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77-501: Ernst Jentsch set out the concept of the uncanny, later elaborated on by Sigmund Freud in his 1919 essay " Das Unheimliche ", which explores the eeriness of dolls and waxworks. For Freud, the uncanny is located in the strangeness of the ordinary. Expanding on the idea, psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan wrote that the uncanny places us "in the field where we do not know how to distinguish bad and good, pleasure from displeasure", resulting in an irreducible anxiety that gestures to

154-484: A terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost. Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While

231-425: A "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism. John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere. Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize

308-540: A 2017 study utilized neural networks to see whether artificial intelligence would be able to differentiate accurately between more than 35,000 images of gay and straight faces. The results showed that the "classifier could correctly distinguish between gay and heterosexual men in 81% of cases, and in 71% of cases for women." Supporting the idea that men's faces are perceived as more feminine, analysis suggests that gay men have more "gender-atypical facial morphology, expression and grooming styles". Gay men have been presented in

385-633: A context of uncertainty that can remind one of infantile beliefs in the omnipotence of thought. Such uncanny elements are perceived as being threatening by our super-ego ridden with oedipal guilt because it fears symbolic castration by punishment for deviating from societal norms. Thus, the items and individuals that we project our own repressed impulses upon become a most uncanny threat to us, uncanny monsters and freaks akin to fairy-tale folk-devils, and subsequently often become scapegoats we blame for all sorts of perceived miseries, calamities, and maladies. What interests us most in this long extract

462-625: A hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not". Michael Kimmel adds that the trope "You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation. According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society. In

539-511: A less humorous way in the evening as opposed to the daytime, whereas females were more likely to be rated in a less humorous way in the daytime as opposed to the evening. Reeser argues that although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it. Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave. Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as

616-407: A man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction workers, farm workers or cowboys ). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in bars . There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for

693-885: A man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity. A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of 66 heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin[ing] stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.") However, other studies with larger sample sizes have found that homosexual men were seen as significantly more feminine and less masculine than those of heterosexual men Furthermore,

770-491: A number of philosophical and sociological theories). People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous , and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally. Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell , it

847-512: A performance. Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained. Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings. Men who exhibit

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924-576: A plethora of studies, are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasized femininity, marginalized and subordinated masculinities). In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialization, enacted through video games, fashion, humor, and so on. Researchers have argued that

1001-502: A significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women. Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field. According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored

1078-499: A social problem. In sociology , this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality , despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy . Machismo

1155-416: A story one of the most successful devices for easily creating uncanny effects is to leave the reader in uncertainty whether a particular figure in the story is a human being or an automaton and to do it in such a way that his attention is not focused directly upon his uncertainty, so that he may not be led to go into the matter and clear it up immediately. Jentsch identifies German writer E. T. A. Hoffmann as

1232-472: A tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity. Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever

1309-406: A wholly different element of the story, namely, "the idea of being robbed of one's eyes", to be the "more striking instance of uncanniness" in the tale. He focuses on how the anxiety of their loss, is not unlike male castration anxiety . He continues, explaining how this anxiety may lead a male audience, robbed of their masculinity, feeling the uncanny. Their masculinity being robbed, provides Freud

1386-428: A wide range of evidence from various contexts to demonstrate how uncanny experiences are typically associated with themes and metaphors of vision, blindness, mirrors and other optical tropes. He also presents historical evidence showing strong presence of ocular and specular themes and associations in the literary and psychological tradition out of which the notion of 'the uncanny' emerged. According to Rahimi, instances of

1463-442: A woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships. Gay men are considered by some to be "effeminate and deviate from the masculine norm" and are sometimes benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell : Contrary to

1540-527: A writer who uses uncanny effects in his work, focusing specifically on Hoffmann's story "The Sandman" (" Der Sandmann "), which features a lifelike doll, Olympia. The concept of the Uncanny was later elaborated on and developed by Sigmund Freud in his 1919 essay "Das Unheimliche" or, "The Uncanny", which also draws on the work of Hoffmann (whom Freud considers the "unrivaled master of the uncanny in literature"). However, he criticizes Jentsch's belief that Olympia

1617-474: A young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports. Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also associated with denying characteristics associated with women. Overwhelmingly,

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1694-497: Is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility. Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia . Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven. Males were more likely to be depicted in

1771-597: Is also a complex issue in the Global South , as well. In South Africa, HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research. Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward

1848-789: Is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate. It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex , as anyone can exhibit masculine traits. Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. In Western cultures, its meaning is traditionally drawn from being contrasted with femininity . Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods. Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength , courage , independence , leadership , and assertiveness . When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it

1925-451: Is considered proper for men and women. This idealized form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men, and pathologizes, marginalizes, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalized and subordinated), which, according to

2002-418: Is known as the "female athlete paradox". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as boxing , weight lifting , American football , rugby , ice hockey , and motorsport , are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions. Women face a similar paradox in

2079-514: Is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept. Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC): In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go

