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58-511: Umuchu contains St. Mathew Catholic Church, St. Thomas Anglican Church, St. Peters Anglican Church, Zion City Umuchu, built and donated by Mr Godwin Ezeemo , Honeywell Hotel in Potters Business Park, Multipurpose Computer Centre, and the newly licensed Orient Mega 101.7FM and is also home to Umuchu High Court, which as of 2008 was led by Justice Anthony Ezeoke . Simon Alaghogu has authored

116-450: A "pacific" form of "civilized caciquismo", such as Mexico's Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). Argentine writer Fernando N.A. Cuevillas views caciquismo as being "nothing more than a special brand of tyrant". In Spain, caciquismo appeared in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century Spain . Writer Ramón Akal González views Galicia in northwest of Spain, as having remained in a continual state of strangulated growth over centuries as

174-511: A European-style nobility, within the newly established colonial system and a cacique's status among the colonizers (along with that of his family) was buttressed by their being permitted the Spanish noble honorifics don and doña . As colonial middlemen, caciques were often the first to introduce European material culture to their communities. This is seen in the Spanish-style houses they built,

232-438: A continuous tree canopy which would prevent further grass growth. Prior to European settlement aboriginal land use practices, including fire, influenced vegetation and may have maintained and modified savanna flora. It has been suggested by many authors that aboriginal burning created a structurally more open savanna landscape. Aboriginal burning certainly created a habitat mosaic that probably increased biodiversity and changed

290-491: A dramatic reduction in basal area and canopy cover, often leaves a high percentage of woody plants alive either as seedlings too small to be affected or as plants capable of re-sprouting from lignotubers and broken stumps. A population of woody plants equal to half or more of the original number often remains following pulling of eucalypt communities, even if all the trees over 5 metres are uprooted completely. A number of exotic plants species have been introduced to savannas around

348-489: A family's prestige, but it could no longer in itself be regarded as a rank of major authority." In a 1769 petition by a cacique family to the Viceroy of New Spain , appealing for the restoration of its privileges, the following expectations were listed: "that, the cacique should be seated separately from commoners at public functions; he was excused from serving in town government; he was exempted from tribute and other exactions; he

406-797: A high tree density. It is often believed that savannas feature widely spaced, scattered trees. However, in many savannas, tree densities are higher and trees are more regularly spaced than in forests. The South American savanna types cerrado sensu stricto and cerrado dense typically have densities of trees similar to or higher than that found in South American tropical forests, with savanna ranging from 800 to 3300 trees per hectare (trees/ha) and adjacent forests with 800–2000 trees/ha. Similarly Guinean savanna has 129 trees/ha, compared to 103 for riparian forest , while Eastern Australian sclerophyll forests have average tree densities of approximately 100 per hectare , comparable to savannas in

464-402: A means of clearing land. In the 1950s arboricides suitable for stem injection were developed. War-surplus heavy machinery was made available, and these were used for either pushing timber, or for pulling using a chain and ball strung between two machines. These two new methods of timber control, along with the introduction and widespread adoption of several new pasture grasses and legumes promoted

522-564: A pamphlet "The History of Umuchu", which documents the six sons of Echu and establishment of the original six villages in the vicinity. The climate of Umuchu is tropical savanna . Every month is warm and there is both a wet and dry season. Umuchu experiences 61°F average annual temperature and 414′′ of precipitation annually. With an average humidity of 74% and a UV-index of 7, there are 91 dry days per year. 5°56′N 7°8′E  /  5.933°N 7.133°E  / 5.933; 7.133 Savanna A savanna or savannah

580-444: A reduction in the need to burn to produce a flush of green growth because legumes retain high nutrient levels throughout the year, and because fires can have a negative impact on legume populations which causes a reluctance to burn. The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing. In contrast

638-612: A result of caciquismo and nepotism. "Galicia still suffers from this anachronistic caste of caciques." Spanish strongman El Caudillo Francisco Franco (1892-1975) was born in Ferrol in Galicia. In the Philippines, the term cacique democracy was coined by Benedict Anderson . It has been used to describe the political system where in many parts of the country local leaders remain very strong, with almost warlord-type powers. The Philippines

