98-476: Ultium is an electric vehicle battery and motor architecture developed by General Motors . It is being deployed for battery electric vehicles from General Motors portfolio brands along with vehicles from Honda and Acura . Ultium is characterized by a modular layout, using an Ultium battery to supply power to one or two Ultium Drive unit(s) using a common set of power electronics (charging, battery management system, and inverter). The high-voltage battery
196-609: A B-segment entry on its own platform , the GM BEV2 . It does not share elements with the GM Gamma platform cars like the Chevrolet Sonic / Spark . The EPA classifies the Bolt as "small station wagon", with less than 130 cu ft (3,681.2 L) of interior volume. GM refers to the Bolt as a crossover and puts it under the category of SUV on its website. The passenger volume
294-442: A 400 V, 100 kWh battery layer; these two layers are then stacked and wired in parallel, yielding 200 kWh storage capacity for electric motors at the 400V level. For charging at 800V DC fast charging stations however, the two layers can be temporarily switched to be wired in series, allowing for DC fast charging at up to 800 V and 350 kW. The Cadillac Lyriq has a 12-module battery pack, essentially equivalent to
392-728: A battery charge limit of 90% to their existing inventory while urging current 2017–2019 Chevy Bolt owners to enable the "Hill Top Reserve" option (2017-2018MY) or to set vehicle "Target Charge Level" (2019-2022MY) to 90%. A final software update was expected to remedy the charging capacity to 100% sometime in April 2021. As of November 2020 , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has confirmed five known fires with two injuries and recommends parking recalled vehicles outside, away from homes, until they have been repaired. On August 20, 2021, Chevrolet extended
490-513: A combined EPA -rated range of 238 miles (383 km). For city driving, the EPA rated the Bolt range at 255 miles (410 km), and due to its relatively high drag coefficient , its range for highway driving is 217 miles (349 km). The Ampera-e has a certified range of 320 miles (520 km) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test cycle with a full battery, and achieved
588-465: A few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the need to heat the electrolyte to about 270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge, and is potentially a hazard. Other types of rechargeable batteries used in early electric vehicles include CTx series: During
686-443: A higher specific energy of 30–80 W·h/kg. When used properly, nickel–metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and in the surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs that still operate well after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) and over a decade of service. Downsides include finicky charge cycles and poor performance in cold weather. GM Ovonic produced
784-663: A large energy expenditure, ultimately increasing CO 2 emissions - especially in countries lacking renewable energy resources. There have been many efforts around the world to promote recycling technologies development and deployment. In the US, the Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Offices (VTO) set up two efforts targeting at innovation and practicability of recycling processes. ReCell Lithium Recycling RD center brings in three universities and three national labs together to develop innovative, efficient recycling technologies. Most notably,
882-476: A lower energy density compared to other lithium-ion batteries . The Sodium-ion battery completely avoids critical materials. Due to the high availability of sodium which is a part of salt water, cost projections are low. In early 2024, various Chinese manufacturers began with the delivery of their first models. Analysts see a high potential for this type especially for the use in small EVs, bikes and three-wheelers. Several types are in development. In
980-647: A major goal of research. A number of new chemistries compete to displace Li-NMC with (see solid-state battery ) performance above 800Wh/kg in laboratory testing. As of December 2019 , despite more reliance on recycled materials the cost of electric vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis. Demand for EVBs exceeded 750 GWh in 2023. EVBs have much higher capacities than automotive batteries used for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) in combustion cars. The average battery capacity of available EV models reached from 21 to 123 kWh in 2023 with an average of 80 kWh. As of 2024,
1078-536: A module, and a battery pack is made from 6 to 24 identical modules, this means the pack includes 144 to 576 cells, with a capacity ranging from 50 to 200 kWh. A 24-cell module is wired with three parallel strings of eight cells, each wired together in series, giving a nominal voltage of 29.6 V per module. GM claims that they can survive repeated DC fast charging. For the GMC Hummer EV , there are two layers. At each layer, 12 modules are wired in series, creating
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#17328863939931176-489: A much longer lifetime. For example, lithium-ion cells containing single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) show increased mechanical strength, suppressing degradation and leading to a longer battery lifetime. (same as Wh/kg) 150-220 kWh 165 kWh (sales avg 2023) 210 90-160 kWh 135 kWh (sales avg 2023) 130$ 105$ 87$ 40-80$ (2034) 8-10$ (cold climates) (hot climates) Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides offer high performance and have become
