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63-603: After the assassination of Malcolm X in February 1965 and the Watts riots the following August, the Black Congress was founded as a community-rebuilding effort in Watts. Two BC members, Maulana Karenga and Hakim Jamal, began a discussion group focused on black nationalist ideas, called the "circle of seven." Hakim Jamal, cousin of Malcolm X, created a magazine entitled US . It was a pun on

126-510: A nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital . The children were separated and sent to foster homes . Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later. Malcolm attended West Junior High School in Lansing and then Mason High School in Mason, Michigan , but left high school in 1941, before graduating. He excelled in junior high school but dropped out of high school after

189-477: A "country club" and "garden spot" among California prisons because of its wide variety of vocational, educational and psychological-treatment programs. Notable CMC programs include: The West Facility opened in 1954 and the East Facility opened in 1961. Three female former CMC workers won a 1998 settlement for $ 4.3 million as a result of a sexual harassment lawsuit, which was "the largest such settlement ever for

252-454: A 2007 appearance at Wabash College , he again denied the charges and described himself as a former political prisoner. Malcolm X Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little , later el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz ; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an African American revolutionary, Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement until his assassination in 1965. A spokesman for

315-574: A Nation of Islam member, was beaten by two New York City police officers . On April   26, Johnson and two other passersby‍—‌also Nation of Islam members‍—‌saw the officers beating an African American man with nightsticks. When they attempted to intervene, shouting, "You're not in Alabama   ... this is New York!" one of the officers turned on Johnson, beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four African American men were arrested. Alerted by

378-531: A White teacher told him that practicing law, his aspiration at the time, was "no realistic goal for a nigger." Later, Malcolm   X recalled feeling that the White world offered no place for a career-oriented Black man, regardless of talent. From age 14 to 21, Malcolm held a variety of jobs while living with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins in Roxbury , a largely African American neighborhood of Boston . After

441-423: A child. As an adult, he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question. After a dispute with creditors, Louise received a life insurance benefit (nominally $ 1,000 ‍—‌about $ 20,000 in 2023) in payments of $ 18 per month; the issuer of another, larger policy refused to pay, claiming her husband Earl had committed suicide. To make ends meet, Louise rented out part of her garden, and her sons hunted game. During

504-527: A demonstration "run by Whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive." While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation , Malcolm   X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from Whites. He proposed that African Americans should return to Africa and that, in the interim, a separate country for Black people in America should be created. He rejected

567-486: A dinner party; soon she was regularly attending his lectures. In 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam, changing her name to Betty   X. One-on-one dates were contrary to the Nation's teachings, so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of others, and Malcolm   X made a point of inviting her on the frequent group visits he led to New York City's museums and libraries. Malcolm   X proposed during

630-672: A fellow dishwasher at Jimmy's Chicken Shack in Harlem who aspired to be a professional comedian. Both men had reddish hair, so Sanford was called "Chicago Red" after his hometown, and Malcolm was known as "Detroit Red". Years later, Sanford became famous as comedian and actor Redd Foxx . Summoned by the local draft board for military service in World War II in late 1943, he feigned mental disturbance by rambling and declaring: "I want to be sent down South. Organize them nigger soldiers   ... steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers ". He

693-418: A licensed hospital and mental health delivery system. As of Fiscal Year 2006/2007, CMC had a total of 1,870 staff and an annual operating budget of $ 151 million. As of March 2012, the facility's total population was 5,524, or more than 143.9 percent of its design capacity of 3,838. As of April 30, 2020, CMC was incarcerating people at 97.1% of its design capacity, with 3,727 occupants. CMC has been called

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756-523: A member of the Nation of Islam, maintaining a regular correspondence with Muhammad. In 1950, the FBI opened a file on Malcolm after he wrote a letter from prison to President Harry S. Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a communist. That year, he also began signing his name "Malcolm   X." Muhammad instructed his followers to leave their family names behind when they joined

819-504: A mentor and confidant to Elijah Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad ; the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism toward his father's "unorthodox approach" to Islam. Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the Nation of Islam several times, although he was eventually re-admitted. During 1962 and 1963, events caused Malcolm   X to reassess his relationship with the Nation of Islam, and particularly its leader, Elijah Muhammad. In late 1961, there were violent confrontations between