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696-613: A result of global climate change, particularly at ecotones such as savannas so often represent. A savanna can simply be distinguished by the open savanna, where grass prevails and trees are rare; and the wooded savanna, where the trees are densest, bordering an open woodland or forest. Specific savanna ecoregions of several different types include: Cacique A cacique , sometimes spelled as cazique ( Latin American Spanish: [kaˈsike] ; Portuguese: [kɐˈsikɨ, kaˈsiki] ; feminine form: cacica ),

754-469: A resurgence in tree clearing. The 1980s also saw the release of soil-applied arboricides, notably tebuthiuron , that could be utilised without cutting and injecting each individual tree. In many ways "artificial" clearing, particularly pulling, mimics the effects of fire and, in savannas adapted to regeneration after fire as most Queensland savannas are, there is a similar response to that after fire. Tree clearing in many savanna communities, although causing

812-455: A simplified yet widespread climatic concept. The divergence has sometimes caused areas such as extensive savannas north and south of the Congo and Amazon Rivers to be excluded from mapped savanna categories. In different parts of North America, the word "savanna" has been used interchangeably with " barrens ", " prairie ", " glade ", "grassland" and " oak opening ". Different authors have defined

870-604: Is a mixed woodland - grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. Four savanna forms exist; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent. Savannas maintain an open canopy despite

928-477: Is not prominent but that rivers in savanna landscapes erode more by lateral migration . Flooding and associated sheet wash have been proposed as dominant erosion processes in savanna plains. The savannas of tropical America comprise broadleaved trees such as Curatella , Byrsonima , and Bowdichia , with grasses such as Leersia and Paspalum . Bean relative Prosopis is common in the Argentinian savannas. In

986-473: Is possible for there to be multiple stable biomes. The annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm (19.69 in) to 1,270 mm (50.00 in) per year, with the precipitation being more common in six or eight months of the year, followed by a period of drought. Savannas may at times be classified as forests. In climatic geomorphology it has been noted that many savannas occur in areas of pediplains and inselbergs . It has been posited that river incision

1044-419: Is vague and therefore the two can be combined into a single biome as both woodlands and savannas feature open-canopied trees with crowns not usually interlinking (mostly forming 25-60% cover). Over many large tropical areas, the dominant biome (forest, savanna or grassland) can not be predicted only by the climate, as historical events plays also a key role, for example, fire activity. In some areas, indeed, it

1102-455: The Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire. Intentional controlled burns typically create fires confined to the herbaceous layer that do little long term damage to mature trees. This prevents more catastrophic wildfires that could do much more damage. However, these fires either kill or suppress tree seedlings, thus preventing the establishment of

1160-557: The administrators who followed them used the word generically to refer to any leader of practically any indigenous group they encountered in the Western Hemisphere . In Hispanic and Lusophone countries, the term has also come to mean a political boss , similar to a caudillo , exercising power in a system of caciquism . The Taíno word kasike descends from the Taíno word kassiquan , which means "to keep house". In 1555

1218-476: The greenhouse effect may result in an alteration of the structure and function of savannas. Some authors have suggested that savannas and grasslands may become even more susceptible to woody plant encroachment as a result of greenhouse induced climate change . However, a recent case described a savanna increasing its range at the expense of forest in response to climate variation, and potential exists for similar rapid, dramatic shifts in vegetation distribution as

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1276-667: The prairies in North America and steppes in Eurasia , which feature cold winters, savannas are mostly located in areas having warm to hot climates, such as in Africa, Australia, Thailand, South America and India. The word derives from the Spanish sabana , which is itself a loanword from Taíno , which means "treeless grassland" in the West Indies . The letter b in Spanish, when positioned in

1334-544: The Australian savanna, mammals in the family Macropodidae predominate, such as kangaroos and wallabies, though cattle, horses, camels, donkeys and the Asian water buffalo , among others, have been introduced by humans. It is estimated that less than three percent of savanna ecosystems can be classified as highly intact. Reasons for savanna degradation are manifold, as outlined below. Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and