1274-604: A prototype of its planned 4th-generation (G4) AV, which removed the traditional driver's controls such as the steering wheel and pedals and largely retained the external features of the G2, but further development of the G4 Cruise AV was canceled to concentrate on their next generation autonomous vehicle, the Origin , which was unveiled in January 2020 and lacks driver controls entirely. The Origin
1372-627: A range of 240 miles (380 km) under the more strict Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP). Opel expected the Ampera-e to achieve a NEDC range of about 500 km (310 mi). Before the Tesla Model 3 was introduced in July 2017, the Bolt was the only plug-in electric car with a manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP) of less than US$ 50,000 capable of delivering an EPA -rated range of over 200 miles (320 km). As of
1470-545: A recall to fix or replace battery components and GM's August 2021 advisory to park in open areas, at least 50 feet (15 m) away from other vehicles. GM Korea began developing the Bolt in 2012 with a team of 180 people with the project code G2KCZ (G2 for Gamma 2nd-generation platform, K for hatchback, C for Chevrolet, and Z for electric car). Its initial concept debuted at the 2015 North American International Auto Show . As of June 2015 , General Motors had tested more than 50 hand-built Bolt prototypes at
1568-747: A significantly lower price of $ 145/kWh from its supplier, LG Chem. Part of the cost reduction results from the novel chemistry, which has 70% less cobalt than the Bolt's battery. In addition, labor costs are reduced because the wiring in each battery pack has been reduced by 88% compared to the Bolt due to the wireless battery management system. Four production facilities were planned as of 2021; they have since been announced as: GM also opened an Ultium Center factory in October 2021 in Shanghai, which produces batteries and traction motors for EVs produced and sold in China. In 2022,
1666-579: A single layer of the Hummer, operating at 400 V (nominal) and capable of charging at a rate of up to 190 kW. Due to the modular nature of the battery pack, vehicles using fewer than 12 battery modules will operate at lower nominal voltages. In 2024, it was reported by InsideEVs that issues with the machines used to assemble cells into modules had resulted in delays in vehicle production during 2023; it proved to be impossible to increase production speed from 5 to 30 modules per hour per assembly line, but GM
1764-459: A substantial portion of an EV's overall cost, often accounting for up to 30-40% of the vehicle's total price. However, the cost of EV batteries has been decreasing steadily over the years due to advancements in technology, economies of scale, and improvements in manufacturing processes. EV batteries typically come with warranties covering a certain number of years or miles, reflecting confidence in their durability and reliability over time. One issue
1862-440: A top speed of 91 mph (146 km/h). The 72-slot/8-pole electric motor is integrated with a single-speed transmission and differential, to form a single modular drive unit that connects directly to the front axles. The single-speed transmission has a final drive ratio of 7.05:1. The Bolt EV is tall hatchback design, with a curb weight of 3,580 pounds (1,620 kg). Despite its height of nearly 63 inches (1.6 meters),
1960-416: Is 2,923 lb (1,326 kg). Pouches may be oriented horizontally or vertically, affording packaging flexibility. Ultium features a wireless battery management system (wBMS), the first such architecture from any automaker. The wBMS was developed in partnership with Analog Devices and contributes to reduced battery costs, as it requires 90% less wiring and reduces volume by 15%. In late January 2023, it
2058-410: Is 94 cu ft (2,700 L), and cargo space is 17 cu ft (480 L) (381 liter). The Bolt's doors, tailgate, and hood are aluminum . The driver can adjust the level of regenerative braking as the accelerator pedal is lifted. The front seats are asymmetrical to maximize cabin volume while accommodating airbags. GM planned for over-the-air software updates during 2017 but
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#17328863939932156-809: Is General Motors; GM acquired Cruise in March 2016. Pre-production versions of the Bolt EV were built at Orion Assembly in March 2016 and sent to Cruise, which modified the cars by adding sensors in San Francisco. The modified pre-production vehicles were photographed in San Francisco in May. Fifty of these first-generation (G1) Bolt EV-based Cruise AVs were tested from June 2016 in the San Francisco Bay Area and Scottsdale, Arizona . After its acquisition by GM in March 2016, Cruise began working with GM engineers to develop
2254-490: Is a stressed member and weighs 960 lb (440 kg). It accounts for 23% of the car's value, and is composed of 288 flat "landscape" format cells. Cells are bundled into groups of three connected in parallel, and 96 groups connected in series compose the pack, which is rated at 160 kW peak power. GM offers a battery warranty of 8 years / 100,000 miles (160,000 km), and has no plans for other battery sizes. In October 2015, General Motors said they would purchase
2352-440: Is composed of pouch cells that can be stacked horizontally or vertically, depending on the form factor appropriate for each vehicle, generally carried between the axles and under the floor. The traction motor(s), reduction gear, and power electronics are combined into a single Ultium Drive unit that drives the front, rear, or both axles. Three electric motor designs, sharing a common stator, are used across all planned vehicles. Ultium
