or to letters "О, Оь, У, Уь") and ی ‎ ( yāʼ ) (equivalent to Cyrillic letter "Й" or to letter "И"). The overbar signified

5220-572: The literature. Classed adjectives are listed with the d-class prefix in the romanizations below: Whereas Indo-European languages code noun class and case conflated in the same morphemes , Chechen nouns show no gender marking but decline in eight grammatical cases , four of which are core cases (i.e. absolutive , ergative , genitive , and dative ) in singular and plural. Below the paradigm for "говр" (horse). Grozny Grozny ( Russian : Грозный , IPA: [ˈgroznɨj] ; Chechen : Соьлжа-ГӀала , romanized:  Sölƶa-Ġala )

5307-528: The mass discrimination in the legal sector). At the same time a great deal of development occurred in the city. Like many other Soviet cities, the Stalinist style of architecture was prevalent during this period, with apartments in the centre as well as administrative buildings including the massive Council of Ministers and the Grozny University buildings being constructed in Grozny. Later projects included

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5394-466: The militants agreed. One day prior to the planned evacuation, the Russian Army mined the path between the city and the village of Alkhan-Kala and concentrated most firepower on that point. As a result, both the city mayor and military commander were killed; a number of other prominent separatist leaders were also killed or wounded. Afterwards, the Russians slowly entered the empty city and on 6 February raised

5481-637: The modifications in Chechen were done independently from these two nearby and influential literary traditions and were focused on needs of Chechen language. Initially, the Chechen Arabic alphabet looked like this. ي ﻻ ه و ن م ل ڮ ك ڨ ق ف غ ع ظ ط ض ص ش س ز ر ذ د خ ح ج ث ت ب ا In this alphabet, two additional letters were added to the base Arabic script: In 1910, Sugaip Gaisunov proposed additional reforms that brought Arabic alphabet closer to Chechen's phonetic requirements. Sugaip Gaisunov introduced four additional consonants: In Sugaip Gaisunov's reforms,

5568-493: The more conservative segments of Chechen society initially resisted any changes to the Arabic script, with the belief that this script was sacred due to its association with Islam, and was not to be changed. The clergy and Islamic educational institutions opposed each and every iteration of proposed reforms in the Arabic script. While modifications to the Arabic script to match local languages had been common practice for centuries, for languages such as Persian and Ottoman Turkish ,

5655-525: The oil industry from 1893 onward. Alfred Stuart, an English engineer, completed the first well in Grozny by drilling in 1893 the largest oil field in the Caucasus region outside the Baku district. Eleven firms drilled 116 wells before 1900. This encouraged the rapid development of industry and petrochemical production. In addition to the oil drilled in the city itself, the city became a geographical centre of Russia's network of oil fields , and in 1893 became part of

5742-469: The prefix of the accompanying verb and, in many cases, the adjective too. The first two of these classes apply to human beings, although some grammarians count these as two and some as a single class; the other classes however are much more lexically arbitrary. Chechen noun classes are named according to the prefix that indexes them: When a noun denotes a human being, it usually falls into v- or y-Classes (1 or 2). Most nouns referring to male entities fall into

5829-463: The prefixes before the nouns indicates grammatical gender; thus: [vоsha] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) ' brother ' → yisha ' sister ' . Some nouns denoting human beings, however, are not in Classes 1 or 2: bēr ' child ' , for example, is in class 3. Only a few of Chechen's adjectives index noun class agreement, termed classed adjectives in

5916-764: The standard dialect. None of the spelling systems used so far have distinguished the vowels with complete accuracy. All vowels may be nasalized . Nasalization is imposed by the genitive , infinitive , and for some speakers the nominative case of adjectives . Nasalization is not strong, but it is audible even in final vowels, which are devoiced. Some of the diphthongs have significant allophony : /ɥø/ = [ɥø], [ɥe], [we] ; /yø/ = [yø], [ye] ; /uo/ = [woː], [uə] . In closed syllables , long vowels become short in most dialects (not Kisti ), but are often still distinct from short vowels (shortened [i] , [u] , [ɔ] and [ɑ̈] vs. short [ɪ] , [ʊ] , [o] , and [ə] , for example), although which ones remain distinct depends on

6003-463: The stay in Siberia caused many deaths as well. According to internal NKVD data, a total of 144,704 died in 1944–1948 alone (death rate of 23.5% per all groups). Authors such as Alexander Nekrich , John Dunlop and Moshe Gammer , based on census data from the period estimate a death toll of about 170,000–200,000 among Chechens alone, thus ranging from over a third of the total Chechen population that

6090-480: The time was again wholly Russian. In 1957, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored, and the Chechens were allowed to return. The return of the Chechens to Grozny, which had been lacking of Nakh for thirteen years, would cause massive disruptions to the social, economic and political systems of what had been a Russian city for the period until their return. This caused a self-feeding cycle of ethnic conflict between

6177-642: The two groups, both believing the other's presence in the city was illegitimate. Once again migration of non-Russians into Grozny continued whilst the ethnic Russian population, in turn, moved to other parts of the USSR, notably the Baltic states , after inter-ethnic conflict broke out briefly in 1958 . According to sociologist Georgy Derluguyan, the Checheno-Ingush Republic's economy was divided into two spheres – much like French settler-ruled Algeria – and

6264-469: The v-class, whereas Class 2 contains words related to female entities. Thus lūlaxuo ' a neighbour ' is normally considered class 1, but it takes v- if referring to a male neighbour and y- if a female. This is similar to the Spanish word estudiante ' student ' , where el estudiante refers to a male student, and la estudiante refers to a female student. In a few words, changing

