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72-486: Camel case (sometimes stylized autologically as camelCase or CamelCase , also known as camel caps or more formally as medial capitals ) is the practice of writing phrases without spaces or punctuation and with capitalized words. The format indicates the first word starting with either case, then the following words having an initial uppercase letter. Common examples include YouTube , PowerPoint , HarperCollins , FedEx , iPhone , eBay , and LaGuardia . Camel case

144-399: A heterological word , does not apply to itself. For example, the word "palindrome" is not a palindrome , "long" is a short word, "monosyllabic" has more than one syllable, "hyphenated" is not hyphenated, and, inversely, "non-hyphenated" is hyphenated. Unlike more general concepts of autology and self-reference, this particular distinction and opposition of autological and heterological words

216-421: A V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood. This tendency to avoid consonant clusters in some positions is important when words are imported from English or other non-Bantu languages. An example from Chewa :

288-655: A designation referring indiscriminately to language, culture, society, and race"." The Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language , which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in Central Africa . An estimated 2,500–3,000 years ago (1000 BC to 500 BC), speakers of the Proto-Bantu language began a series of migrations eastward and southward, carrying agriculture with them. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, an area where Bantu peoples now constitute nearly

360-438: A given word is intended as an acronym. Difficulties arise when identifiers have different meaning depending only on the case, as can occur with mathematical functions or trademarks. In this situation changing the case of an identifier might not be an option and an alternative name need be chosen. Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention

432-597: A hyphen in the middle of a symbol as a subtraction operator) and COBOL because its operators were individual English words. This convention remains in use in these languages, and is also common in program names entered on a command line , as in Unix. However, this solution was not adequate for mathematically oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as an infix subtraction operator. FORTRAN ignored blanks altogether, so programmers could use embedded spaces in variable names. However, this feature

504-410: A lower case letter. This avoids the conflict between predefined and user defined identifiers both today and in all future versions. C# variable names are recommended to follow the lower camel case convention. Whatever its origins in the computing field, the convention was used in the names of computer companies and their commercial brands, since the late 1970s — a trend that continues to this day: In

576-402: A lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case. Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms that are already in uppercase, such as "old HTML file". By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have

648-459: A mixture of preferred identifier styles but again there was no correlation of preferred style to accuracy or speed. Autological An autological word (or homological word ) expresses a property that it also possesses. For example, the word "word" is a word, the word "English" is in English, the word "writable" is writable, and the word " pentasyllabic " has five syllables. The opposite,

720-422: A post by Newton Love. Love has since said, "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years. ... The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET." The use of medial capitals as a convention in the regular spelling of everyday texts

792-516: A program that includes some medial capital identifiers, including " NextCh " and " WriteSymbol " (This was most likely the influence of the CPL language, of which Strachey was one of the designers of) Multiple-word descriptive identifiers with embedded spaces such as end of file or char table cannot be used in most programming languages because the spaces between the words would be parsed as delimiters between tokens . The alternative of running

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864-661: A sabbatical at PARC and used it in Modula , his next programming language. The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto, also uses camel case instead of underscores. This language became quite popular in the early 1980s, and thus may also have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Upper camel case (or "Pascal case") is used in Wolfram Language in computer algebraic system Mathematica for predefined identifiers. User defined identifiers should start with

936-452: A single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК. The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulas invented by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius in 1813. To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by

1008-471: A static rather than animated stimulus and found perfect accuracy in both styles except for one incorrect camel case response. Subjects recognized identifiers in snake case more quickly than camel case. The study used eye-tracking equipment and found that the difference in speed for its subjects was primarily due to the fact that average duration of fixations for camel-case was significantly higher than that of snake case for 3-part identifiers. The survey recorded

1080-444: A subjective survey and found that non-programmers either preferred underscores or had no preference, and 38% of programmers trained in camel case stated a preference for underscores. However, these preferences had no statistical correlation to accuracy or speed when controlling for other variables. A 2010 follow-up study used a similar study design with 15 subjects consisting of expert programmers trained primarily in snake case. It used