2450-459: Is defined to reach the end-of-life. One of the waste management methods is to reuse the pack. By repurposing the pack for stationary storage, more value can be extracted from the battery pack while reducing the per kWh lifecycle impact. Uneven and undesired battery degradation happens during EV operation depending on temperature during operation and charging/discharging patterns. Each battery cell could degrade differently during operation. Currently,
2548-414: Is emitted during raw materials pre-processing and battery manufacturing under the US average electricity grid. The biggest part of the emission came from materials preparation accounting for more than 50% of the emissions. If NMC pouch cell is used, the total emission increases to almost 10 kg CO 2 e kg battery while materials manufacturing still contributes to more than 50% of the emission. During
2646-493: Is expected to take a loss of US$ 8,000 to US$ 9,000 per Bolt sold. A GM spokesman declined to comment about expected profitability. Opel refuted that in December 2016 and stated that GM has battery cell costs of $ 130/kWh, and industry is not yet optimized for mass production . A UBS tear-down in 2017 suggested slightly smaller losses per vehicle, of $ 7418 on a base spec, or $ 5520 on a higher spec vehicle. They estimate that by 2025
2744-410: Is graphite. However, recently there have been a lot of companies started to make Si mixed anode ( Sila Nanotech , ProLogium ) and Li metal anode ( Cuberg , Solid Power ). In general, for active materials production, there are three steps: materials preparation, materials processing and refinement. Schmuch et al. discussed materials manufacturing in greater details. In the cell manufacturing stage,
2842-407: Is not currently an important design consideration for battery manufacturers, and in 2019 only 5% of electric vehicle batteries were recycled. However, closing the loop is extremely important. Not only because of a predicted tightened supply of nickel , cobalt and lithium in the future, also recycling EV batteries has the potential to maximize the environmental benefit. Xu et al. predicted that in
2940-516: Is purchase price, the other issue is total cost of ownership. Total cost of ownership of electric cars is often less than petrol or diesel cars. In 2024 Gartner predicted that by 2027, next-generation BEVs will, on average, be cheaper to produce than a comparable ICE“. In China, BEV are now cheaper than comparable combustion cars. The development is driven by subsidies in the Chinese market. The USA are protecting their own manufacturers with tariffs , in
3038-666: Is scheduled to be introduced in January 2023. Cruise received approval to test cars without safety drivers on public roads in October 2020; the first SAE Level 4 vehicles tested by Cruise were G3 AVs. The safety driver was relegated to the passenger's (right-hand) front seat and did not have access to the traditional controls. Later in 2021, a G2 Cruise AV nicknamed "Poppy" was filmed for a short promotional video while undergoing testing in San Francisco . The California Public Utilities Commission approved Cruise's application in June 2022; with
Ultium - Misplaced Pages Continue
3136-620: Is used by GM's BEV3 and BT1 platforms. General Motors revealed the Ultium battery and platform technologies during a week-long March 2020 event held at the General Motors Technical Center in Warren, Michigan ; GM chairwoman and CEO Mary Barra called it "a multi-brand, multi-segment EV strategy with economies of scale that rival our full-size truck business with much less complexity and even more flexibility". The Ultium Drive branding
3234-605: The GMC Hummer EV pickup. In September, GM Defense was chosen to build a heavy-duty pack to power electric military vehicles. Ultium vehicles are powered by a modular family of five drive units and three electric traction motors, known collectively as "Ultium Drive". Mass production of Ultium Drive motors and units is scheduled to start in 2024 at the GM Toledo and St. Catharines propulsion factories. Planned motors include: The motors are suitable for front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive and all-wheel drive configurations. For example,
3332-579: The General Motors Proving Grounds in Milford, Michigan . The cars were tested at Proving Grounds and overseas for ride and handling dynamics, cabin comfort, quietness, charging capability, and energy efficiency. Alan Batey, head of General Motors North America, announced in February 2015 that the Bolt EV was headed for production, and would be available in all 50 states. GM also has plans to sell
3430-676: The Opel Ampera , the previous-generation Chevrolet Volt sold in Europe – suggesting the names could confuse customers who think the new all-electric hatchback is closely related to the old plug-in hybrid hatchback. Tata Motors has had a car named the Bolt on the market since 2014, and has registered the trademark in India and other countries. The Cruise AV is a Bolt EV-based autonomous vehicle developed and tested by Cruise Automation , whose majority owner
3528-581: The United States Department of Energy (DOE) provided a $ 2.5 billion loan to Ultium Cells to assist in the construction of the three announced plants in the US. It is the first loan from DOE to a battery cell producer under the DOE's Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing program. In January 2023, GM and LG paused plans to build the fourth battery plant in the United States after having selected