2156-505: Is often associated with lesbianism , expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy , female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance . Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women." Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although

2233-422: Is that caused it to be cast out to begin with. Kristeva lays special emphasis on the uncanny return of the past abject with relation to the 'uncanny stranger'. Sadeq Rahimi has noted a common relationship between the uncanny and direct or metaphorical visual references, which he explains in terms of basic processes of ego development, specifically as developed by Lacan's theory of the mirror stage . Rahimi presents

2310-410: Is the central uncanny element in the story (" The Sandman "): I cannot think – and I hope most readers of the story will agree with me – that the theme of the doll Olympia, who is to all appearances a living being, is by any means the only, or indeed the most important, element that must be held responsible for the quite unparalleled atmosphere of uncanniness evoked by the story. Instead, Freud draws on

2387-424: Is to find that among its different shades of meaning the word heimlich exhibits one which is identical with its opposite, unheimlich . What is heimlich thus comes to be unheimlich . [...] In general we are reminded that the word heimlich is not unambiguous, but belongs to two sets of ideas, which, without being contradictory, are yet very different: on the one hand it means what is familiar and agreeable, and on

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2464-605: The "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior. "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones. In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that

2541-463: The Genealogy of Morals he argues it is the "will to truth" that has destroyed the metaphysics that underpins the values of Western culture . Hence, he coins the phrase "European nihilism" to describe the condition that afflicts those Enlightenment ideals that seemingly hold strong values yet undermine themselves. Uncanniness was first explored psychologically by Ernst Jentsch in a 1906 essay, On

2618-688: The German unheimlich as the antonym of heimlich , or the "homely". A more literal rendering of the psychoanalytic concept of the uncanny would therefore be "unhomeliness". Philosopher F. W. J. Schelling raised the question of the uncanny in his late Philosophie der Mythologie of 1837, postulating that the Homeric clarity was built upon a prior repression of the uncanny. In The Will to Power manuscript, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche refers to nihilism as "the uncanniest of all guests" and, earlier, in On

2695-523: The Psychology of the Uncanny . Jentsch defines the Uncanny as: being a product of "...intellectual uncertainty; so that the uncanny would always, as it were, be something one does not know one’s way about in. The better oriented in his environment a person is, the less readily will he get the impression of something uncanny in regard to the objects and events in it." He expands upon its use in fiction: In telling

2772-522: The Real . The concept has since been taken up by a variety of thinkers and theorists like roboticist Masahiro Mori 's uncanny valley and Julia Kristeva 's concept of abjection . Canny is from the Anglo-Saxon root ken : "knowledge, understanding, or cognizance; mental perception." The uncanny is thus " an idea beyond one's ken ", something outside one's familiar knowledge or perceptions. Freud noted

2849-451: The Roman empire. Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric," which included concepts like courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity. According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien ) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and

2926-655: The ability to form emotional and supportive relationships with others. Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. Other possible biological influences include evolution , genetics , epigenetics , and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). Scholars suggest that innate differences between

3003-497: The analysis of neurotic patients , and realize its immense importance in their mental life. After Freud, Jacques Lacan , in his 1962–1963 seminar "L'angoisse" ("Anxiety"), used the Unheimlich "via regia" to enter into the territory of Angst. Lacan showed how the same image that seduces the subject, trapping him in the narcissistic impasse, may suddenly, by a contingency, show that it is dependent on something, some hidden object, and so

3080-480: The beginning of the 20th century, most families in the western world consisted of a father working outside the home as breadwinner and a mother as working homemaker in the home, often working together to raise children and/or taking care of elderly family members. The roles were often divided quite sharply between providing resources (considered masculine) and maintenance and redistribution of resources (considered feminine). Despite women's increasing participation in

3157-615: The business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes. According to a study in the UK , women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits. According to another study conducted in Germany , women who fit

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3234-494: The causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink. In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and unsafe sex. Masculinity and sexual health

3311-471: The concept that Jung would later refer to as synchronicity ). He also discusses the uncanny nature of Otto Rank 's concept of the "double". Freud specifically relates an aspect of the Uncanny derived from German etymology. By contrasting the German adjective unheimlich with its base word heimlich ("concealed, hidden, in secret"), he proposes that social taboo often yields an aura not only of pious reverence but even more so of horror and even disgust, as

3388-467: The configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy , which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women". Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that

3465-576: The construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women. The advent of social media has been associated with

3542-1473: The documentary The Butch Factor , gay men (one of them transgender ) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet , allowing "butch" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Some did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture . Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality), and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays. Feminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives, they are taunted by derogatory words (such as " sissy ") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, " campy " gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]"); however, such humor "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men". He further stated: [Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being

3619-414: The fear of going blind [forming a central theme in "The Sandman"] , is often enough a substitute for the dread of being castrated. The self-blinding of the mythical criminal, Oedipus, was simply a mitigated form of the punishment of castration – the only punishment that was adequate for him by the lex talionis . [...] All further doubts are removed when we learn the details of their 'castration complex' from

