65-427: In Hurrian mythology , Ullikummi is a giant stone monster, son of Kumarbi and the sea god's daughter, Sertapsuruhi, or a female cliff. The language of the literary myth in its existing redaction is Hittite , in cuneiform texts recovered at Bogaskoy , where some Hurrian fragments of the "Song of Ullikummi" have been found. See Guterbock (1951). The "song of Ullikummi" was recognized from its first rediscovery as
130-688: A genetic relationship to other language families (e.g., the Northeast Caucasian languages ), but none of these are generally accepted. The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian language and Cuneiform script for their own writing about 2000 BC. Texts in the Hurrian language in cuneiform have been found at Hattusa , Ugarit (Ras Shamra), as well as in one of the longest of the Amarna letters (EA 27), written by King Tushratta of Mitanni to Pharaoh Amenhotep III . It
195-642: A great impact on the religion of the Hittites. From the Hurrian cult centre at Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, Hurrian religion spread to the Hittite people. Syncretism merged the Old Hittite and Hurrian religions. Hurrian religion spread to Syria, where Baal became the counterpart of Teshub. The Hurrian religion, in different forms, influenced the entire ancient Near East , except ancient Egypt and southern Mesopotamia. While
260-613: A key to the understanding of Hurrian culture and history. The 2nd millennium Hurrians were masterful ceramists. Their pottery is commonly found in Mesopotamia and in the lands west of the Euphrates; it was highly valued in distant Egypt, by the time of the New Kingdom . Archaeologists use the terms Khabur ware and Nuzi ware for two types of wheel-made pottery used by the Hurrians. Khabur ware
325-475: A king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house. The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Babylonian-era palaces. They were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls, which suggest the employment of specialized labor. Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on
390-708: A letter from the king of Shubria to an Assyrian magnate from the time of Sargon II was composed in the Hurrian language. Knowledge of Hurrian culture relies on archaeological excavations at sites such as Nuzi and Alalakh as well as on cuneiform tablets, primarily from Hattusa (Boghazköy), the capital of the Hittites, whose civilization was greatly influenced by the Hurrians. Tablets from Nuzi, Alalakh, and other cities with Hurrian populations (as shown by personal names) reveal Hurrian cultural features even though they were written in Akkadian. Hurrian cylinder seals were carefully carved and often portrayed mythological motifs. They are
455-520: A predecessor of Greek myths in Hesiod . Parallels to the Greek myth of Typhon , the ancient antagonist of the thunder-god Zeus , have been elucidated by Burkert . The narrative of Ullikummi is one episode, the best preserved and most complete, in an epic cycle of related "songs" about the god Kumarbi, who aimed to replace the weather god Teshub and destroy the city of Kummiya; to this end Kumarbi fathered upon
520-477: A region stretching from the Caucasus Mountains in the north, to the borders of northern Assyria and northern Ancient Iran in the south, and controlled much of eastern Anatolia. Some scientists consider Urartu to be a re-consolidation of earlier Hurrian populations mainly due to linguistic factors, but this view is not universally held. After the destruction of Mitanni by the Hittites around 1350-1325 BC,
585-411: A rock cliff a genderless, deaf, blind, yet sentient volcanic rock monster, Ullikummi, which he hid in the netherworld and placed on the shoulder of Upelluri . Upelluri, absorbed in his meditations, did not feel Ullikummi on his shoulder. Ullikummi grew quickly until he reached the heavens. Ullikummi's brother Teshub thundered and rained on Ullikummi, but it did not harm him. Teshub fled and abdicated
650-475: A source of copper, which was imported from the mountains (probably Anatolian) and Cyprus. However, the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms, as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari's protection to the caravans. This led the Babylonian king Samsu-iluna to build many strongholds up the river valley, and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as
715-451: Is characterized by reddish painted lines with a geometric triangular pattern and dots, while Nuzi ware has very distinctive forms, and are painted in brown or black. They were also skilled at glass working. The Hurrians had a reputation in metallurgy . It is proposed that the Sumerian term for "coppersmith" tabira / tibira was borrowed from Hurrian, which would imply an early presence of
SECTION 10
#1733085670961780-548: Is recorded as struggling for this area with the early Hittite king Hattusilis I around 1600 BC. Hurrians also settled in the coastal region of Adaniya in the country of Kizzuwatna , southern Anatolia. Yamhad eventually weakened vis-a-vis the powerful Hittites, but this also opened Anatolia for Hurrian cultural influences. The Hittites were influenced by both the Hurrian cultures over the course of several centuries. The city of Shibaniba (Tell Billa) may have also played an important role at that time. Possible Hurrian occupation
845-483: The Amarna Letters during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC). Domestically, Mitanni records have been found at a number of places in the region including several Hittite sites as well as Tell Bazi , Alalakh , Nuzi , Mardaman , Kemune , and Müslümantepe among others. Another major center of Hurrian influence was the kingdom of Arrapha . Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, ancient Nuzi, proved this to be one of
910-495: The Hurrian and Urartian languages are related, there is little similarity between corresponding systems of belief. The main gods in the Hurrian pantheon were: Hurrian cylinder seals often depict mythological creatures such as winged humans or animals, dragons and other monsters. The interpretation of these depictions of gods and demons remains uncertain. They may have been both protective and evil spirits. Some are reminiscent of
975-516: The "Kassite Houses" to protect the middle Euphrates area. Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop. The people of Yamhad practiced the Amorite religion , and mainly worshiped the Northwest Semitic deities. The most important of these were Dagon , who was considered the father of
1040-453: The 16th century BC. Yamhad's population was predominately Amorite , and had a typical Bronze Age Syrian culture. Yamhad was also inhabited by a substantial Hurrian population that settled in the kingdom, adding the influence of their culture. Yamhad controlled a wide trading network, being a gateway between the eastern Iranian plateau and the Aegean region in the west. Yamhad worshiped