3626-436: The fuel tank in internal combustion engine -powered cars, and is made on the same assembly line as the Chevrolet Sonic at a combined rate of 90,000 per year. Although the car is assembled near Detroit, it has only 20% domestic-parts content. Analysts expected Bolt production at 22,000 per year, and Ampera-e at a few thousand. Production may increase to 30,000 to 50,000 per year according to demand. Regular production
3724-904: The lithium-ion battery (LIB) with the variants Li-NMC, LFP and Li-NCA dominates the BEV market. The combined global production capacity in 2023 reached almost 2000 GWh with 772 GWh used for EVs in 2023. Most production is based in China where capacities increased by 45 % that year. With their high energy density and long cycle life, lithium-ion batteries have become the leading battery type for use in EVs. They were initially developed and commercialized for use in laptops and consumer electronics. Recent EVs are using new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging and longer lifespans. These variants have been shown to have
3822-454: The state of health (SOH) information from a battery management system (BMS) can be extracted on a pack level but not on a cell level. Engineers can mitigate the degradation by engineering the next-generation thermal management system. electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) can be used to ensure the quality of the battery pack. It is costly and time-intensive to disassemble modules and cells. The module must be fully discharged. Then,
3920-652: The 20th century most electric vehicles used a flooded lead–acid battery due to their mature technology, high availability, and low cost. Lead–acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the original 1996 versions of the EV1 . There are two main types of lead–acid batteries: automobile engine starter batteries, and deep-cycle batteries which provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf carts. Deep-cycle batteries are also used as auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but they require different, multi-stage charging. Discharging below 50% can shorten
4018-678: The 2nd-generation (G2) Cruise AV, which would be assembled alongside regular production Bolt EVs at Orion Assembly. The G1 Cruise AV has two roof-mounted LIDAR sensors, four small round headlights, and the Chevrolet "bowtie" logo on the front grille, while the G2 has five LIDARs and the same styling as the regular production Bolt. A fleet of 130 G2 Cruise AVs were completed by June 2017, with an expanded, better-integrated sensor suite. The G2 (and G3) Cruise AVs are equipped with five roof-mounted LIDARs , 16 cameras, and 21 radars (both long- and short-range as well as articulating). The first G1 Cruise AV
Ultium - Misplaced Pages Continue
4116-617: The Bolt in select global markets. In January 2016, at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, the production version of the Chevrolet Bolt was unveiled. During GM CEO Mary Barra 's keynote at the show, Chevrolet confirmed an estimated range of 200 miles (320 km) or more, an approximate US$ 30,000 price tag (after government incentives), and stated it would be available in late 2016. Barra projected in February 2016 that
4214-517: The Bolt will make a profit of about $ 6000 per vehicle. Final assembly took place at GM's Orion Assembly plant in Orion Township, Michigan, which received a US$ 160 million upgrade for Bolt production. Manufacture of the battery, motor, and drive unit started in August 2016 at LG, Incheon, South Korea. The car is designed for flexible production by having some of the battery in the same position as
4312-418: The Bolt's battery cells at a price of $ 145 per kilowatt hour from LG Chem , representing a minimum of $ 8,700 in revenue per car. The cost is reportedly about $ 100 cheaper per kWh than the price LG was giving other customers at the time. GM estimated a cell price of $ 130/kWh in December 2016. While initially expected to share its lithium-ion battery technology with the second-generation Chevrolet Volt ,
4410-515: The Bolt; after outcry, they announced plans but no date for a next-generation model. The first-generation Bolt was developed and manufactured with LG Corporation . Sales of the 2017 Bolt began in California in December 2016; it was released nationwide and international markets release in 2017. A rebadged European variant was marketed as the Opel Ampera-e in mainland Europe. In 2017, the Bolt
4508-636: The EU this is debated. This can delay cost parity. The weight of the electric vehicle battery is the limiting factor to reach range parity. Diesel and gasoline have more than the 50-fold energy density of current EV batteries. kWh/t per 100 km Chevrolet Bolt EV The Chevrolet Bolt EV (marketed in Europe as Opel Ampera-e ) is a battery electric subcompact hatchback manufactured and marketed by General Motors under its Chevrolet brand from late 2016 until mid-2021 and again from early 2022 to late 2023. In mid-2023, GM officials said they would discontinue
4606-587: The European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera-e (or Vauxhall Ampera-e in the United Kingdom), would enter production in 2017. In March 2016, GM released photos and a short pre-production video of the Bolt at the company's Orion Assembly plant outside Detroit, testing manufacturing and tooling. The car's user interface was developed in Israel . An unnamed source cited by Bloomberg News estimated that General Motors