1152-484: A symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulas like " NaCl " to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity. Berzelius' system continues to be used, augmented with three-letter symbols such as " Uue " for unconfirmed or unknown elements and abbreviations for some common substituents (especially in the field of organic chemistry, for instance " Et " for "ethyl-"). This has been further extended to describe

1224-887: Is a national language, while as a second language, it is taught as a mandatory subject in many schools in East Africa, and is a lingua franca of the East African Community . Other major Bantu languages include Lingala with more than 20 million speakers ( Congo , DRC ), followed by Zulu with 13.56 million speakers ( South Africa ), Xhosa at a distant third place with 8.2 million speakers ( South Africa and Zimbabwe ), and Shona with less than 10 million speakers (if Manyika and Ndau are included), while Sotho-Tswana languages ( Sotho , Tswana and Pedi ) have more than 15 million speakers (across Botswana , Lesotho , South Africa, and Zambia ). Zimbabwe has Kalanga, Matebele, Nambiya, and Xhosa speakers. Ethnologue separates

1296-946: Is also acceptable in some cases, so Beijing can be written as BJ , Qinghuangdao as QHD, and Daxing'anling as DXAL. In English, medial capitals are usually only found in Scottish or Irish "Mac-" or "Mc-" patronymic names, where for example MacDonald, McDonald, and Macdonald are common spelling variants of MacDonald (son of Dòmhnall), and in Anglo-Norman "Fitz-" names, where for example both FitzGerald and Fitzgerald (son of Gerald) are found. In their English style guide The King's English , first published in 1906, H. W. and F. G. Fowler suggested that medial capitals could be used in triple compound words where hyphens would cause ambiguity—the examples they give are KingMark-like (as against King Mark-like ) and Anglo-SouthAmerican (as against Anglo-South American ). However, they described

1368-411: Is also used by several written Bantu languages (e.g. isiZulu , " Zulu language ") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g. Nahuatl , Totonacan , Mixe–Zoque , and some Oto-Manguean languages ). In Dutch , when capitalizing the digraph ij , both the letter I and the letter J are capitalized, for example in the country name IJsland ("Iceland"). In Chinese pinyin , camel case

1440-1174: Is hampered by insufficient data. Simplified phylogeny of northwestern branches of Bantu by Grollemund (2012): A40-50-60-70: Basaa languages , Bafia languages , Mbam languages , Beti language A10-20-30: Sawabantu languages , Manenguba languages A80-90: Makaa–Njem languages B20: Kele languages B10: Myene language B30: Tsogo languages C10-20-30: Ngondi–Ngiri languages , Mboshi languages , Bangi–Ntomba languages C40-D20-D32: Bati–Angba languages , Lega–Binja languages , Bira language B80-C60-70-80: Boma–Dzing languages , Soko languages , Tetela languages , Bushoong languages B40-H10-30-B50-60-70: Sira languages , Kongo languages , Yaka languages , Nzebi languages , Mbete languages , Teke languages L10-H40: Pende languages , Hungana language C50-D10: Soko languages , Lengola language D10-20-30-40-JD50: Mbole–Enya languages , Komo–Bira languages , Shi–Havu languages Other computational phylogenetic analyses of Bantu include Currie et al. (2013), Grollemund et al. (2015), Rexova et al. 2006, Holden et al., 2016, and Whiteley et al. 2018. Glottolog ( 2021 ) does not consider

1512-661: Is likely the innovative line cladistically . Northwest Bantu is not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, with little evidence that it is a historically valid group. Another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 "Tervuren" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. However, it relies on lexicostatistics , which, because of its reliance on overall similarity rather than shared innovations , may predict spurious groups of conservative languages that are not closely related . Meanwhile, Ethnologue has added languages to

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1584-543: Is mainly geographic. The term "narrow Bantu" was coined by the Benue–Congo Working Group to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Guthrie, from the Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid languages has been called into doubt, but the term is still widely used. There is no true genealogical classification of