3696-445: The female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge. Research on beer-commercial content by Lance Strate yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity. In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which

3773-458: The foundation to illustrate a central contributor to male fear. Freud goes on, for the remainder of the essay, to identify uncanny effects that result from instances of "repetition of the same thing," linking the concept to that of the repetition compulsion . He includes incidents wherein one becomes lost and accidentally retraces one's steps, and instances wherein random numbers recur, seemingly meaningfully (here Freud may be said to be prefiguring

3850-470: The gap between familiar living people and their also familiar inanimate representations, such as dolls, puppets, mannequins, prosthetic hands, and android robots. The entities in the valley are between these two poles of common phenomena. Mori has stated that he made the observation independently of Jentsch and Freud, though a link was forged by Reichardt and translators who rendered bukimi as uncanny . Ernst Jentsch Ernst Anton Jentsch (1867-1919)

3927-604: The gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality. Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture, although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as " butch ". Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership . Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity , encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as

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4004-431: The historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right. This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture

4081-430: The history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the household, domesticity and family life. Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men,

4158-528: The imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus . In his rage Arminius demanded war against

4235-459: The influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades. Women who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as strength , competition , and aggression , women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This

4312-515: The literary discourse of the 20th and 21st centuries, HIV/AIDS as a theme and motif, hero narratives, literary mediation, performative poetry and literature in the Anthropocene , describes the Soft Heroes as “ es ”, as the trans-human beings are on the edge of formlessness and refuse to be assigned a gender. Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly

4389-431: The measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards , strength, and drinking ability. Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals. Men, boys and people who were assigned male at birth face gender policing from people who think they are not masculine enough. Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression. Study of

4466-793: The media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype. A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as " bears ", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair , body hair , proportional size, baldness ". In the Soft Heroes series, French artist Thomas Liu Le Lann questions concepts of post-heroic masculinity. These fabric figures refer to transhuman bodies beyond heteronormativity and question conventional notions of strength and agency. The Austrian literary scientist Rebecca Heinrich , her research interests include homosexuality and masculinities in

4543-550: The monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household". In Arab culture, Hatim al-Tai is known to be a model of Arab manliness. It is said that he used to give away everything he possessed except for his mount and weapons. During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and

4620-465: The new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism , Byronism , even Brummelism , each has its day". Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity. Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America. At

4697-623: The other, what is concealed and kept out of sight. Unheimlich is customarily used, we are told, being the contrary only of the first signification of heimlich , and not of the second. [...] On the other hand, we notice that Schelling says something which throws quite a new light on the concept of the Unheimlich , for which we were certainly not prepared. According to him, everything is unheimlich that ought to have remained secret and hidden but has come to light. [...] A study of dreams, phantasies and myths has taught us that anxiety about one's eyes,

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4774-451: The paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman 's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men: In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America:

4851-421: The precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status. Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors. In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as " tomboy " and " butch ". Although female masculinity

4928-407: The relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity . This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements . Men's rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing

5005-418: The sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism. Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as

5082-545: The stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers. Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from heart disease . Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women, and are more likely to be diagnosed with

5159-414: The subject may grasp at the same time that he is not autonomous (5 December 1962). This concept is closely related to Julia Kristeva 's concept of abjection , where one reacts adversely to something forcefully cast out of the symbolic order . Abjection can be uncanny in that the observer can recognize something within the abject, possibly of what it was before it was 'cast out', yet be repulsed by what it

5236-428: The taboo state of an item gives rise to the commonplace assumption that that which is hidden from public eye (cf. the eye or sight metaphor) must be a dangerous threat and even an abomination – especially if the concealed item is obviously or presumingly sexual in nature. Basically, the Uncanny is what unconsciously reminds us of our own Id , our forbidden and thus repressed impulses – especially when placed in

5313-497: The theory of the uncanny valley . He died in 1919. Masculinity This is an accepted version of this page Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness ) is a set of attributes, behaviors , and roles associated with men and boys . Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed , and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors. To what extent masculinity

5390-437: The uncanny like doppelgängers , ghosts , déjà vu , alter egos , self-alienations and split personhoods, phantoms, twins , living dolls, etc. share two important features: that they are closely tied with visual tropes, and that they are variations on the theme of doubling of the ego. Roboticist Masahiro Mori 's essay on human reactions to humanlike entities, Bukimi no Tani Genshō (Valley of Eeriness Phenomenon), describes

5467-493: The use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life. A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by

5544-470: The way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man". In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy. "It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize

5621-645: The well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed. Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that

5698-454: Was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era's masculine fantasies. Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what

5775-399: Was a German psychiatrist . He authored works on psychology and pathology and is best known for his essay On the Psychology of the Uncanny (1906). However, he also authored texts on mood and the psychology of music . He is remembered for his influence on psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud who mentions the work of Jentsch in his essay "The Uncanny" . Jentsch's work was also a great influence on

5852-484: Was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality". Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument. Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s. Francis wrote that this flight from commitment

5929-504: Was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference (prevalent in

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