4704-495: The G2; on the G3, these are white and are mounted just above the front wheels. Members of the press were invited to ride in a G2 Cruise AV in November 2017; they reported the choices made by the car's programming were conservative, but the self-driving system had minimal disengagements over the short 2.4 to 3 mi (3.9 to 4.8 km) trips. In January 2018, Cruise showed renderings and
4802-462: The GMC Hummer EV prototype shown in March 2020 has full-time all-wheel drive and is equipped with three 255 kW (342 hp) motors, one driving the front axle and the other two driving the rear wheels. The three traction motor types are oil-cooled and share a common stator design. The drive units are single-speed reduction gearboxes which accept one or two traction motors and provide power to
4900-484: The Indiana site the previous August, with GM seeking a new joint venture partner. Later that year, Samsung SDI announced it was entering a joint venture with GM, and the fourth plant would proceed at the Indiana site. Lower than expected Ultium battery cell production caused GM to idle production of BrightDrop Zevo vans in July 2023. At that time, GM announced plans to expand Ultium module production to CAMI Assembly , where
4998-550: The NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1. Prototype NiMH-EVs delivered up to 200 km (120 mi) of range. The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery was used in early EVs between 1997 and 2012. It uses a molten sodium chloroaluminate (NaAlCl 4 ) salt as the electrolyte. It has a specific energy of 120 W·h/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather does not strongly affect its operation except for increasing heating costs. Zebra batteries can last for
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#17328863939935096-492: The Orion Township factory would be retooled at a cost of $ 4 billion to produce Chevrolet Silverado EV and GMC Sierra EV pickup trucks, starting in 2024. The affordable segment targeted by the Bolt was expected to be filled by the Chevrolet Equinox EV as GM shifts its EVs to Ultium third-generation battery technology. On April 25, 2023, GM CEO Mary Barra said that the Bolt and Bolt EUV would be discontinued at
5194-671: The Zevo vans are built, using cells shipped from the battery production facilities; starting in 2024, Ultium modules assembled at CAMI will be used on-site and shipped to other GM EV plants. Electric vehicle battery An electric vehicle battery is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). They are typically lithium-ion batteries that are designed for high power-to-weight ratio and energy density . Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy . This increases
5292-504: The announcement of the joint venture with Samsung SDI for the fourth US battery plant in April 2023, prismatic and cylindrical Ultium battery cells will be produced domestically. The next-generation Chevrolet Bolt EV will use Ultium cells with lithium iron phosphate chemistry, which will reduce peak and nominal cell voltage. Each Ultium pouch cell measures approximately 23 by 4 by 0.4 in (584 by 102 by 10 mm) and weighs 3.0 lb (1.36 kg), capable of storing 0.37 kWh;
5390-497: The anode SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. Early cells did not accept or supply charge when extremely cold. Heaters can be used in some climates to warm them. The Lithium iron phosphate battery has a shorter range but is cheaper, safer and more sustainable than the NMC battery. It does not require the critical minerals manganese and cobalt . Since 2023, LFP has become
5488-515: The automated vehicle and not shared with the Bolt EV. With the completion of 50 G3 Cruise AVs in fall 2017, GM now considers the vehicle a separate model from the Bolt. Externally, the G3 Cruise AV may be distinguished from the G2 by the color of the rooftop sensor package (black on the G2, white on the G3) and the two articulating radars: on the G2, these are black and replace the side rear-view mirrors on
5586-434: The battery is 50.2 in (1,280 mm) wide, 71.1 in (1,810 mm) long, and 7.3 to 13.7 in (190 to 350 mm) high, weighing 947 lb (430 kg). Other specifications include a 200 hp (149 kW) and 266 lb⋅ft (361 N⋅m) interior permanent magnet electric motor, acceleration from 0–30 mph (0–48 km/h) in 2.9 seconds and 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in less than 7 seconds, and
5684-415: The battery's life. Flooded batteries require inspection of electrolyte levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away during the normal charging cycle. EVs with lead–acid batteries are capable of up to 130 km (81 mi) per charge. Nickel–metal hydride batteries are considered a mature technology . While less efficient (60–70%) in charging and discharging than even lead–acid, they have
5782-404: The center of gravity is less than 21 inches (53 cm) above the ground, thanks to the under-floor mounting of the battery pack. This yields surprisingly stable handling during cornering. Bolt uses the now-common kammback /hatchback low-drag body design, with sweeping curves leading to an abrupt back end. It was initially reported to have a drag coefficient of C d =0.32 but GM says
5880-510: The core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode, anode and electrolytes on the pack. In addition, the capacity and the design of the cells and packs changes on a yearly basis. The refurbishing company needs to closely work with the manufacture to have a timely update on this information. On the other hand, government can set up labeling standard. Lastly, battery costs have decreased faster than predicted. The refurbished unit may be less attractive than
