Misplaced Pages

#345654

77-793: Descriptions of the UniGene transcript based and genome based build procedures are available. The UniGene resource, developed at NCBI , clusters ESTs and other mRNA sequences, along with coding sequences (CDSs) annotated on genomic DNA, into subsets of related sequences. In most cases, each cluster is made up of sequences produced by a single gene, including alternatively spliced transcripts. However, some genes may be represented by more than one cluster. The clusters are organism specific and are currently available for human , mouse , rat , zebrafish , and cattle . They are built in several stages, using an automatic process based on special sequence comparison algorithms . First,

154-466: A certain percentage (2.8% in 2014) must be granted to small businesses under the SBIR/STTR program. As of 2011 , the extramural funding consisted of about 50,000 grants to more than 325,000 researchers at more than 3000 institutions. By 2018 , this rate of granting remained reasonably steady, at 47,000 grants to 2,700 organizations. In FY 2010 , NIH spent US$ 10.7bn (not including temporary funding from

231-499: A clinical trial, except for the most critically ill, as determined by the NIH Director. Over the last century, the responsibility to allocate funding has shifted from the OD and Advisory Committee to the individual ICs and Congress increasingly set apart funding for particular causes. In the 1970s, Congress began to earmark funds specifically for cancer research, and in the 1980s there was

308-408: A context in which many disparate individual pieces of reported research can be organized. BLAST is an algorithm used for calculating sequence similarity between biological sequences, such as nucleotide sequences of DNA and amino acid sequences of proteins. BLAST is a powerful tool for finding sequences similar to the query sequence within the same organism or in different organisms. It searches

385-468: A diverse research portfolio in order to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Fourth, address public health needs according to the disease burden (e.g., prevalence and mortality). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.g., well-equipped laboratories and safe research facilities) necessary to conduct research. Advisory committee members advise

462-468: A link to download these sequences. It is important to note that clusters that contain ESTs only (i.e., no mRNAs or annotated CDSs) will be missing some of these fields, such as LocusLink, OMIM, and mRNA/Gene links. UniGene titles for such clusters, such as ‘‘EST, weakly similar to ORF2 contains a reverse transcriptase domain [H. sapiens],’’ are derived from the title of a characterized protein with which

539-409: A list of all UniGene clusters that match the query. Each cluster is identified by an identifier, a description, and a gene symbol, if available. Cluster identifiers are prefixed with Hs for Homo sapiens, Rn for Rattus norvegicus, Mm for Mus musculus, or Dn for Danio rerio. The descriptions of UniGene clusters are taken from LocusLink, if available, or from the title of a sequence in

616-471: A molecular and cellular point of view, research methods, and virology . Some of the books are online versions of previously published books, while others, such as Coffee Break , are written and edited by NCBI staff. The Bookshelf is a complement to the Entrez PubMed repository of peer-reviewed publication abstracts in that Bookshelf contents provide established perspectives on evolving areas of study and

693-693: A mutually consistent ortholog relationship. The calculated orthologs and homologs are considered putative, since they are based only on sequence comparisons. Curated orthologs are provided by the Mouse Genome Database (MGD) at the Jackson Laboratory and the Zebrafish Information Database (ZFIN) at the University of Oregon and can also be obtained from the scientific literature. Queries to UniGene are entered into

770-584: A rate similar to inflation since the 1970s, research funding for the NIH nearly tripled through the 1990s and early 2000s, but has remained relatively stagnant since then. By the 1990s, the NIH committee focus had shifted to DNA research and launched the Human Genome Project . The NIH Office of the Director is the central office responsible for setting policy for NIH, and for planning, managing, and coordinating

847-400: A series of audit reports revealing that throughout the fiscal years 2000–2010, institutes under the aegis of the NIH did not comply with the time and amount requirements specified in appropriations statutes, in awarding federal contracts to commercial partners, committing the federal government to tens of millions of dollars of expenditure ahead of appropriation of funds from Congress. The NIH

SECTION 10

#1733085141346

924-538: A series of databases relevant to biotechnology and biomedicine and is an important resource for bioinformatics tools and services. Major databases include GenBank for DNA sequences and PubMed , a bibliographic database for biomedical literature. Other databases include the NCBI Epigenomics database. All these databases are available online through the Entrez search engine. NCBI was directed by David Lipman , one of

