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106-535: Understanding is often, though not always, related to learning concepts, and sometimes also the theory or theories associated with those concepts. However, a person may have a good ability to predict the behavior of an object, animal or system—and therefore may, in some sense, understand it—without necessarily being familiar with the concepts or theories associated with that object, animal, or system in their culture. They may have developed their own distinct concepts and theories, which may be equivalent, better or worse than

212-399: A gastrula with a digestive chamber and two separate germ layers , an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm . In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm , also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs. Repeated instances of mating with a close relative during sexual reproduction generally leads to inbreeding depression within

318-454: A stimulus . This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus. An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from

424-550: A bond if the object makes sounds. Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds . Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves

530-407: A chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain). Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer

636-524: A child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn. Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning . Conversely, passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional education ). Associative learning

742-770: A clade Xenambulacraria for the Xenacoelamorpha + Ambulacraria; this is either within Deuterostomia, as sister to Chordata, or the Deuterostomia are recovered as paraphyletic, and Xenambulacraria is sister to the proposed clade Centroneuralia , consisting of Chordata + Protostomia. Several animal phyla lack bilateral symmetry. These are the Porifera (sea sponges), Placozoa , Cnidaria (which includes jellyfish , sea anemones , and corals), and Ctenophora (comb jellies). Sponges are physically very distinct from other animals, and were long thought to have diverged first, representing

848-431: A condition called learned helplessness . There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally , in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation , indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development . Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with

954-509: A consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology , neuropsychology , experimental psychology , cognitive sciences , and pedagogy ), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents , or in collaborative learning health systems ). Research in such fields has led to

1060-453: A dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this example the treat was added to the dog's life. The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes

1166-685: A form of learning is central to a child's learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children. There are five types of play: These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play. Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through

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1272-468: A head end (anterior) and a tail end (posterior), a back (dorsal) surface and a belly (ventral) surface, and a left and a right side. Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring cephalisation , the development of a head with sense organs and a mouth. Many bilaterians have a combination of circular muscles that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of longitudinal muscles, that shorten

1378-409: A learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called augmented learning . By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for

1484-424: A lifetime. See also minimally invasive education . Moore (1989) purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning: In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993) contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance). Rote learning

1590-548: A long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities". Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote. A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate

1696-441: A low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively. Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus . This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization. Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of

1802-1105: A population due to the increased prevalence of harmful recessive traits. Animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding . Some animals are capable of asexual reproduction , which often results in a genetic clone of the parent. This may take place through fragmentation ; budding , such as in Hydra and other cnidarians ; or parthenogenesis , where fertile eggs are produced without mating , such as in aphids . Animals are categorised into ecological groups depending on their trophic levels and how they consume organic material . Such groupings include carnivores (further divided into subcategories such as piscivores , insectivores , ovivores , etc.), herbivores (subcategorised into folivores , graminivores , frugivores , granivores , nectarivores , algivores , etc.), omnivores , fungivores , scavengers / detritivores , and parasites . Interactions between animals of each biome form complex food webs within that ecosystem . In carnivorous or omnivorous species, predation

1908-446: A product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research

2014-696: A progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism. Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to

2120-438: A real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at

2226-456: A reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response . The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs. Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made

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2332-526: A result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory , which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory . Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context or – as some describe –

2438-472: A significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection . It also consumes energy , so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness . Play, as it pertains to humans as

2544-473: A simple set of rules that explains it. For example, we understand why day and night exist because we have a simple model —the rotation of the earth—that explains a tremendous amount of data—changes in brightness, temperature, and atmospheric composition of the earth. We have compressed a large amount of information by using a simple model that predicts it. Similarly, we understand the number 0.33333... by thinking of it as one-third. The first way of representing

2650-439: A single opening, which serves as both mouth and anus. Animals in both phyla have distinct tissues, but these are not organised into discrete organs . They are diploblastic , having only two main germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm. The tiny placozoans have no permanent digestive chamber and no symmetry; they superficially resemble amoebae. Their phylogeny is poorly defined, and under active research. The remaining animals,

2756-419: A stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction , which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator ) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were

2862-522: A timeless organization of knowledge. For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it. This is said to indicate