1392-499: The East African savannas, Acacia , Combretum , baobabs , Borassus , and Euphorbia are a common vegetation genera. Drier savannas there feature spiny shrubs and grasses, such as Andropogon , Hyparrhenia , and Themeda . Wetter savannas include Brachystegia trees and Pennisetum purpureum , and elephant grass type. West African savanna trees include Anogeissus , Combretum , and Strychnos . Indian savannas are mostly cleared, but

1450-549: The Mexican national archives in a section Vínculos ("entails"). The establishment of Spanish-style town government ( cabildos) served as a mechanism to supplant traditional rule. Spanish manipulation of cabildo elections placed compliant members of the traditional, hereditary lineages on such cabildos town councils. By the late colonial era in central Mexico, the term cacique had lost any dynastic meaning, with one scholar noting that "cacique status could in some degree buttress

1508-513: The Northern Territory, Australia savanna, and 480,000 ha of savanna were being cleared annually in Queensland in the 2000s, primarily to improve pasture production. Substantial savanna areas have been cleared of woody vegetation and much of the area that remains today is vegetation that has been disturbed by either clearing or thinning at some point in the past. Clearing is carried out by

1566-869: The Spanish colonial rule, and decades after Túpac Amaru II 's 1781 uprising other insurrections such as the Túpac Katari or the Mateo Pumakawa uprisings were often the first major engagements of the South American Wars of Independence. Cacicas played significant roles as female leaders and entrepreneurs within indigenous Mexican communities. These women held titles independently, distinct from their husbands, and did not lose their status if they married outside their rank. Cacicas possessed financial insight, engaging in business transactions like property dealings and managing financial networks. They owned valuable assets including land, homes, and livestock, often securing

1624-570: The Spanish furnishings that filled them and the European fashions they wore everywhere. They engaged in Spanish commercial enterprises such as sheep and cattle ranchers and sericulture . Many even owned enslaved Africans to operate these concerns. The caciques also acquired new privileges, unknown before contact. These included the right to carry swords or firearms and to ride horses or mules. Some caciques had entailed estates called cacicazgos . The records of many of these Mexican estates are held in

1682-558: The Spanish monarch. In 1781, the Tīpac Amaru rebellion was led by a kuraka who claimed to be a descendant of the Inca royal line, that of the final Inca, Túpac Amaru . At independence in 1825, Simón Bolívar abolished noble titles, but the power and prestige of the kurakas were already in decline following the Great Rebellion. Kuraka rebellions had been waged since the beginning of

1740-527: The best and most fertile territories. Despite their entrepreneurial focus, cacicas also wielded considerable authority, acknowledged by native communities, the Spanish Crown , and the Catholic Church . Their status rivaled high-ranking Spanish men, with privileges like special treatment at religious ceremonies and even distinguished burial sites. This recognition extended beyond their ancestors, surpassing

1798-415: The court of the cacique Carlos in present-day Panama . The accounts are inexact, but this is usually placed in present-day Madugandí or at points on the nearby Guna Yala coast opposite Ustupo or on Point Mosquitos . These areas are now either given over to modern cropland or jungle . Many grassy landscapes and mixed communities of trees, shrubs, and grasses were described as savanna before

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1856-555: The ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian woodlands of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea , and savannas in India are a result of human fire use. The maquis shrub savannas of

1914-493: The elite class of Taíno society: they lived in a larger rectangular hut in the center of the village, rather than the peripheral circular huts of other villagers, and they had reserved places from which to view the areítos (ceremonial dances) and ceremonial ball game . Most importantly, the kasike 's word was law and they exercised this power to oversee a sophisticated government, finely involved with all aspects of social existence. The Spanish transliterated kasike and used

1972-467: The establishment, growth and survival of plant species and in turn can lead to a change in woodland structure and composition. That being said, impact of grazing animals can be reduced. Looking at Elephant impact on Savannas, the overall impact is reduced in the presence of rainfall and fences. Large areas of Australian and South American savannas have been cleared of trees, and this clearing continues today. For example, land clearing and fracking threaten

2030-483: The grazing industry in an attempt to increase the quality and quantity of feed available for stock and to improve the management of livestock. The removal of trees from savanna land removes the competition for water from the grasses present, and can lead to a two to fourfold increase in pasture production, as well as improving the quality of the feed available. Since stock carrying capacity is strongly correlated with herbage yield, there can be major financial benefits from