882-453: A racist and as a hate teacher, or as being anti-White or as teaching Black Supremacy". One of the goals of the civil rights movement was to end disenfranchisement of African Americans, but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from participating in voting and other aspects of the political process. The NAACP and other civil rights organizations denounced him and the Nation of Islam as irresponsible extremists whose views did not represent

945-850: A self-educated man he would later describe as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect   ... with words". Under Bembry's influence, Malcolm developed a voracious appetite for reading. At this time, several of his siblings wrote to him about the Nation of Islam , a relatively new religious movement preaching Black self-reliance and, ultimately, the return of the African diaspora to Africa, where they would be free from White American and European domination. He showed scant interest at first, but after his brother Reginald wrote in 1948, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison", he almost instantly quit smoking and began to refuse pork. Following

1008-599: A serious violation of Nation teachings. After first discounting the rumors, Malcolm   X came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad's son Wallace and with the girls making the accusations. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963, attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets. Over a series of national TV interviews between 1964 and 1965, Malcolm   X provided testimony of his investigation, corroboration, and confirmation by Elijah Muhammed himself of multiple counts of child rape. During this investigation, he learned that seven of

1071-543: A short time in Flint , Michigan, he moved to New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1943, where he found employment on the New Haven Railroad and engaged in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering , robbery, and pimping . According to biographer Bruce Perry, Malcolm also occasionally had sex with other men, usually for money , though this conjecture has been disputed by those who knew him. He befriended John Elroy Sanford,

1134-683: A telephone call from Detroit in January 1958, and they married two days later. They had six daughters: Attallah (b. 1958; Arabic for "gift of God"; perhaps named after Attila the Hun ); Qubilah (b. 1960, named after Kublai Khan ); Ilyasah (b. 1962, named after Elijah Muhammad); Gamilah Lumumba (b. 1964, named after Gamal Abdel Nasser and Patrice Lumumba ); and twins Malikah (1965–2021) and Malaak (b. 1965, both born after their father's death, and named in his honor). The American public first became aware of Malcolm   X in 1957, after Hinton Johnson,

1197-407: A visit during which Reginald detailed the group's teachings, including the notion that White people are considered devils, Malcolm initially struggled to accept this belief. Over time, however, Malcolm reflected on his past relationships with White individuals and concluded that they had all been marked by dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred. Malcolm, whose hostility to Christianity had earned him

1260-417: A witness, Malcolm   X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Johnson. Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held, but when the crowd grew to about five hundred, they allowed Malcolm   X to speak with Johnson. Afterward, Malcolm   X insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Johnson to Harlem Hospital. Johnson's injuries were treated and by

1323-716: Is an American male-only state prison located northwest of the city of San Luis Obispo in San Luis Obispo County, California , along the central California coast approximately halfway between Los Angeles and San Francisco . CMC has two separate facilities on its 356 acres (144 ha): East and West. The minimum-security West facility includes Level I ("without a secure perimeter") housing and Level II ("with secure perimeter fences and armed coverage") open dormitories. The medium-security east facility has level III with individual cells, fenced perimeters and armed coverage, with housing divided into four quadrangles, as well as

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1386-681: Is centered on rituals honoring the seven principles. For Karenga, a major figure in the Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the creation of the holiday also underscored an essential premise that "you must have a cultural revolution before the violent revolution. The cultural revolution gives identity, purpose and direction." The Black Panthers and US had different aims and tactics but often found themselves competing for potential recruits. The Federal Bureau of Investigation intensified this antipathy as part of its COINTELPRO operations, sending forged letters to each group which purported to be from

1449-578: The Malcolm ;X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center . A posthumous autobiography , on which he collaborated with Alex Haley , was published in 1965. Malcolm Little was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska , the fourth of seven children of Grenada -born Louise Helen Little (née Langdon) and Georgia -born Earl Little. Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker, and he and Louise were admirers of Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey . Earl

1512-668: The Nation of Islam (NOI) until 1964, he was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment and the promotion of Islam within the African American community. A controversial figure accused of preaching violence, Malcolm X is also a widely celebrated figure within African American and Muslim communities for his pursuit of racial justice. Malcolm spent his adolescence living in a series of foster homes or with relatives after his father's death and his mother's hospitalization. He committed various crimes, being sentenced to 8 to 10 years in prison in 1946 for larceny and burglary. In prison, he joined

1575-553: The Pan-African Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). Throughout 1964, his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, and he was repeatedly sent death threats. On February   21, 1965, he was assassinated in New York City . Three Nation members were charged with the murder and given indeterminate life sentences . In 2021, two of the convictions were vacated. Speculation about the assassination and whether it