1001-514: A significant amount allocated for AIDS/HIV research. Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. During the 1980s, President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. The political contention over NIH funding slowed the nation's response to the AIDS epidemic; while AIDS

1078-577: A text box on any of the UniGene pages. Query terms can be, for example, the UniGene identifier, a gene name, a text term that is found somewhere in the UniGene record, or the accession number of an EST or gene sequence in the cluster. For example, the cluster entitled ‘‘A disintegrin and metalloprotease domain 10’’ that contains the sequence for human ADAM10 can be retrieved by entering ADAM10, disintegrin, AF009615 (the GenBank accession number of ADAM10), or H69859 (the GenBank accession number of an EST in

1155-826: A uniform information model and retrieval system which can efficiently retrieve that relevant references, sequences, and structures. Gene has been implemented at NCBI to characterize and organize the information about genes. It serves as a major node in the nexus of the genomic map, expression, sequence, protein function, structure, and homology data. A unique GeneID is assigned to each gene record that can be followed through revision cycles. Gene records for known or predicted genes are established here and are demarcated by map positions or nucleotide sequences. Gene has several advantages over its predecessor, LocusLink, including, better integration with other databases in NCBI, broader taxonomic scope, and enhanced options for query and retrieval provided by

1232-464: Is a sequence similarity searching program. BLAST can do sequence comparisons against the GenBank DNA database in less than 15 seconds. The NCBI Bookshelf is a collection of freely accessible, downloadable, online versions of selected biomedical books. The Bookshelf covers a wide range of topics including molecular biology , biochemistry , cell biology , genetics , microbiology , disease states from

1309-577: Is another database of proteins known as Protein Clusters database, which contains sets of proteins sequences that are clustered according to the maximum alignments between the individual sequences as calculated by BLAST. PubChem database of NCBI is a public resource for molecules and their activities against biological assays. PubChem is searchable and accessible by Entrez information retrieval system. National Institutes of Health The National Institutes of Health , commonly referred to as NIH ,

1386-600: Is available to the general public whereas the individual-level data is accessible to researchers. According to the City Journal NIH denies access to such attributes as intelligence, education and health on the grounds that studying their genetic basis would be stigmatizing. The NIH partnered with Moderna in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic to develop a vaccine. The final phase of testing began on July 27 with up to 30,000 volunteers assigned to one of two groups—one receiving

1463-444: Is both an indexing and retrieval system having data from various sources for biomedical research. NCBI distributed the first version of Entrez in 1991, composed of nucleotide sequences from PDB and GenBank , protein sequences from SWISS-PROT, translated GenBank, PIR, PRF, PDB, and associated abstracts and citations from PubMed. Entrez is specially designed to integrate the data from several different sources, databases, and formats into

1540-591: Is composed of 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct and coordinate biomedical research. These are: In addition, the National Center for Research Resources operated from April 13, 1962, to December 23, 2011. The Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H) is an entity formerly within the Office of the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services , which was created by Congress in

1617-443: Is determined by the scientist. The total number of applicants has increased substantially, from about 60,000 investigators who had applied during the period from 1999 to 2003 to slightly less than 90,000 in who had applied during the period from 2011 to 2015. Due to this, the "cumulative investigator rate", that is, the likelihood that unique investigators are funded over a 5-year window, has declined from 43% to 31%. R01 grants are

SECTION 20

#1733085141346

1694-811: Is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in 1887 and is now part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services . Many NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland , and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area , with other primary facilities in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located around

1771-451: Is updated weekly, and the sequences that make up a cluster may change. Thus, it is not safe to refer to a UniGene cluster by its cluster identifier; instead, one should use the GenBank accession numbers of the sequences in the cluster. As of July 2000, the human subset of UniGene contained 1.7 million sequences in 82,000 clusters; 98% of these clustered sequences were ESTs, and

1848-581: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) on clinical research , US$ 7.4bn on genetics -related research, US$ 6.0bn on prevention research, US$ 5.8bn on cancer, and US$ 5.7bn on biotechnology . In 2008 a Congressional mandate called for investigators funded by the NIH to submit an electronic version of their final manuscripts to the National Library of Medicine 's research repository, PubMed Central (PMC), no later than 12 months after