2968-484: A very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to. Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information. This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory . Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones . When

3074-415: Is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition , based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Meaningful learning

3180-464: Is a consumer–resource interaction where the predator feeds on another organism, its prey , who often evolves anti-predator adaptations to avoid being fed upon. Selective pressures imposed on one another lead to an evolutionary arms race between predator and prey, resulting in various antagonistic/ competitive coevolutions . Almost all multicellular predators are animals. Some consumers use multiple methods; for example, in parasitoid wasps ,

3286-477: Is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form

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3392-433: Is a stage in embryonic development that is unique to animals, allowing cells to be differentiated into specialised tissues and organs. All animals are composed of cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins . During development, the animal extracellular matrix forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised, making

3498-450: Is a type of learning based on dialogue. In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching

3604-646: Is always related to semiosis , and is often associated with representational systems/activity. There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/explicit vs procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For instance, declarative memory comprises both episodic and semantic memory. Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in

3710-459: Is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically. Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are: These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess , the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move

3816-458: Is disputed, as they might be water-escape or other structures. Animals are monophyletic , meaning they are derived from a common ancestor. Animals are the sister group to the choanoflagellates , with which they form the Choanozoa . The dates on the phylogenetic tree indicate approximately how many millions of years ago ( mya ) the lineages split. Ros-Rocher and colleagues (2021) trace

3922-405: Is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove ), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before ) and continues until death as

4028-426: Is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..." and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction. Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer,

4134-414: Is known as zoology , and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology . The animal kingdom is divided into five infrakingdoms / superphyla , namely Porifera , Ctenophora , Placozoa , Cnidaria and Bilateria . Most living animal species belong to the infrakingdom Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric and significantly cephalised body plan , and

4240-402: Is more demanding in that it requires that the internal connections among ones' beliefs actually be "seen" or "grasped" by the person doing the understanding when found at a deeper level. Explanatory realism and the propositional model suggests understanding comes from causal propositions but, it has been argued that knowing how the cause might bring an effect is understanding. As understanding

4346-518: Is not directed towards a discrete proposition, but involves grasping relations of parts to other parts and perhaps the relations of part to wholes. The relationships grasped help understanding, but the relationships are not always causal. So understanding could therefore be expressed by knowledge of dependencies. Gregory Chaitin propounds a view that comprehension is a kind of data compression . In his 2006 essay "The Limits of Reason", he argues that understanding something means being able to figure out

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4452-822: Is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals. The term metazoa is derived from Ancient Greek μετα meta 'after' (in biology, the prefix meta- stands for 'later') and ζῷᾰ zōia 'animals', plural of ζῷον zōion 'animal'. Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular . Unlike plants and algae , which produce their own nutrients , animals are heterotrophic , feeding on organic material and digesting it internally. With very few exceptions, animals respire aerobically . All animals are motile (able to spontaneously move their bodies) during at least part of their life cycle , but some animals, such as sponges , corals , mussels , and barnacles , later become sessile . The blastula

4558-422: Is only produced by sponges and pelagophyte algae. Its likely origin is from sponges based on molecular clock estimates for the origin of 24-ipc production in both groups. Analyses of pelagophyte algae consistently recover a Phanerozoic origin, while analyses of sponges recover a Neoproterozoic origin, consistent with the appearance of 24-ipc in the fossil record. The first body fossils of animals appear in

4664-399: Is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned. Evidence-based learning

4770-417: Is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two stimuli or events. In classical conditioning , a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in

4876-552: Is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with

4982-440: Is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior. Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on

5088-412: Is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a student learns. Formal learning is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a school system or work environment. The term formal learning has nothing to do with

5194-565: Is understanding, which has much higher relative value but it has also been suggested that a state short of knowledge can be termed understanding. Someone's understanding can come from perceived causes or non causal sources, suggesting knowledge being a pillar of where understanding comes from. We can have understanding while lacking corresponding knowledge and have knowledge while lacking the corresponding understanding. Even with knowledge, relevant distinctions or correct conclusion about similar cases may not be made suggesting more information about