1638-602: The 1930s, white Seventh-day Adventists witnessed to the Little family; later on, Louise Little and her son Wilfred were baptized into the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Malcolm said the Adventists were "the friendliest white people I had ever seen." In 1937, a man Louise had been dating‍—‌marriage had seemed a possibility‍—‌vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child. In late 1938, she had

1701-591: The Assembly, and Malcolm   X met publicly with him as part of a welcoming committee of Harlem community leaders. Castro was sufficiently impressed with Malcolm   X to suggest a private meeting, and after two hours of talking, Castro invited Malcolm   X to visit Cuba. From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm   X promoted the Nation's teachings . These included beliefs: Louis E. Lomax said that "those who don't understand biblical prophecy wrongly label him as

1764-562: The Black Panthers. On January 17, 1969, a gun battle between the groups on the UCLA campus ended in the deaths of two Black Panthers: John Huggins and Alprentice "Bunchy" Carter . This led to a series of retaliatory shootings that lasted for months. Later in 1969, two other Black Panther members were killed and one other was wounded by US members. A Memorandum of the Los Angeles field office of

1827-645: The Elders of Zion was authentic and introduced it to NOI members, while accusing the Jewish people of "perfecting the modern evil" of neo-colonialism . He helped change the Black community's image of The Holocaust , engaging in Holocaust trivialization and claiming that the Jews "brought it on themselves". In 1961, Malcolm X spoke at a NOI rally alongside George Lincoln Rockwell ,

1890-508: The FBI dated May 26, 1970, confirmed that the surge of conflict that left four Panthers dead suited their objectives and more would be encouraged: The Panthers referred to the US organization as the "United Slaves", a name never actually used by members of US but which is often mistaken for the group's official name. In 1971, Karenga, Louis Smith, and Luz Maria Tamayo were convicted of felony assault. Karenga

1953-527: The Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad. He is largely credited with helping the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s—from around 1,200 to between 50,000 and 100,000 members, with up to 25,000 actively attending, according to estimates. He inspired the boxer Muhammad Ali to join the Nation, and the two became close. In January 1964, Ali brought Malcolm   X and his family to Miami to watch him train for his fight against Sonny Liston . When Malcolm   X left

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2016-691: The Nation of Islam and use "X" instead. When the time was right, after they had proven their sincerity, he said, he would reveal the Muslim's "original name." In his autobiography, Malcolm   X explained that the "X" symbolized the true African family name that he could never know. "For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears." After his parole in August 1952, Malcolm   X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago. In June 1953, he

2079-479: The Nation of Islam members and police in South Central Los Angeles , and numerous Muslims were arrested. They were acquitted, but tensions had been raised. Just after midnight on April   27, 1962, two LAPD officers, unprovoked, shoved and beat several Muslims outside Temple Number 27. A large crowd of angry Muslims emerged from the mosque and the officers attempted to intimidate them. One officer

2142-504: The Nation of Islam, adopting the name Malcolm   X to symbolize his unknown African ancestral surname while discarding "the white slavemaster name of 'Little ' ", and after his parole in 1952, he quickly became one of the organization's most influential leaders. He was the public face of the organization for 12 years, advocating Black empowerment and separation of Black and White Americans , and criticizing Martin Luther King Jr. and

2205-596: The Nation of Islam, as well as with its leader, Elijah Muhammad . He subsequently embraced Sunni Islam and the civil rights movement after completing the Hajj to Mecca and became known as " el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz," which roughly translates to "The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch". After a brief period of travel across Africa, he publicly renounced the Nation of Islam and founded the Islamic Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI) and

2268-413: The Nation of Islam, he tried to convince Ali (who had just been renamed by Elijah Muhammad) to join him in converting to Sunni Islam , but Ali instead broke ties with him, later describing the break as one of his greatest regrets. Malcolm   X mentored and guided Louis   X (later known as Louis Farrakhan ), who eventually became the leader of the Nation of Islam. Malcolm   X also served as

2331-830: The Nation of Islam. During 1955, Malcolm   X continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam. He established temples in Springfield , Massachusetts (Number   13); Hartford , Connecticut (Number   14); and Atlanta (Number   15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month. Besides his skill as a speaker, Malcolm   X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg). One writer described him as "powerfully built", and another as "mesmerizingly handsome   ... and always spotlessly well-groomed". In 1955, Betty Sanders met Malcolm   X after one of his lectures, then again at