5978-434: The demand in future. According to IEA 2021 study, mineral supplies need to increase from 400 kilotonnes in 2020 to 11,800 kilotonnes in 2040 in order to cover the demand by EV. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain as 60% of production is concentrated in China to significant impact on climate and environment as result of such a large increase in mining operations. However 45% of oil demand in 2022
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#17328863939936076-482: The direct cathode recycling method was developed by the ReCell center. On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges. Recycling of EV Batteries helps to recover valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare-earth elements , reducing the need for new mining and conserving natural resources and reduces
6174-480: The end of 2023 to make room for GM's "new generation of electric vehicles." The announcement drew public outcry. On July 25, 2023, Barra said there were plans for a second-generation Bolt using Ultium hardware and Ultifi software. Plans for this new Bolt only include the Bolt EUV body style. GM ended Bolt production on December 20, 2023. The Bolt was designed from 2012 by a team of 180 people at GM Korea as
6272-412: The end-of-life management phase, the refurbishing process adds little emission to the lifecycle emission. The recycling process, on the other hand, as suggested by Ciez and Whitacre emits a significant amount of GHG. As shown in the battery recycling emission plot a and c, the emission of the recycling process varies with the different recycling processes, different chemistry and different form factor. Thus,
6370-396: The environmental footprint associated with battery production by minimizing mining impacts, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the emission associated with different phases. Using NMC cylindrical cells as an example, Ciez and Whitacre found that around 9 kg CO 2 e kg battery
6468-596: The environmental impact of this process, the supply chain is increasingly focusing on sustainability, with efforts to reduce reliance on rare-earth minerals and improve recycling. There are mainly three stages during the manufacturing process of EV batteries: materials manufacturing, cell manufacturing and integration, as shown in Manufacturing process of EV batteries graph in grey, green and orange color respectively. This shown process does not include manufacturing of cell hardware, i.e. casings and current collectors. During
6566-530: The existing Bolt EV hatchback that year. The EUV and EV share the same BEV2 platform; however, the EUV has an extended wheelbase and some improved features. The Bolt's battery uses "nickel-rich lithium-ion" chemistry, allowing the cells to run at higher temperatures than those in GM's previous electric vehicles, allowing a simpler and cheaper liquid cooling system for the 60 kWh (220 MJ) battery pack. The battery pack
6664-410: The feature was finally released to the Bolt in April 2018. In 2015, Chevrolet acknowledged confusion between two vehicles with similar-sounding names; Bolt and Volt . Chevrolet's marketing chief, Tim Mahoney, subsequently announced GM would keep the Bolt name. Autoblog projected similar confusion among European customers where the Opel Ampera-e (the Bolt variant) is just one letter off from
6762-412: The final production vehicle has C d =0.308. Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) five-cycle test methodology, the Bolt fuel economy is rated at 119 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (17.6 kWh/100 km) for combined driving, 128 mpg‑e (16.4 kWh/100 km) in city and 110 mpg‑e (19 kWh/100 km) in highway. The Bolt EV has
6860-424: The first stage, the materials are mined in different parts of the world, including Australia , Russia , New Caledonia and Indonesia . All the following steps are currently dominated by China . After the materials are refined by pre-processing factories, battery manufacturing companies buy them, make batteries, and assemble them into packs. Car manufacturing companies buy and install them in cars. To address
6958-423: The global standard in BEV production since the 2010s. On the other hand, the exploitation of the required minerals causes environmental problems. The downside of traditional NMC batteries includes sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power performance, and performance degradation with age. Due to the volatility of organic electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal oxides, and the thermal instability of
7056-702: The intended drivetrain layout, but share many common components. The five units are: For the GMC Hummer EV, the drive units provide reduction ratios of 13.3:1 and 10.5:1 for the front and rear wheels, respectively. Ultium battery cells feature nickel-cobalt-manganese-aluminum (NCMA) chemistry, and will be manufactured by Ultium Cells LLC, a joint-venture of GM and LG Energy Solution as large format pouch cells. Battery materials will be supplied by LG Chem and POSCO Chemical (cathode active materials) and Livent (lithium hydroxide). In China, Ultium-branded battery cells use nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) chemistry and are manufactured by CATL with cylindrical packaging. With
7154-555: The leading technology in China while the market share in Europe and North America remains lower than 10%. LFP is the dominant type in grid energy storage . Lithium titanate or lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) batteries are known for their high safety profile, with reduced risk of thermal runaway and effective operation over a wide temperature range. LTO batteries have an impressive cycle life, often exceeding 10,000 charge-discharge cycles. They also have rapid charging capabilities due to their high charge acceptance. However, they have