1925-496: The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022 . Modeled after DARPA , HSARPA , IARPA , and ARPA-E , it is intended to pursue unconventional research projects through methods not typically used by federal agencies or private sector companies. Secretary Xavier Becerra delegated ARPA-H to the NIH on May 24, 2022. It received $ 1 billion in appropriations in 2022, and $ 1.5 billion in 2023, and as of June 2023 it

2002-661: The Hygienic Laboratory , was established within the Marine Hospital Service , which at the time was expanding its functions beyond the system of Marine Hospitals into quarantine and research programs. It was initially located at the New York Marine Hospital on Staten Island . In 1891, it moved to the top floor of the Butler Building in Washington, D.C. In 1904, it moved again to a new campus at

2079-733: The Old Naval Observatory , which grew to include five major buildings. In 1901, the Division of Scientific Research was formed, which included the Hygienic Laboratory as well as other research offices of the Marine Hospital Service. In 1912, the Marine Hospital Service became the Public Health Service (PHS). In 1922, PHS established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School . This marked

2156-672: The Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV)—which has been at the center of speculation since early 2020 that SARS-CoV-2 may have escaped in a lab incident. Under political pressure, the NIH withdrew funding to EcoHealth Alliance in July 2020. On February 13, 2012, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced a new group of individuals assigned to research pain. This committee is composed of researchers from different organizations and will focus to "coordinate pain research activities across

2233-550: The mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving salt water injections—and continued until there had been approximately 100 cases of COVID-19 among the participants. In 2021, the NIH contributed $ 4,395,399 towards the Accelerating COVID-19 Therapeutic Interventions and Vaccines (ACTIV) program. Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic , NIH-funded EcoHealth Alliance has been the subject of controversy and increased scrutiny due to its ties to

2310-417: The nucleotide sequences are searched for contaminants, such as mitochondrial , ribosomal , and vector sequence, repetitive elements , and low-complexity sequences. After a sequence is screened, it must contain at least 100 bases to be a candidate for entry into UniGene. mRNA and genomic DNA are clustered first into gene links. A second sequence comparison links ESTs to each other and to

2387-577: The 21 drugs with the highest therapeutic impact on society introduced between 1965 and 1992, public funding was "instrumental" for 15. As of 2011 NIH-supported research helped to discover 153 new FDA-approved drugs, vaccines, and new indications for drugs in the 40 years prior. One study found NIH funding aided either directly or indirectly in developing the drugs or drug targets for all of the 210 FDA-approved drugs from 2010 to 2016. In 2015, Pierre Azoulay et al. estimated $ 10 million invested in research generated two to three new patents. Since its inception,

UniGene - Misplaced Pages Continue

2464-805: The Center for Cancer Research, Office of Scientific Operations, Management Operations Support Branch, the division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and the division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is located in the Research Triangle region of North Carolina . Other ICs have satellite locations in addition to operations at the main campus. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases maintains its Rocky Mountain Labs in Hamilton, Montana , with an emphasis on BSL3 and BSL4 laboratory work. NIDDK operates

2541-749: The Director. NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this request as a portion of its budget. Many adjustments and appeals occur between NIH and HHS before the agency submits NIH's budget request to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's final budget. The President then sends NIH's budget request to Congress in February for

2618-557: The Entrez system. Protein database maintains the text record for individual protein sequences, derived from many different resources such as NCBI Reference Sequence (RefSeq) project, GenBank, PDB, and UniProtKB/SWISS-Prot. Protein records are present in different formats including FASTA and XML and are linked to other NCBI resources. Protein provides the relevant data to the users such as genes, DNA/RNA sequences, biological pathways, expression and variation data, and literature. It also provides

2695-931: The Gene database, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man , the Molecular Modeling Database (3D protein structures), dbSNP (a database of single-nucleotide polymorphisms ), the Reference Sequence Collection, a map of the human genome , and a taxonomy browser, and coordinates with the National Cancer Institute to provide the Cancer Genome Anatomy Project. The NCBI assigns a unique identifier (taxonomy ID number) to each species of organism. The NCBI has software tools that are available through internet browsers or by FTP . For example, BLAST

2772-477: The Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital. When three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam's research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions,