2394-431: The civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence , arguing that Black people should defend and advance themselves " by any means necessary ". His speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, who were generally African Americans in northern and western cities. Many of them‍—‌tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect ‍—‌felt that he articulated their complaints better than did

2457-408: The civil rights movement. Malcolm X has been widely accused of being antisemitic . His autobiography contains several "antisemitic charges and caricatures of Jews ". Alex Haley , the autobiography's co-author, had to rewrite some of the book to eliminate a number of negative statements about Jews in the manuscript. Malcolm X believed that the fabricated antisemitic text The Protocols of

2520-478: The common interests of African Americans. Malcolm   X had been equally critical of the civil rights movement. During this period, he denounced Martin Luther King Jr. as a "chump," and referred to other civil rights leaders as being "stooges" of the White establishment and was strongly against any kind of racial integration. He called the 1963 March on Washington "the farce on Washington," and said he did not know why so many Black people were excited about

2583-657: The eight girls had become pregnant as a result of this. He also revealed an assassination attempt made on his life, through a discovered explosive device in his car, as well as the death threats he was receiving, in response to his exposure of Elijah Muhammad. On December   1, 1963, when asked to comment on the assassination of John F. Kennedy , Malcolm   X said that it was a case of " chickens coming home to roost ." He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad." Likewise, according to The New York Times : California Men%27s Colony California Men's Colony ( CMC )

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2646-462: The event, but no charges were laid against the police. The coroner ruled that Stokes's killing was justified. To Malcolm   X, the desecration of the mosque and the associated violence demanded action, and he used what Louis   X (later Louis Farrakhan) later called his "gangsterlike past" to rally the more hardened of the Nation of Islam members to take violent revenge against the police. Malcolm   X sought Elijah Muhammad's approval which

2709-652: The family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee , and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan . There, the family was frequently harassed by the Black Legion , a White racist group Earl accused of burning their family home in 1929. When Malcolm was six, his father died in what has been officially ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that White racists were responsible for his father's death were widely circulated and were very disturbing to Malcolm X as

2772-467: The head of the American Nazi Party . Rockwell saw overlap between black nationalism and white supremacy. According to historian Stephen H. Norwood , Malcolm X's negative statements about Jews continued even close to his death, referring to Jews as "bloodsucker[s]" in statements he made during the last months of his life. Malcolm   X is widely regarded as the second most influential leader of

2835-520: The invention of the Kwanzaa festival in 1966, designed as the first specifically African-American holiday. It was to be celebrated over the Christmas/New Year period. Karenga said his goal was to "give Blacks an alternative to the existing holiday and give Blacks an opportunity to celebrate themselves and history, rather than simply imitate the practice of the dominant society." The holiday celebration

2898-757: The main active force in the group, organizing projects such as teaching Swahili and promoting traditional African rituals. Jamal believed that these had no relevance to modern African-American life, so he left "US" to establish the rival Malcolm X Foundation, based in Compton, California. Karenga became the driving force behind "US." The group's ideals revolve around what Karenga called "the seven principles of African Heritage" which he summarized as " communitarian philosophy": Unity (Umoja), Self-Determination (Kujichagulia), Collective Work and Responsibility (Ujima), Cooperative Economics (Ujamaa), Purpose (Nia), Creativity (Kuumba), and Faith (Imani). Karenga's ideas culminated in

2961-468: The mainstream civil rights movement for its emphasis on non-violence and racial integration . Malcolm X also expressed pride in some of the Nation's social welfare achievements, such as its free drug rehabilitation program. From the 1950s onward, Malcolm X was subjected to surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In the 1960s, Malcolm X began to grow disillusioned with

3024-515: The officers who beat Johnson. In October, Malcolm   X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon the police department assigned undercover officers to infiltrate the Nation of Islam. By the late 1950s, Malcolm   X was using a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz ("The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch"), although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm   X. His comments on issues and events were being widely reported, in print and on radio and television. He

3087-748: The other group, so that each would believe that the other was publicly humiliating them. This rivalry came to a head in 1969, when the two groups supported different candidates to head the Afro-American Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles . According to Louis Tackwood, a former informant with the Los Angeles Police Department's Criminal Conspiracies Section and author of The Glass House Tapes , Ronald Karenga knowingly provided financial and material support by LAPD, with Tackwood as liaison, for US operations against