6351-465: The war, Grozny had about 79,000 apartments, and the city authorities expected to be able to restore about 45,000 apartments; the rest were in buildings that were completely destroyed. Railway connection was restored in 2005, and Grozny's airport was reopened in 2007 with three weekly flights to Moscow. In 2009 the IAC gave Grozny's Severny airport the international certificate after checking and evaluating

6438-440: The war-scarred city and providing new homes for thousands. Grozny is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions , it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Grozny – an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the city of republic significance of Grozny is incorporated as Grozny Urban Okrug. The city also serves as

6525-460: The word fortress, " крепость ", is feminine in Russian) was founded in 1818 as a Russian military outpost on the Sunzha River by general Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov . As the fort was being built, the workers were fired upon by the Chechens. The Russians found a solution by strategically positioning a cannon outside the city walls. When night fell and the Chechens came out of their hiding places to drag

6612-455: Was created after the October Revolution , and the Latin script began to be used instead of Arabic for Chechen writing in the mid-1920s. The Cyrillic script was adopted in 1938. Almost the entire library of Chechen medieval writing in Arabic and Georgian script about the land of Chechnya and its people was destroyed by Soviet authorities in 1944, leaving the modern Chechens and modern historians with

6699-538: Was created for Chechen. But after the defeat of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria government by the Russian Armed Forces , the Cyrillic alphabet was restored. The first time that the Latin alphabet was introduced , was in 1925, replacing Arabic alphabet. Further minor modifications in 1934, unified Chechen orthography with Ingush. But the Latin alphabet was abolished in 1938, being replaced with Cyrillic. The first, most widespread modern orthography for Chechen

6786-515: Was deported to nearly half dying during those four years (rates for other groups for those four years hover around 20%). All traces of them in the city, including books and graveyards, were destroyed by the NKVD troops. The act was recognized by the European Parliament as an act of genocide in 2004. Grozny became the administrative centre of Grozny Oblast of the Russian SFSR , and the city at

6873-608: Was dissolved, and the national okrug became the Chechen Autonomous Oblast (Chechen AO) with Grozny as the administrative centre. At this time most of the population was still Russian, but of Cossack descent. As Cossacks were viewed as a potential threat to the Soviet nation, Moscow actively encouraged the migration of Chechens into the city from the mountains. In 1934 the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Oblast

6960-603: Was formed, becoming the Chechen-Ingush ASSR in 1936. Due to its oil, Grozny with Maikop were the main strategic objectives of the German Fall Blau operation in summer of 1942 ( See Battle of the Caucasus ). The failure to take Grozny was a major defeat for Germany and was a factor in holding fast at the Battle of Stalingrad , as that city could have served as a base from which to take Grozny or cut off oil supplies up

7047-405: Was located in the area of Grozny air base . Chechen guerrilla units operating from nearby mountains managed to harass and demoralize the Russian Army by means of guerilla tactics and raids, such as the attack on Grozny in March 1996, which added to political and public pressure for a withdrawal of Russian troops. In August 1996, a raiding force of 1,500 to 3,000 militants recaptured the city in

7134-492: Was luckier, as most of its equipment, including the depot, survived the war. In 1996 it was visited by specialists from the Vologda Trolleybus Company, who repaired some of the lines, with services planned to restart in 1997. However, after specialists left, most of the equipment was stolen. The surviving buses were transported to Volzhsky where they were repaired and used on the new trolleybus system there. After

7221-591: Was no more intense than in other regions of Russia at the time. According to this view of the ethnic situation in Ichkeria, the primary cause of Russian emigration was the extensive bombing of Grozny (where four out of five, or nearly 200,000 Russians in Chechnya lived before the war) by the Russian military during the First Chechen War. The covert Russian attempts of overthrowing Dudayev by means of armed Chechen opposition forces resulted in repeated failed assaults on

7308-405: Was once again the epicentre of fighting after the outbreak of the Second Chechen War , which further caused thousands of fatalities. During the early phase of the Russian siege on Grozny on 25 October 1999, Russian forces launched five SS-21 ballistic missiles at the crowded central bazaar and a maternity ward, killing more than 140 people and injuring hundreds. During the massive shelling of

7395-418: Was repelled first by Chechen citizens who were then joined by Grozny government troops; Russian helicopters covered his retreat. On 28 September, one of these helicopters was shot down and its Russian pilot was held as a prisoner-of-war by the Chechen government. The last assault , on 26 November 1994, ended with capture of 21 Russian Army tank crew members who had secretly been hired as mercenaries by

7482-516: Was the Arabic script, adopted in the 19th century. Chechen was not a traditionally written language, but due to the public's familiarity with the Arabic script - as the script of instruction in the region's Islamic and Quranic schools - the Arabic alphabet was first standardized and adopted for Chechen during the reign of Imam Shamil . Islam has been the dominant religion in Chechnya since the 16th century, and there were 200 religious schools as well as more than 3000 pupils in Chechnya and Ingushetia. Thus

7569-407: Was undocumented and was considered a branch of Sharoish, as many dialects are also used as the basis of intertribal (teip) communication within a larger Chechen " tukkhum ". Laamaroy dialects such as Sharoish, Himoish and Chebarloish are more conservative and retain many features from Proto-Chechen. For instance, many of these dialects lack a number of vowels found in the standard language which were

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