2849-549: The NIH Toolbox was rolled out to the research community. NIH Toolbox assessments are based, where possible, on Item Response Theory and adapted for testing by computer. NIH sponsors the Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGaP), a repository of information produced by studies investigating the interaction of genotype and phenotype. The information includes phenotypes, molecular assay data, analyses and documents. Summary-level data

2926-461: The NIH budget doubled. For a time, funding essentially remained flat, and for seven years following the financial crisis, the NIH budget struggled to keep up with inflation. In 1999 Congress increased the NIH's budget by $ 2.3 billion to $ 17.2 billion in 2000. In 2009 Congress again increased the NIH budget to $ 31 billion in 2010. In 2017 and 2018, Congress passed laws with bipartisan support that substantially increasing appropriations for NIH, which

3003-437: The NIH but may apply for funding. Throughout the history of the NIH, the amount of funding received has increased, but the proportion to each IC remains relatively constant. The individual ICs then decide who will receive the grant money and how much will be allotted. Policy changes on who receives funding significantly affect researchers. For example, the NIH has recently attempted to approve more first-time NIH R01 applicants or

3080-471: The NIH discovered that the majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research proposals involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967, the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes . That same year, the NIH director lobbied

3157-429: The NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. While government funding for research in other disciplines has been increasing at

UniGene - Misplaced Pages Continue

3234-651: The NIH intramural research program has been a source of many pivotal scientific and medical discoveries. Some of these include: In September 2006, the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research started a contract for the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function to develop a set of state-of-the-art measurement tools to enhance collection of data in large cohort studies. Scientists from more than 100 institutions nationwide contributed. In September 2012,

3311-453: The NIH would take the balance of each study design into consideration when awarding grants. The announcement also stated that this rule would probably not apply when studying sex-specific diseases (for example, ovarian or testicular cancer). One of the goals of the NIH is to "expand the base in medical and associated sciences in order to ensure a continued high return on the public investment in research." Taxpayer dollars funding NIH are from

3388-484: The National Institute for General Medical Science awarded funding to 30% of applicants. NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific research by employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of disease. Third, maintain

3465-551: The Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch in Phoenix, Arizona . As of 2017, 153 scientists receiving financial support from the NIH have been awarded a Nobel Prize and 195 have been awarded a Lasker Award . NIH devotes 10% of its funding to research within its own facilities (intramural research), and gives >80% of its funding in research grants to extramural (outside) researchers. Of this extramural funding,

3542-535: The UniGene builds will remain available through FTP. National Center for Biotechnology Information The National Center for Biotechnology Information ( NCBI ) is part of the (NLM), a branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). It is approved and funded by the government of the United States . The NCBI is located in Bethesda, Maryland , and was founded in 1988 through legislation sponsored by US Congressman Claude Pepper . The NCBI houses

3619-612: The United States. The NIH conducts its own scientific research through the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program. As of 2013 , the IRP had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical research, being the largest biomedical research institution in

3696-634: The White House for increased federal funding in order to increase research and the speed with which health benefits could be brought to the people. An advisory committee was formed to oversee the further development of the NIH and its research programs. By 1971 cancer research was in full force and President Nixon signed the National Cancer Act , initiating a National Cancer Program, President's Cancer Panel, National Cancer Advisory Board, and 15 new research, training, and demonstration centers. Funding for

3773-552: The beginning of a partnership with universities. In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act , and was given $ 750,000 to construct two NIH buildings at the Old Naval Observatory campus. In 1937, NIH absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part. In 1938, NIH moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland . Over

3850-459: The cluster and protein sequences from model organisms, including human, mouse, rat, fruit fly, and worm. The subsequent section describes relevant mapping information. It is followed by ‘‘expression information,’’ which lists the tissues from which the ESTs in the cluster have been created, along with links to the SAGE database. Sequences making up the cluster are listed next, along with

3927-502: The cluster). To query a specific part of the UniGene record, use the @ symbol. For example, @gene(symbol) looks for genes with the name of the symbol enclosed in the parentheses, @chr(num) searches for entries that map to chromosome num, @lib(id) returns entries in a cDNA library identified by id, and @pid(id) se- lects entries associated with a GenBank protein identifier id. The query results page contains

SECTION 50

#1733085141346

4004-400: The cluster. The UniGene report page for each cluster links to data from other NCBI resources (Fig. 12.5). At the top of the page are links to LocusLink, which provides descriptive information about genetic loci (Pruitt et al., 2000), OMIM, a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders, and HomoloGene. Next are listed similarities between the translations of DNA sequences in