5300-424: Is used to explain that machines can understand the world in fundamentally non-human ways. Learning Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding , knowledge , behaviors , skills , values , attitudes , and preferences . The ability to learn is possessed by humans , non-human animals , and some machines ; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants . Some learning

5406-412: Is when an aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment. For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality,

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5512-491: Is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train set. Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching: Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as

5618-604: The Civilization games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C., in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka . In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO , progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay. Dialogic learning

5724-614: The Ediacaran , represented by forms such as Charnia and Spriggina . It had long been doubted whether these fossils truly represented animals, but the discovery of the animal lipid cholesterol in fossils of Dickinsonia establishes their nature. Animals are thought to have originated under low-oxygen conditions, suggesting that they were capable of living entirely by anaerobic respiration , but as they became specialised for aerobic metabolism they became fully dependent on oxygen in their environments. Many animal phyla first appear in

5830-893: The biological kingdom Animalia ( / ˌ æ n ɪ ˈ m eɪ l i ə / ). With few exceptions, animals consume organic material , breathe oxygen , have myocytes and are able to move , can reproduce sexually , and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula , during embryonic development . Animals form a clade , meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor . Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described , of which around 1.05 million are insects , over 85,000 are molluscs , and around 65,000 are vertebrates . It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs . The scientific study of animals

5936-665: The evolutionary relationships between taxa . Humans make use of many other animal species for food (including meat , eggs , and dairy products ), for materials (such as leather , fur , and wool ), as pets and as working animals for transportation , and services . Dogs , the first domesticated animal, have been used in hunting , in security and in warfare , as have horses , pigeons and birds of prey ; while other terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted for sports, trophies or profits. Non-human animals are also an important cultural element of human evolution , having appeared in cave arts and totems since

6042-518: The fossil record during the Cambrian explosion , starting about 539 million years ago, in beds such as the Burgess shale . Extant phyla in these rocks include molluscs , brachiopods , onychophorans , tardigrades , arthropods , echinoderms and hemichordates , along with numerous now-extinct forms such as the predatory Anomalocaris . The apparent suddenness of the event may however be an artefact of

6148-497: The lobe-finned fish Tiktaalik started to move on to land in the late Devonian , about 375 million years ago. Animals occupy virtually all of earth's habitats and microhabitats, with faunas adapted to salt water, hydrothermal vents, fresh water, hot springs, swamps, forests, pastures, deserts, air, and the interiors of other organisms. Animals are however not particularly heat tolerant ; very few of them can survive at constant temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F) or in

6254-698: The Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago. Early fossils that might represent animals appear for example in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the Trezona Formation of South Australia . These fossils are interpreted as most probably being early sponges . Trace fossils such as tracks and burrows found in the Tonian period (from 1 gya) may indicate the presence of triploblastic worm-like animals, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms. However, similar tracks are produced by

6360-712: The Cnidaria) never grow larger than 20 μm , and one of the smallest species ( Myxobolus shekel ) is no more than 8.5 μm when fully grown. The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the major animal phyla, along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water, and marine), and free-living or parasitic ways of life. Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of

6466-400: The application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context. Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning. Concepts of positive and negative transfer have

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6572-451: The child is losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example, negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc. Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable aspect of life, or thing. For example,

6678-479: The children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being "acomedido". Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults. Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as

6784-697: The conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer. To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content. Animal Animals are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms in

6890-462: The context would be required, which eludes to different degrees of understanding depending on the context. To understand something implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge that are sufficient to support intelligent behavior. Understanding could therefore be less demanding than knowledge, because it seems that someone can have understanding of a subject even though they might have been mistaken about that subject. But it

6996-471: The culture. This is different from acculturation , where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one. Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience. As

7102-456: The dark sea floor consume organic matter produced through chemosynthesis (via oxidising inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide ) by archaea and bacteria . Animals evolved in the sea. Lineages of arthropods colonised land around the same time as land plants , probably between 510 and 471 million years ago during the Late Cambrian or Early Ordovician . Vertebrates such as

7208-401: The dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm. It

7314-428: The dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food,

7420-450: The earliest times, and are frequently featured in mythology , religion , arts , literature , heraldry , politics , and sports . The word animal comes from the Latin noun animal of the same meaning, which is itself derived from Latin animalis 'having breath or soul'. The biological definition includes all members of the kingdom Animalia. In colloquial usage, the term animal