1656-402: Is often used as a naming convention in computer programming. It is also sometimes used in online usernames such as JohnSmith , and to make multi-word domain names more legible, for example in promoting EasyWidgetCompany.com . In fact, WikiWikiWeb , an ancestor of Misplaced Pages, is written in camel case. The more specific terms Pascal case and upper camel case refer to a joined phrase where

1728-406: Is rare, but is used in some languages as a solution to particular problems which arise when two words or segments are combined. In Italian, pronouns can be suffixed to verbs, and because the honorific form of second-person pronouns is capitalized, this can produce a sentence like non ho trovato il tempo di risponderLe ("I have not found time to answer you" – where Le means "to you"). In German,

1800-564: Is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals and has therefore become part of the language's "culture". Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables , record fields , methods , procedures , functions , subroutines , types , etc. These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence. The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that

1872-417: Is sometimes used for place names so that readers can more easily pick out the different parts of the name. For example, places like Beijing (北京), Qinhuangdao (秦皇岛), and Daxing'anling (大兴安岭) can be written as BeiJing , QinHuangDao, and DaXingAnLing respectively , with the number of capital letters equaling the number of Chinese characters . Writing word compounds only by the initial letter of each character

1944-454: Is the extensive use of affixes (see Sotho grammar and Ganda noun classes for detailed discussions of these affixes). Each noun belongs to a class , and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like grammatical gender in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with

2016-481: Is uncommon in linguistics for describing linguistic phenomena or classes of words, but is current in logic and philosophy where it was introduced by Kurt Grelling and Leonard Nelson for describing a semantic paradox, later known as Grelling's paradox or the Grelling–Nelson paradox . Bantu languages The total number of Bantu languages is estimated at between 440 and 680 distinct languages, depending on

2088-469: Is used when an inflectional prefix is attached to a proper noun, for example i nGaillimh ("in Galway "), from Gaillimh ("Galway"); an tAlbanach ("the Scottish person"), from Albanach ("Scottish person"); and go hÉirinn ("to Ireland"), from Éire ("Ireland"). In recent Scottish Gaelic orthography , a hyphen has been inserted: an t-Albannach . This convention of inflectional prefix

2160-616: The amino acid sequences of proteins and other similar domains. Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as In the 1970s and 1980s, medial capitals were adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages . The precise origin of the convention in computer programming has not yet been settled. A 1954 conference proceedings occasionally informally referred to IBM 's Speedcoding system as "SpeedCo". Christopher Strachey 's paper on GPM (1965), shows

2232-538: The eBox software platform. In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists use medial capitals to aid readability of long chemical names, e.g. write AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase instead of amidophosphoribosyltransferase . This usage was not widely adopted. Camel case is sometimes used for abbreviated names of certain neighborhoods, e.g. New York City neighborhoods SoHo ( So uth of Ho uston Street) and TriBeCa ( Tri angle Be low Ca nal Street) and San Francisco's SoMa ( So uth of Ma rket). Such usages erode quickly, so

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2304-686: The population of Africa or 5% of the world population ). Bantu languages are largely spoken southeast of Cameroon , and throughout Central , Southern , Eastern , and Southeast Africa . About one-sixth of Bantu speakers , and one-third of Bantu languages, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The most widely spoken Bantu language by number of speakers is Swahili , with 16 million native speakers and 80 million L2 speakers (2015). Most native speakers of Swahili live in Tanzania , where it

2376-533: The "r" stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Another example is ts I urku , a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechnya and Ingushetia ; the letter " I " ( palochka ) is not actually capital, denoting a phoneme distinct from the one transcribed as "i". Medial capitals are traditionally used in abbreviations to reflect

2448-431: The (Narrow) Bantu languages. Until recently most attempted classifications only considered languages that happen to fall within traditional Narrow Bantu, but there seems to be a continuum with the related languages of South Bantoid. At a broader level, the family is commonly split in two depending on the reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns: many Bantuists group together parts of zones A through D (the extent depending on