2088-669: The last of the special privileges of colonial-era caciques were finally abolished. In contrast to the rest of the Spanish Colonial Americas, in the Andean region the local term kuraka was preferred to cacique. After conquering the Inca Empire the Spaniards administering the new Peruvian viceroyalty had allowed the kurakas or caciques to maintain their titles of nobility and perquisites of local rule so long as they swore fealty to

2146-554: The lower limits of savanna tree coverage as 5–10% and upper limits range as 25–80% of an area. Two factors common to all savanna environments are rainfall variations from year to year, and dry season wildfires . In the Americas , e.g. in Belize , Central America , savanna vegetation is similar from Mexico to South America and to the Caribbean . The distinction between woodland and savanna

2204-461: The middle of a word, is pronounced almost like an English v; hence the change of grapheme when transcribed into English. The word originally entered English as the Zauana in a description of the ilands of the kinges of Spayne from 1555. This was equivalent in the orthography of the times to zavana (see history of V ). Peter Martyr reported it as the local name for the plain around Comagre,

2262-425: The middle of the 19th century, when the concept of a tropical savanna climate became established. The Köppen climate classification system was strongly influenced by effects of temperature and precipitation upon tree growth, and oversimplified assumptions resulted in a tropical savanna classification concept which considered it as a "climatic climax" formation. The common usage to describe vegetation now conflicts with

2320-552: The most famous of these early colonial-era caciques are Hatuey from what is now Cuba and Enriquillo on the island of Hispaniola. Both are now respective national heroes in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. The Spanish had more success when they drafted the leaders of the far more hierarchically organized indigenous civilizations of Central Mexico. These Central Mexican caciques served as more effective, and loyal, intermediaries in

2378-501: The new system of colonial rule. The hierarchy and nomenclature of indigenous leadership usually survived within a given community and the Spaniards' designation of caciques did not usually correspond to the hereditary or likely candidate from a given system of indigenous leadership. As a consequence, elite indigenous men willing to cooperate with the colonial rulers replaced their rivals who had better hereditary or traditional claims on leadership. The Spanish recognized indigenous nobles as

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2436-469: The open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and is commonly used for grazing domestic livestock. As a result, much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody plant encroachment . The removal of grass by grazing affects the woody plant component of woodland systems in two major ways. Grasses compete with woody plants for water in

2494-438: The potential to significantly alter the structure and composition of savannas worldwide, and have already done so in many areas through a number of processes including altering the fire regime, increasing grazing pressure, competing with native vegetation and occupying previously vacant ecological niches. Other plant species include: white sage, spotted cactus, cotton seed, rosemary. Human induced climate change resulting from

2552-567: The power of local political bosses , the caciques. In the post-independence period in Mexico, the term retained its meaning of "indigenous" leaders, but also took on a more general usage of a "local" or "regional" leader as well. Some scholars make a distinction between caudillos ( political strongmen ) and their rule, caudillismo , and caciques and caciquismo . One Argentine intellectual, Carlos Octavio Bunge viewed caciquismo as emerging from anarchy and political disruption and then evolving into

2610-423: The rank of notable figures such as Isabel Moctezuma and her lineage. The multifaceted roles of cacicas highlight their integral contributions to Mexican society under Spanish rule, demonstrating their adeptness in economic enterprise, societal leadership, and cultural influence across indigenous communities. An extension of the term cacique, caciquismo ("boss rule") can refer to a political system dominated by

2668-431: The removal of trees, such as assisting with grazing management: regions of dense tree and shrub cover harbors predators, leading to increased stock losses, for example, while woody plant cover hinders mustering in both sheep and cattle areas. A number of techniques have been employed to clear or kill woody plants in savannas. Early pastoralists used felling and girdling , the removal of a ring of bark and sapwood , as

2726-580: The reserved ones feature Acacia, Mimosa , and Zizyphus over a grass cover comprising Sehima and Dichanthium . The Australian savanna is abundant with sclerophyllous evergreen vegetation, which include the eucalyptus , as well as Acacia, Bauhinia , Pandanus with grasses such as Heteropogon and kangaroo grass (Themeda). Animals in the African savanna generally include the giraffe, elephant, buffalo, zebra, gnu, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and antelope, where they rely on grass and/or tree foliage to survive. In