7252-442: The lithium iron phosphates (LFP) chemistry, the net benefit is negative. Because LFP cells lacks cobalt and nickel which are expensive and energy intensive to produce, it is more energetically efficient to mine. In general, in addition to promoting the growth of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV batteries. A finite total supply of rare earth material can apparently justify
7350-520: The materials manufacturing process, the active material, conductivity additives, polymer binder and solvent are mixed first. After this, they are coated on the current collectors ready for the drying process. During this stage, the methods of making active materials depend on the electrode and the chemistry. Cathodes mostly use transition metal oxides, i.e. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (Li-NMC), or else Lithium metal phosphates, i.e. Lithium iron phosphates (LFP). The most popular material for anodes
7448-403: The need for critical minerals. The battery makes up a significant portion of the cost and environmental impact of an electric vehicle. Growth in the industry has generated interest in securing ethical battery supply chains , which presents many challenges and has become an important geopolitical issue. Reduction of use of mined cobalt , which is also required in fossil fuel refining, has been
7546-408: The need for recycling. But the environmental benefit of recycling needs closer scrutiny. Based on current recycling technology, the net benefit of recycling depends on the form factors, the chemistry and the recycling process chosen. Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require 87 times more than 2015 of specific metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling covering part of
7644-416: The net emission avoided compared to not recycling also varies with these factors. At a glance, as shown in the plot b and d, the direct recycling process is the most ideal process for recycling pouch cell batteries, while the hydrometallurgical process is most suitable for cylindrical type battery. However, with the error bars shown, the best approach cannot be picked with confidence. It is worth noting that for
7742-475: The new batteries to the market. Nonetheless, there have been several successes on the second-life application as shown in the examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. They are used in less demanding stationary storage application as peak shaving or additional storage for renewable-based generating sources. Although battery life span can be extended by enabling a second-life application, ultimately EV batteries need to be recycled. Recyclability
7840-473: The nominal voltage is 3.7 V and it is rated at 103 Ah. The gravimetric energy density of each cell is 127 Wh/lb (280 Wh/kg); the corresponding volumetric energy density is 10.4 Wh/in (630 Wh/L). It has a 10-second gravimetric power density of 952 W/kg. For example, the total weight of the 24-module, 576-cell battery for the Hummer EV, with 212.7 kWh usable storage capacity,
7938-401: The pack must be disassembled and reconfigured to meet the power and energy requirement of the second life application. A refurbishing company can sell or reuse the discharged energy from the module to reduce the cost of this process. Robots are being used to increase the safety of the dismantling process. Battery technology is non-transparent and lacks standards. Because battery development is
8036-402: The permit, Cruise plans to start offering driverless revenue taxi services in San Francisco with Cruise AVs. For the 2022 model year, the Bolt received front and rear styling revisions, along with a revised interior. The front end carries new headlights, along with a new faux-grille and trim. The tail lights and the tailgate hatch also differ slightly from the previous model. Inside, the shifter
8134-410: The prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format. Then after filling the electrolytes and sealing the cells, the battery cells are cycled carefully to form SEI protecting the anode. Then, these batteries are assembled into packs ready for vehicle integration. When an EV battery pack degrades to 70% to 80% of its original capacity, it
8232-470: The production version of the Bolt uses batteries with a different chemistry more suited to the charge cycles of a long-range electric vehicle, compared to the more frequent charging/discharging of hybrids and short-range EVs. The 2020 model year's battery capacity increased to 66 kWh because of a small change made to the battery chemistry that increased the EPA-rated range by 21 miles (34 km). Physically,
8330-432: The recall from the manufacturer, as GM expects the expense to be $ 1.8 billion. LG Chem had to pay $ 1.9 billion to GM. Some of the recalled battery packs were repurposed in grid batteries . Cars which have had the battery-replacement recall done have the 259-mile (417-kilometre) range of the 2020-up Bolt, and the new batteries are warrantied for 8 years from the date of installation. In January 2022, GM announced that
8428-463: The recall to include all Bolt models (both EV and EUV ) and model years (2017-2022) totaling the number of recalled Chevy Bolt cars to nearly 142,000. GM will replace the recalled vehicles' batteries, citing manufacturing defects by its partner LG, which could be responsible for the shorting of deficient battery cells. Amid further investigation, GM says it will ramp up production of replacement battery cells with LG Chem , while seeking reimbursement for