2520-574: The 1970s and later oversaw the creation of Microsoft's Office suite of applications, invented and taught the use of Hungarian Notation , one version of which uses the lowercase letter(s) at the start of a (capitalized) variable name to denote its type. One account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer. This machine lacked an underscore key (whose place

2592-469: The 1980s and 1990s, after the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world, camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names in non-computer fields as well. Mainstream usage was well established by 1990: During the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for " electronic ") and "i" (for "Internet", "information", " intelligent ", etc.) became quite common, giving rise to names like Apple 's iMac and

2664-586: The Guthrie classification which Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few unambiguous ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson (2006) evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, but

2736-504: The abbreviation all in uppercase, namely "oldHTMLFile". However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., "parse DBM XML" would become "parseDBMXML") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g. "SQL server" would become "sQLServer"). For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were words and write "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml" or "sqlServer". However, this can make it harder to recognize that

2808-682: The address longer and less human readable . By omitting spaces, camel case does not have this problem. Camel case has been criticized as negatively impacting readability due to the removal of spaces and uppercasing of every word. A 2009 study of 135 subjects comparing snake case (underscored identifiers) to camel case found that camel case identifiers were recognized with higher accuracy among all subjects. Subjects recognized snake case identifiers more quickly than camel case identifiers. Training in camel case sped up camel case recognition and slowed snake case recognition, although this effect involved coefficients with high p-values . The study also conducted

2880-510: The adjective prefix ki- (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix a- . Then comes perfect tense -me- and an object marker -ki- agreeing with implicit kitabu 'book' (from Arabic kitab ). Pluralizing to 'children' gives Vitoto vidogo vimekisoma ( Vana vadoko varikuverenga in Shona), and pluralizing to 'books' ( vitabu ) gives vitoto vidogo vimevisoma . Bantu words are typically made up of open syllables of

2952-465: The author) as Northwest Bantu or Forest Bantu , and the remainder as Central Bantu or Savanna Bantu . The two groups have been described as having mirror-image tone systems: where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone, and vice versa. Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger–Congo languages; Central Bantu

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3024-601: The beginning of a syllable can be readily observed in such languages as Shona, and the Makua languages . With few exceptions, such as Kiswahili and Rutooro , Bantu languages are tonal and have two to four register tones. Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem. Well-known words and names that have reduplication include: Repetition emphasizes

3096-541: The capitalization that the words would have when written out in full, for example in the academic titles PhD or BSc . A more recent example is NaNoWriMo , a contraction of National Novel Writing Month and the designation for both the annual event and the nonprofit organization that runs it. In German, the names of statutes are abbreviated using embedded capitals, e.g. StGB for Strafgesetzbuch (Criminal Code), PatG for Patentgesetz (Patent Act), BVerfG for Bundesverfassungsgericht ( Federal Constitutional Court ), or

3168-471: The concept of "language". In addition, delegates at the African Languages Association of Southern Africa conference in 1984 reported that, in some places, the term Kintu has a derogatory significance. This is because kintu refers to "things" and is used as a dehumanizing term for people who have lost their dignity. In addition, Kintu is a figure in some mythologies. In the 1990s,

3240-486: The definition of "language" versus "dialect" . Many Bantu languages borrow words from each other, and some are mutually intelligible . Some of the languages are spoken by a very small number of people, for example the Kabwa language was estimated in 2007 to be spoken by only 8500 people but was assessed to be a distinct language. The total number of Bantu speakers is estimated to be around 350 million in 2015 (roughly 30% of

3312-505: The definition of camel case ambiguous with respect to capitalization, and uses the more specific terms when necessary. Camel case is distinct from several other styles: title case , which capitalizes all words but retains the spaces between them; Tall Man lettering , which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking product names such as predniSONE and predniSOLONE ; and snake case , which uses underscores interspersed with lowercase letters (sometimes with