2784-449: The same region. Savannas are also characterised by seasonal water availability, with the majority of rainfall confined to one season. They are associated with several types of biomes , and are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland , though mostly a transition between desert to forest. Savanna covers approximately 20% of the Earth's land area. Unlike

2842-515: The soil caused by the hooves of animals and through the erosion effects caused by the removal of protective plant cover. Such effects are most likely to occur on land subjected to repeated and heavy grazing. The effects of overstocking are often worst on soils of low fertility and in low rainfall areas below 500 mm, as most soil nutrients in these areas tend to be concentrated in the surface so any movement of soils can lead to severe degradation. Alteration in soil structure and nutrient levels affects

2900-606: The spread of weeds in savannas by the removal or reduction of the plants which would normally compete with potential weeds and hinder establishment. In addition to this, cattle and horses are implicated in the spread of the seeds of weed species such as prickly acacia ( Acacia nilotica ) and stylo ( Stylosanthes species). Alterations in savanna species composition brought about by grazing can alter ecosystem function, and are exacerbated by overgrazing and poor land management practices. Introduced grazing animals can also affect soil condition through physical compaction and break-up of

2958-519: The structure of woodlands and geographic range of numerous woodland species. It has been suggested by many authors that with the removal or alteration of traditional burning regimes many savannas are being replaced by forest and shrub thickets with little herbaceous layer. The consumption of herbage by introduced grazers in savanna woodlands has led to a reduction in the amount of fuel available for burning and resulted in fewer and cooler fires. The introduction of exotic pasture legumes has also led to

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3016-464: The term (cacique) to refer to the local leader of essentially any indigenous group in Spanish America . Caribbean caciques who did not initially oppose the Spanish became middlemen, serving as the interface between their communities and the Spanish. Their cooperation was frequently provisional. Most of the early caciques eventually revolted, resulting in their deaths in battle or by execution. Two of

3074-463: The topsoil and removal by grazing reduces this competitive effect, potentially boosting tree growth. In addition to this effect, the removal of fuel reduces both the intensity and the frequency of fires which may control woody plant species. Grazing animals can have a more direct effect on woody plants by the browsing of palatable woody species. There is evidence that unpalatable woody plants have increased under grazing in savannas. Grazing also promotes

3132-504: The word first entered the English language, defined as "prince". In Taíno culture, the kasike rank was hereditary and sometimes established through democratic means. As the Taínos were mostly a peaceable culture the kasike 's importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his clan rather than his skills in warfare. The Taíno kasikes also enjoyed several privileges that marked them as

3190-665: The world. Amongst the woody plant species are serious environmental weeds such as Prickly Acacia ( Acacia nilotica ), Rubbervine ( Cryptostegia grandiflora ), Mesquite ( Prosopis spp.), Lantana ( Lantana camara and L. montevidensis ) and Prickly Pear ( Opuntia spp.). A range of herbaceous species have also been introduced to these woodlands, either deliberately or accidentally including Rhodes grass and other Chloris species, Buffel grass ( Cenchrus ciliaris ), Giant rat's tail grass ( Sporobolus pyramidalis ) parthenium ( Parthenium hysterophorus ) and stylos ( Stylosanthes spp.) and other legumes . These introductions have

3248-586: Was a colony of Spain from the late sixteenth century until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when the United States assumed control. The U.S. administration subsequently introduced many commercial, political and administrative reforms. They were sometimes quite progressive and directed towards the modernization of government and commerce in the Philippines. However, the local traditional Filipino elites, being better educated and better connected than much of

3306-616: Was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the Indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas , the Greater Antilles , and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European contact with those places. The term is a Spanish transliteration of the Taíno word kasike . Cacique was initially translated as "king" or "prince" for the Spanish. In the colonial era, the conquistadors and

3364-460: Was excused from Sunday worship and payments of the half real; his servants were not liable for community labor; he was exempt from incarceration for debt and his property from sequestration; he could be imprisoned for serious crime but not in the public jail; the caciques' names were to be listed among the nobles in official registers; and "all these privileges are to apply equally to the caciques' wives and widows." With Mexican independence in 1821,

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