4081-467: The creation of vaccines against hepatitis , Haemophilus influenzae (HIB), and human papillomavirus (HPV). In 2019, the NIH was ranked number two in the world, behind Harvard University , for biomedical sciences in the Nature Index , which measured the largest contributors to papers published in a subset of leading journals from 2015 to 2018. In 1887, a laboratory for the study of bacteria,

4158-522: The federal government with the goals of stimulating pain research collaboration… and providing an important avenue for public involvement" ("Members of new", 2012). With a committee such as this research will not be conducted by each individual organization or person but instead a collaborating group which will increase the information available. With this hopefully more pain management will be available including techniques for those with arthritis. In 2020 Beth Darnall , American scientist and pain psychologist,

4235-546: The gene links. At this stage, all clusters are ‘‘anchored,’’ and contain either a sequence with a polyadenylation site or two ESTs labeled as coming from the 3 end of a clone. Clone-based edges are added by linking the 5 and 3 ESTs that derive from the same clone. In some cases, this linking may merge clusters identified at a previous stage. Finally, unanchored ESTs and gene clusters of size 1 (which may represent rare transcripts) are compared with other UniGene clusters at lower stringency. The UniGene build

4312-546: The hits found, a table with sequence identifiers for the hits having scoring related data, along with the alignments for the sequence of interest and the hits received with analogous BLAST scores for these. The Entrez Global Query Cross-Database Search System is used at NCBI for all the major databases such as Nucleotide and Protein Sequences, Protein Structures, PubMed, Taxonomy, Complete Genomes, OMIM, and several others. Entrez

4389-484: The institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative agreement applications considered by the Institute for funding. In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying cell cultures, and that

4466-614: The majority of human genes have been identified only by ESTs; only 16% of clusters contain either an mRNA or a CDS annotated on a genomic DNA. Because fewer ESTs are available for mouse, rat, and zebrafish, the UniGene clusters are not as representative of the unique genes in the genome. Mouse UniGene contains 895,000 sequences in 88,000 clusters, and rat UniGene contains 170,000 sequences in 37,000 clusters. A new UniGene resource, HomoloGene, includes curated and calculated orthologs and homologs for genes from human, mouse, rat, and zebrafish. Calculated orthologs and homologs are

4543-530: The most common funding mechanism and include investigator-initiated projects. The roughly 27,000 to 29,000 R01 applications had a funding success of 17-19% during 2012 though 2014. Similarly, the 13,000 to 14,000 R21 applications had a funding success of 13-14% during the same period. In FY 2016, the total number of grant applications received by the NIH was 54,220, with approximately 19% being awarded funding. Institutes have varying funding rates. The National Cancer Institute awarded funding to 12% of applicants, while

4620-631: The next few decades, Congress would markedly increase funding of the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs. In 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and the National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s, virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at

4697-466: The next fiscal year's allocations. The House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and by fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate any actual funds. When a government shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials , but does not start any new clinical trials and does not admit new patients who are not already enrolled in

SECTION 60

#1733085141346

4774-526: The official date of publication. The NIH Public Access Policy was the first public access mandate for a U.S. public funding agency. In 2000, the Joint Economic Committee of Congress reported NIH research, which was funded at $ 16 billion a year in 2000, that some econometric studies had given a rate of return of 25 to 40 percent per year by reducing the economic cost of illness in the US. It found that of

4851-730: The original authors of the BLAST sequence alignment program and a widely respected figure in bioinformatics . NCBI had responsibility for making available the GenBank DNA sequence database since 1992. GenBank coordinates with individual laboratories and other sequence databases, such as those of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) and the DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ). Since 1992, NCBI has grown to provide other databases in addition to GenBank. NCBI provides

4928-546: The predetermined sets of similar and identical proteins for each sequence as computed by the BLAST. The Structure database of NCBI contains 3D coordinate sets for experimentally-determined structures in PDB that are imported by NCBI. The Conserved Domain database ( CDD ) of protein contains sequence profiles that characterize highly conserved domains within protein sequences. It also has records from external resources like SMART and Pfam . There