8526-436: The sustainable development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known reserves in the future if no recycling is in place. Ciez and Whitacre found that by deploying battery recycling some green house gas (GHG) emission from mining could be avoided. BEV technologies lack an established recycling framework in many countries, making the usage of BEV and other battery-operated electrical equipment
8624-490: The weight of vehicles or reduces their range. Li-NMC batteries using lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides are the most common in EV. The lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP) is on the rise, reaching 41 % global market share by capacity for BEVs in 2023. LFP batteries are heavier but cheaper and more sustainable. At the same time, the first commercial passenger cars are using a sodium-ion battery (Na-ion) completely avoiding
8722-485: The wheels; the gearboxes are integrated with drivetrain electronic control modules. These modules, also known as power electronics, include the traction power inverter, onboard charging module, and accessory power module; integration of these modules into the drive units results in a combined mass that is half that of the equivalent components of the Chevrolet Bolt EV. These drive units are designed and packaged based on
8820-580: Was adding module assembly lines to compensate. In 2010, the cost of the 16 kWh battery in the Chevrolet Volt was estimated at US$ 1,000 (equivalent to $ 1,400 in 2023) per kilowatt-hour. With Ultium, GM estimates the cost will be reduced by 90% to approximately $ 100/kWh. This also is a significant reduction compared to the 60 kWh battery in the Chevrolet Bolt EV , which was priced at approximately $ 262/kWh in 2017, although GM had negotiated
8918-592: Was applied six months later in September 2020, referring to electric vehicle drivetrain components exclusive of the batteries, such as the traction motors and power electronics. GM announced in June 2021 it would collaborate with Wabtec to provide Ultium battery modules for zero-emission heavy-haul locomotives, including the FLXDrive . In 2022, the US Army selected GM Defense to demonstrate an electric military vehicle, using
9016-513: Was expected to begin in October 2016 at 25,000-30,000 the first year. Initial regular production had begun by early November 2016 at a rate of 9 per hour, gradually increasing to 30 per hour. Retail deliveries began in California in December 2016. Bolt production was halted on August 23, 2021, while battery production was redirected to replacements under a recall affecting the 140,000 Bolt EVs that had been produced up to that time. Production
9114-765: Was for road transport, and batteries may reduce this to 20% by 2050, which would save hundreds of times more raw material than that used to make the batteries. The mining of nickel , copper and cobalt in developing countries such as the Philippines , the Democratic Republic of Congo , and Indonesia is controversial due to the devastation it causes to the environment. Nickel mining has contributed significantly to deforestation in Indonesia . Average battery costs have fallen by 90% since 2010 due to advances in battery chemistry and manufacturing. Batteries represent
9212-440: Was not restarted until April 4, 2022. In November 2020, 50,932 Chevrolet Bolt vehicles of model year 2017–2019 were recalled due to potential fire risk. According to GM, these vehicles contained high voltage batteries produced at LG Chem 's Ochang plant that may pose a risk of fire "when charged to full, or very close to full, capacity". As a precautionary measure, Chevrolet issued software updates that allow dealers to install
9310-461: Was replaced with gear shifter buttons and the seats were upgraded and now are slightly larger, with more padding. The interior received a larger info screen. In addition, the electronics were updated with new software, and the L2 charging system was increased to allow charging at 48 amps, up from 32 amps. Dimensions of the vehicle remain unchanged. GM also began selling a Bolt EUV crossover SUV alongside
9408-468: Was reported that GM was considering switching to batteries in a cylindrical cell format. This move would reduce volumetric energy density, but could reduce production time and costs. GM announced that cells can be assembled into modules with various configurations and demonstrated three examples: This way, multiple module sizes are possible, which could be mixed and matched for a certain application and platform. For example, when 24 cells are combined into
9506-511: Was retired and sent to the Henry Ford Museum in March 2019. A prototype 3rd-generation (G3) Cruise AV was shown in September 2017; Cruise CEO Kyle Vogt said the G3 AV was designed to incorporate redundant systems and was ready to be scaled up for mass production at the Orion Township factory. In addition, the G3 AV uses fault-tolerant electrical, communication, and actuation systems unique to
9604-594: Was the second-best-selling plug-in car in the United States. It was named the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year, the 2017 North American Car of the Year, an Automobile magazine 2017 All Star, and was listed in Time magazine's Best 25 Inventions of 2016. The Ampera-e was discontinued after 2018. By the end of 2020, GM had sold 112,000 Bolt and Ampera-e cars worldwide. The first-generation Bolt has been subject to at least three recalls. At least 16 Bolts have caught fire, leading to
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