7526-565: The first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae , which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa , single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as molecular phylogenetics , which are effective at demonstrating

7632-477: The formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching , etc. To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once: Tangential learning

7738-533: The formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of formal recognition. Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, and workshops. From

7844-448: The formation of complex structures possible. This may be calcified, forming structures such as shells , bones , and spicules . In contrast, the cells of other multicellular organisms (primarily algae, plants, and fungi ) are held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Animal cells uniquely possess the cell junctions called tight junctions , gap junctions , and desmosomes . With few exceptions—in particular,

7950-600: The fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion , which began around 539  million years ago (Mya), and most classes during the Ordovician radiation 485.4 Mya. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived about 650 Mya during the Cryogenian period. Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without . Carl Linnaeus created

8056-535: The fossil record in the late Cryogenian period and diversified in the subsequent Ediacaran period in what is known as the Avalon explosion . Earlier evidence of animals is still controversial; the sponge -like organism Otavia has been dated back to the Tonian period at the start of the Neoproterozoic , but its identity as an animal is heavily contested. Nearly all modern animal phyla became clearly established in

8162-520: The fossil record, rather than showing that all these animals appeared simultaneously. That view is supported by the discovery of Auroralumina attenboroughii , the earliest known Ediacaran crown-group cnidarian (557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from Charnwood Forest , England. It is thought to be one of the earliest predators , catching small prey with its nematocysts as modern cnidarians do. Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than

8268-721: The giant single-celled protist Gromia sphaerica , so the Tonian trace fossils may not indicate early animal evolution. Around the same time, the layered mats of microorganisms called stromatolites decreased in diversity, perhaps due to grazing by newly evolved animals. Objects such as sediment-filled tubes that resemble trace fossils of the burrows of wormlike animals have been found in 1.2 gya rocks in North America, in 1.5 gya rocks in Australia and North America, and in 1.7 gya rocks in Australia. Their interpretation as having an animal origin

8374-461: The great majority—comprising some 29 phyla and over a million species—form the Bilateria clade , which have a bilaterally symmetric body plan . The Bilateria are triploblastic , with three well-developed germ layers, and their tissues form distinct organs . The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is an internal body cavity, a coelom or pseudocoelom. These animals have

8480-407: The identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation , or classical conditioning , operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play , seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in

8586-441: The larvae feed on the hosts' living tissues, killing them in the process, but the adults primarily consume nectar from flowers. Other animals may have very specific feeding behaviours , such as hawksbill sea turtles which mainly eat sponges . Most animals rely on biomass and bioenergy produced by plants and phytoplanktons (collectively called producers ) through photosynthesis . Herbivores, as primary consumers , eat

8692-537: The learner ponders his or her situation. This type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen following the learning experience. Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences will likely be applicable to daily life. Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger support than subjects with formal learning in

8798-454: The learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful, because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to take place within smaller groups or by oneself. The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in

8904-437: The learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles. Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings. Imprinting

9010-421: The lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others. Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture . Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's understanding of these values. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of

9116-747: The most extreme cold deserts of continental Antarctica . The blue whale ( Balaenoptera musculus ) is the largest animal that has ever lived, weighing up to 190 tonnes and measuring up to 33.6 metres (110 ft) long. The largest extant terrestrial animal is the African bush elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), weighing up to 12.25 tonnes and measuring up to 10.67 metres (35.0 ft) long. The largest terrestrial animals that ever lived were titanosaur sauropod dinosaurs such as Argentinosaurus , which may have weighed as much as 73 tonnes, and Supersaurus which may have reached 39 metres. Several animals are microscopic; some Myxozoa ( obligate parasites within

9222-406: The natural phases of learning. Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for "tangential learning". Mozelius et al. points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in

9328-495: The number requires five concepts ("0", "decimal point", "3", "infinity", "infinity of 3"); but the second way can produce all the data of the first representation, but uses only three concepts ("1", "division", "3"). Chaitin argues that comprehension is this ability to compress data. This perspective on comprehension forms the foundation of some models of intelligent agents, as in Nello Cristianini 's book "The Shortcut", where it