3384-491: The entire population. Some other sources estimate the Bantu Expansion started closer to 3000 BC. The technical term Bantu, meaning "human beings" or simply "people", was first used by Wilhelm Bleek (1827–1875), as the concept is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use words such as muntu or mutu for "human being" or in simplistic terms "person", and

3456-446: The first letter capitalized). A combination of snake and camel case (identifiers Written_Like_This ) is recommended in the Ada 95 style guide. The practice has various names, including: The earliest known occurrence of the term "InterCaps" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport. The earliest use of the name "Camel Case" occurs in 1995, in

3528-473: The first letter of each word is capitalized, including the initial letter of the first word. Similarly, lower camel case (also known as dromedary case ) requires an initial lowercase letter. Some people and organizations, notably Microsoft , use the term camel case only for lower camel case, designating Pascal case for the upper camel case. Some programming styles prefer camel case with the first letter capitalized, others not. For clarity, this article leaves

3600-426: The largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi , which together have 20 million speakers. The similarity among dispersed Bantu languages had been observed as early as the 17th century. The term Bantu as a name for the group was not coined but "noticed" or "identified" (as Bâ-ntu ) by Wilhelm Bleek as the first European in 1857 or 1858, and popularized in his Comparative Grammar of 1862. He noticed

3672-445: The larger ethnolinguistic phylum named by 19th-century European linguists. Bleek's identification was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups frequently self-identifying as "people" or "the true people" (as is the case, for example, with the term Khoikhoi , but this is a kare "praise address" and not an ethnic name). The term narrow Bantu , excluding those languages classified as Bantoid by Malcolm Guthrie (1948),

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3744-504: The medial capital letter I , called Binnen-I , is sometimes used in a word like StudentInnen ("students") to indicate that both Studenten ("male students") and Studentinnen ("female students") are intended simultaneously. However, mid-word capitalization does not conform to German orthography apart from proper names like McDonald ; the previous example could be correctly written using parentheses as Student(inn)en , analogous to "congress(wo)men" in English. In Irish , camel case

3816-406: The name to be put in quotes). Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf . Microblogging and social networking services that limit the number of characters in a message are potential outlets for medial capitals. Using camel case between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus

3888-414: The neighborhoods are now typically rendered as Soho , Tribeca , and Soma . Internal capitalization has also been used for other technical codes like HeLa (1983). The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa , Pascal , Modula , Java and Microsoft 's .NET ) this practice

3960-489: The noun. Plurality is indicated by a change of class, with a resulting change of prefix. All Bantu languages are agglutinative . The verb has a number of prefixes, though in the western languages these are often treated as independent words. In Swahili , for example, Kitoto kidogo kimekisoma (for comparison, Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga in Shona language ) means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. kitoto 'child' governs

4032-431: The number of characters, in a given message, allowing more content to fit into the limited space. Hashtags , especially long ones, often use camel case to maintain readability (e.g. #CollegeStudentProblems is easier to read than #collegestudentproblems); this practice improves accessibility as screen readers recognize CamelCase in parsing composite hashtags. In website URLs, spaces are percent-encoded as "%20", making

4104-414: The older geographic classification by Guthrie relevant for its ongoing classification based on more recent linguistic studies, and divides Bantu into four main branches: Bantu A-B10-B20-B30 , Central-Western Bantu , East Bantu and Mbam-Bube-Jarawan . Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages

4176-407: The plural prefix for human nouns starting with mu- (class 1) in most languages is ba- (class 2), thus giving bantu for "people". Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof , pursued extensive studies comparing the grammatical structures of Bantu languages. The most widely used classification is an alphanumeric coding system developed by Malcolm Guthrie in his 1948 classification of the Bantu languages. It

4248-496: The repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, "Mwenda pole hajikwai," means "He who goes slowly doesn't trip," while, "Pole pole ndio mwendo," means "A slow but steady pace wins the race." The latter repeats "pole" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace. As another example, "Haraka haraka" would mean "hurrying just for the sake of hurrying" (reckless hurry), as in "Njoo! Haraka haraka" [come here! Hurry, hurry]. In contrast, there are some words in some of