3150-509: The phrase "us and them" and the standard abbreviation of "United States", referring to "Us Black People" as a nation. This promoted the idea of black cultural unity as a distinct national identity. Jamal and Karenga founded the US Organization. They published a magazine Message to the Grassroot in 1966, in which Karenga was listed as chairman and Jamal as founder of the new group. Its aim

3213-412: The prison nickname "Satan," became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam. In late 1948, Malcolm wrote to Elijah Muhammad , the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to renounce his past, humbly bow in prayer to God and promise never to engage in destructive behavior again. Though he later recalled the inner struggle he had before bending his knees to pray, Malcolm soon became

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3276-641: The station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation members silently left, after which time the rest of the crowd also dispersed. One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News : "No one man should have that much power." Within a month the New York City Police Department arranged to keep Malcolm   X under surveillance; it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served time. A grand jury declined to indict

3339-454: The time he was returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside. Inside the station, Malcolm   X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims. Johnson was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day. Considering the situation to be at an impasse, Malcolm   X stepped outside

3402-525: Was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and Louise served as secretary and "branch reporter", sending news of local UNIA activities to Negro World ; they inculcated self-reliance and black pride in their children. Malcolm   X later said that White violence killed four of his father's brothers. Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, Earl's UNIA activities were said to be "spreading trouble" and

3465-557: Was conceived or aided by leading or additional members of the Nation, or with law enforcement agencies, has persisted for decades. He was posthumously honored with Malcolm X Day , on which he is commemorated in various cities across the United States. Hundreds of streets and schools in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, while the Audubon Ballroom , the site of his assassination, was partly redeveloped in 2005 to accommodate

3528-454: Was declared "mentally disqualified for military service". In late 1945, Malcolm returned to Boston, where he and four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy White families. In 1946, he was arrested while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for repairs, and in February began serving a sentence of eight to ten years at Charlestown State Prison for larceny and breaking and entering. Two years later, Malcolm

3591-492: Was denied, stunning Malcolm   X. Malcolm   X was again blocked by Elijah Muhammad when he spoke of the Nation of Islam starting to work with civil rights organizations, local Black politicians, and religious groups. Louis   X saw this as an important turning point in the deteriorating relationship between Malcolm   X and Muhammad. Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌which would constitute

3654-461: Was disarmed; his partner was shot in the elbow by a third officer. More than 70 backup officers arrived who then raided the mosque and randomly beat Nation of Islam members. Police officers shot seven Muslims, including William X Rogers, who was hit in the back and paralyzed for life, and Ronald Stokes, a Korean War veteran, who was shot from behind while raising his hands over his head to surrender, killing him. A number of Muslims were indicted after

3717-593: Was featured in a 1959 New York City television broadcast about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced . In September 1960, at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City, Malcolm   X was invited to the official functions of several African nations. He met Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress . Fidel Castro also attended

3780-636: Was named assistant minister of the Nation's Temple Number One in Detroit. Later that year he established Boston's Temple Number   11; in March 1954, he expanded Temple Number   12 in Philadelphia; and two months later he was selected to lead Temple Number   7 in Harlem, where he rapidly expanded its membership. In 1953, the FBI began surveillance of him, turning its attention from Malcolm   X's possible communist associations to his rapid ascent in

3843-527: Was sentenced to one to ten years in prison on counts of felony assault and false imprisonment. Karenga was imprisoned at the California Men's Colony , where he studied and wrote on feminism, Pan-Africanism , and other subjects. The US Organization fell into disarray during his absence and was disbanded in 1974. He was granted parole in 1975. Karenga has declined to discuss the convictions with reporters and does not mention them in biographical materials. During

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3906-471: Was to promote African-American cultural unity. Haiba Karenga and Dorothy Jamal, the wives of the two founders, ran the organization's "US School of Afroamerican Culture", to educate children with the group's ideals. However, their husbands soon differed about how to achieve the group's aims. Jamal argued that the ideas of Malcolm X should be the main ideological model for the group, while Karenga wished to root black Americans in African culture . Karenga became

3969-457: Was transferred to Norfolk Prison Colony (also in Massachusetts ). Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my cor­re­spond­ence, my vis­i­tors   ... and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being impris­oned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life. When Malcolm was in prison, he met fellow convict John Bembry,

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