5005-593: The programs and activities of all NIH components. The NIH Director plays an active role in shaping the agency's activities and outlook. The Director is responsible for providing leadership to the Institutes and Centers by identifying needs and opportunities, especially in efforts involving multiple Institutes. Within the Director's Office is the Division of Program Coordination, Planning and Strategic Initiatives with 12 divisions including: The Agency Intramural Research Integrity Officer "is directly responsible for overseeing

5082-411: The query sequence on NCBI databases and servers and posts the results back to the person's browser in the chosen format. Input sequences to the BLAST are mostly in FASTA or GenBank format while output could be delivered in a variety of formats such as HTML, XML formatting, and plain text. HTML is the default output format for NCBI's web-page. Results for NCBI-BLAST are presented in graphical format with all

5159-518: The remaining 2% were from mRNAs or CDSs annotated on genomic DNA. These human clusters could represent fragments of up to 82,000 unique human genes, implying that many human genes are now represented in a UniGene cluster. (This number is undoubtedly an overestimate of the number of genes in the human genome, as some genes may be represented by more than one cluster.) Only 1.4% of clusters totally lack ESTs, implying that most human genes are represented by at least one EST. Conversely, it appears that

5236-409: The research grant applications of young scientists. To encourage the participation of young scientists, the application process has been shortened and made easier. In addition, first-time applicants are being offered more funding for their research grants than those who have received grants in the past. In 2011 and 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General published

5313-458: The resolution of all research misconduct allegations involving intramural research , and for promoting research integrity within the NIH Office of Intramural Research (OIR)." There is a Division of Extramural Activities, which has its own Director. The Office of Ethics has its own Director, as does the Office of Global Research. Intramural research is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland , and Rockville, Maryland , and

5390-513: The result of nucleotide sequence comparisons between all UniGene clusters for each pair of organisms. Homologs are identified as the best match between a UniGene cluster in one organism and a cluster in a second organism. When two sequences in different organisms are best matches to one another (a reciprocal best match), the UniGene clusters corresponding to the pair of sequences are considered putative orthologs. A special symbol indicates that UniGene clusters in three or more organisms share

5467-437: The surrounding communities. The Bayview Campus in Baltimore , Maryland houses the research programs of the National Institute on Aging , National Institute on Drug Abuse , and National Human Genome Research Institute with nearly 1,000 scientists and support staff. The Frederick National Laboratory in Frederick, MD and the nearby Riverside Research Park, houses many components of the National Cancer Institute , including

5544-533: The taxpayers, making them the primary beneficiaries of advances in research. Thus, the general public is a key stakeholder in the decisions resulting from the NIH funding policy. However, some in the general public do not feel their interests are being represented, and individuals have formed patient advocacy groups to represent their own interests. Important stakeholders of the NIH funding policy include researchers and scientists. Extramural researchers differ from intramural researchers in that they are not employed by

5621-438: The translated EST sequence aligns. The cluster title might be as simple as ‘‘EST’’ if the ESTs share no significant similarity with characterized proteins. On February 1, 2019, the NCBI announced that it was retiring the UniGene database because "reference genomes are available for most organisms with a sizable research community. Consequently, the usage of and need for UniGene has dropped significantly." Access to

5698-414: The world, while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical research funding spent annually in the U.S., or about US$ 26.4 billion. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers of different biomedical disciplines and is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to prevent tooth decay , the use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder , and

5775-666: Was 37.3 billion dollars annually in FY2018. Researchers at universities or other institutions outside of NIH can apply for research project grants (RPGs) from the NIH. There are numerous funding mechanisms for different project types (e.g., basic research, clinical research, etc.) and career stages (e.g., early career, postdoc fellowships, etc.). The NIH regularly issues "requests for applications" (RFAs), e.g., on specific programmatic priorities or timely medical problems (such as Zika virus research in early 2016). In addition, researchers can apply for "investigator-initiated grants" whose subject

5852-455: Was appointed as scientific member of the group. To allocate funds, the NIH must first obtain its budget from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH management who then develops a budget request for continuing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from

5929-576: Was reported in newspaper articles from 1981, no funding was provided for research on the disease. In 1984 National Cancer Institute scientists found implications that "variants of a human cancer virus called HTLV-III are the primary cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)," a new epidemic that gripped the nation. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. From 1993 to 2001

#345654