4320-464: The result is not a complete portrayal of the family. Glottolog has incorporated many of these into their classification. The languages that share Dahl's law may also form a valid group, Northeast Bantu . The infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, not just Bantu,

4392-461: The same. MediaWiki , for example, does not support camel case for linking. Some wikis that do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs . The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case. Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces (usually requiring

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4464-637: The system as "too hopelessly contrary to use at present". Some French names also uses CamelCase names, such as LeBeau (surname) , LaRue , DeMordaunt , and Italian names DeRose / DeRosa . In the scholarly transliteration of languages written in other scripts, medial capitals are used in similar situations. For example, in transliterated Hebrew , haIvri means "the Hebrew person" or "the Jew" and b'Yerushalayim means "in Jerusalem". In Tibetan proper names like rLobsang ,

4536-410: The term Kintu was still occasionally used by South African linguists. But in contemporary decolonial South African linguistics, the term Ntu languages is used. Within the fierce debate among linguists about the word "Bantu", Seidensticker (2024) indicates that there has been a "profound conceptual trend in which a "purely technical [term] without any non-linguistic connotations was transformed into

4608-546: The term to represent the word for "people" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu , from the plural noun class prefix *ba- categorizing "people", and the root *ntʊ̀- "some (entity), any" (e.g. Xhosa umntu "person", abantu "people"; Zulu umuntu "person", abantu "people"). There is no native term for the people who speak Bantu languages because they are not an ethnic group . People speaking Bantu languages refer to their languages by ethnic endonyms , which did not have an indigenous concept prior to European contact for

4680-449: The type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type. The Bushong language recorded by Vansina , however, has final consonants, while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the Tonga of Malawi. The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly

4752-550: The very common GmbH, for Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung ( private limited company ). In this context, there can even be three or more camel case capitals, e.g. in TzBfG for Teilzeit- und Befristungsgesetz (Act on Part-Time and Limited Term Occupations). In French, camel case acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms. Camel case is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent

4824-406: The word "school", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is sukulu . That is, sk- has been broken up by inserting an epenthetic -u- ; -u has also been added at the end of the word. Another example is buledi for "bread". Similar effects are seen in loanwords for other non-African CV languages like Japanese . However, a clustering of sounds at

4896-507: The words together as in endoffile or chartable is difficult to understand and possibly misleading; for example, chartable is an English word (able to be charted), whereas charTable means a table of chars . Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen ("-") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE": Lisp because it worked well with prefix notation (a Lisp parser would not treat

4968-552: Was introduced in the 1960s. The prefix ba- specifically refers to people. Endonymically, the term for cultural objects, including language, is formed with the ki- noun class (Nguni ísi- ), as in KiSwahili (Swahili language and culture), IsiZulu (Zulu language and culture) and KiGanda (Ganda religion and culture). In the 1980s, South African linguists suggested referring to these languages as KiNtu. The word kintu exists in some places, but it means "thing", with no relation to

5040-858: Was not very useful since the early versions of the language restricted identifiers to no more than six characters. Exacerbating the problem, common punched card character sets of the time were uppercase only and lacked other special characters. It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lowercase and the underscore character _ universally available. Some languages, notably C , promptly adopted underscores as word separators, and identifiers such as end_of_file are still prevalent in C programs and libraries (as well as in later languages influenced by C, such as Perl and Python ). However, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores and adopted camel case instead. Charles Simonyi , who worked at Xerox PARC in

5112-509: Was originally used in Ward Cunningham 's original wiki software , WikiWikiWeb , and can be activated in most other wikis. Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki , Trac and PmWiki make use of it in the default settings, but usually also provide a configuration mechanism or plugin to disable it. Misplaced Pages formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done

5184-499: Was taken by a left arrow "←"), and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving camel case as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for upper and lower camel case that was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system. Niklaus Wirth , the inventor of Pascal , came to appreciate camel case during

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