9434-620: The oldest animal phylum and forming a sister clade to all other animals. Despite their morphological dissimilarity with all other animals, genetic evidence suggests sponges may be more closely related to other animals than the comb jellies are. Sponges lack the complex organisation found in most other animal phyla; their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organised into distinct tissues, unlike all other animals. They typically feed by drawing in water through pores, filtering out small particles of food. The comb jellies and Cnidaria are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with

9540-457: The organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity. Informal learning is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of

9646-528: The origins of animals to unicellular ancestors, providing the external phylogeny shown in the cladogram. Uncertainty of relationships is indicated with dashed lines. Holomycota (inc. fungi) [REDACTED] Ichthyosporea [REDACTED] Pluriformea [REDACTED] Filasterea [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The most basal animals, the Porifera , Ctenophora , Cnidaria , and Placozoa , have body plans that lack bilateral symmetry . Their relationships have been disputed, as

9752-518: The plant material directly to digest and absorb the nutrients, while carnivores and other animals on higher trophic levels indirectly acquire the nutrients by eating the herbivores or other animals that have eaten the herbivores. Animals oxidise carbohydrates , lipids , proteins and other biomolecules, which allows the animal to grow and to sustain basal metabolism and fuel other biological processes such as locomotion . Some benthic animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on

9858-485: The possible dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, during play , and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not require enrollment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to accreditation. Informal learning begins to unfold as

9964-404: The presence of that stimulus. Operant conditioning is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning

10070-490: The recognized standard concepts and theories of their culture. Thus, understanding is correlated with the ability to make inferences . Understanding and knowledge are both words without unified definitions. Ludwig Wittgenstein looked past a definition of knowledge or understanding and looked at how the words were used in natural language, identifying relevant features in context. It has been suggested that knowledge alone has little value whereas knowing something in context

10176-583: The shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning. Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs. Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment

10282-1112: The sister group to all other animals could be the Porifera or the Ctenophora, both of which lack Hox genes , important for body plan development . Eumetazoa , a clade which contains Ctenophora and ParaHoxozoa , has been proposed as a sister group to Porifera . A competing hypothesis is the Benthozoa clade, which would consist of Porifera and ParaHoxozoa as a sister group of Ctenophora . In 2023, Darrin Schultz and colleagues studied ancient gene linkages to show that ctenophores are most likely sister to all other animals. Ctenophora [REDACTED] Porifera [REDACTED] Xenacoelomorpha [REDACTED] Ambulacraria [REDACTED] Chordata [REDACTED] Ecdysozoa [REDACTED] Spiralia [REDACTED] Placozoa [REDACTED] Cnidaria [REDACTED] A variant phylogeny, from Kapli and colleagues (2021), proposes

10388-407: The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova . These fuse to form zygotes , which develop via mitosis into a hollow sphere, called a blastula. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location, attach to the seabed, and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form

10494-474: The sponges and placozoans —animal bodies are differentiated into tissues . These include muscles , which enable locomotion, and nerve tissues , which transmit signals and coordinate the body. Typically, there is also an internal digestive chamber with either one opening (in Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and flatworms) or two openings (in most bilaterians). Nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis ;

10600-426: The strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus." This definition exempts the changes caused by sensory adaptation , fatigue , or injury. Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization . Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to

10706-399: The topic of mathematics. Daily life experiences take place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that may arise while learning. From

10812-467: The total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million. Using patterns within the taxonomic hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011. 3,000–6,500 4,000–25,000 Evidence of animals is found as long ago as the Cryogenian period. 24-Isopropylcholestane (24-ipc) has been found in rocks from roughly 650 million years ago; it

10918-493: The vast majority of bilaterians belong to two large superphyla : the protostomes , which includes organisms such as arthropods , molluscs , flatworms , annelids and nematodes ; and the deuterostomes , which include echinoderms , hemichordates and chordates , the latter of which contains the vertebrates . The much smaller basal phylum Xenacoelomorpha have an uncertain position within Bilateria. Animals first appear in

11024-419: The world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has led to a view that learning in organisms

11130-419: Was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants. Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson . Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner 's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method

11236-462: Was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was " Little Albert ", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for

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