1105-503: The 18th century BC, most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad, either as a direct possession or through vassalage, and for nearly a century and a half, Yamhad dominated northern, northwestern and eastern Syria, and had influence over small kingdoms in Mesopotamia at the borders of Elam . The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the Hittites , then annexed by Mitanni in
1170-559: The Alalakh tablets (Hebat was the spouse of the Hurrian main deity Teshub , but in Abba-El I's tablet, she is associated with Hadad). Later, the Hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad, who became Teshub the Storm-God of Halab. Beside the general gods, the kings had a "head god", that is, a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper. King Yarim-Lim I described Hadad as the god of
1235-558: The Assyrian shedu . The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular home temples, like in the Mesopotamian or Ancient Egyptian religion . Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna and Hittite Yazilikaya . Harran was at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple in Nineve , when the city was under Hurrian rule. A temple of Nergal
1300-502: The Hurrian deity Teshub , and several Shubrian names have Hurrian origins. Hurrians formed part of the Shubrian population and may have been the predominant group. Some scholars have suggested that Shubria was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians. Karen Radner writes that Shubria "can certainly be described as [a] (linguistically and culturally) Hurrian" state. According to Radner,
1365-522: The Hurrian name Tupkish had a queen with the name Uqnitum, Akkadian for "girl of lapis lazuli". Hurrian names occur sporadically in northwestern Mesopotamia and the area of Kirkuk in modern Iraq by the Middle Bronze Age . Their presence was attested at Nuzi , Urkesh and other sites. They eventually occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from the Khabur River valley in the west to
SECTION 20
#17330856709611430-541: The Hurrians way before their first historical mention in Akkadian sources. Copper was traded south to Mesopotamia from the highlands of Anatolia . The Khabur Valley had a central position in the metal trade, and copper, silver and even tin were accessible from the Hurrian-dominated countries Kizzuwatna and Ishuwa situated in the Anatolian highland. Gold was in short supply, and the Amarna letters inform us that it
1495-455: The Hurrians. The Hittite king then defeated Yamhad in the battle of Mount Atalur, and sacked Hassum along with several other Hurrian cities in the sixth year of his Syrian wars. After many campaigns, Hattusili I finally attacked Halab during the reign of Hammurabi III. The attack ended in a defeat, the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c. 1620 BC. Hattusili's campaigns considerably weakened Yamhad, causing it to decline in status:
1560-764: The Syrian Department of Antiquities. The tells, or city mounds, often reveal a long occupation beginning in the Neolithic and ending in the Roman period or later. The characteristic Hurrian pottery, the Khabur ware, is helpful in determining the different strata of occupation within the mounds. The Hurrian settlements are usually identified from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Late Bronze Age, with Tell Mozan (Urkesh) being
1625-569: The Yamhad style, which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim, whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim-Lim I. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire , Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings, and by c. 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population. The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab, as evidenced by
1690-510: The aggressions of the Hittite king Hattusili I through alliances with the Hurrian principalities. Hattusili chose not to attack Halab directly and began with conquering Yamhad's vassals and allies, starting with Alalakh in the second year of his Syrian campaigns c. 1650 BC ( Middle chronology ) or slightly later. Hattusili then turned to attack the Hurrians in Urshu northeast of Halab, and won in spite of military support from Halab and Carchemish for
1755-868: The ancient sites are the many dam projects in the Euphrates , Tigris and Khabur valleys. Several rescue operations have already been undertaken when the construction of dams put entire river valleys under water. The first major excavations of Hurrian sites in Iraq and Syria began in the 1920s and 1930s. They were led by the American archaeologist Edward Chiera at Yorghan Tepe (Nuzi), and the British archaeologist Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak. Recent excavations and surveys in progress are conducted by American, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, French, German and Italian teams of archaeologists, with international participants, in cooperation with
1820-400: The architecture and the functions of the temples, which were mainly cultic, while political authority was invested in the royal palace, in contrast to the important political role of the temples in Mesopotamia. Since the capital Halab has not been excavated, the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh, which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by
1885-620: The city of Urkesh , where they built their first kingdom. Their largest and most influential Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni . The population of the Hittite Empire in Anatolia included a large population of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence in Hittite mythology . By the Early Iron Age , the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples. The state of Urartu later covered some of
1950-570: The control of the Assyrians. The Hurrian entity of Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC, was first mentioned in the records of Egyptian pharaohs Thutmose I (1506–1493 BC) and Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), the later most notably associated with the Battle of Megiddo in that pharaoh's 22 regnal year. Most of the time Egyptians referred to the kingdom as Naharin . Later, Mitanni and Hanigalbat (the Assyrian name for Mitanni) are mentioned in
2015-528: The death of its ally, the late Shamshi-Adad I. A sample of Yarim-Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari, that was sent to the king of Dēr in southern Mesopotamia, which included a declaration of war against Der and its neighbor Diniktum , the tablet mentions the stationing of 500 Yamhadite warships for twelve years in Diniktum, and the Yamhadite military support of Der for 15 years. Yarim-Lim's accomplishments elevated Yamhad into
Ullikummi - Misplaced Pages Continue
2080-448: The east conquering Tuttul and installing Zimri-Lim as governor of the city. The death of the Assyrian king came a year later. Yarim-Lim then sent his army with Zimri-Lim, to restore his ancestors throne as an ally-vassal to Yamhad, cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and Shibtu , the daughter of Yarim-Lim. "There is no king who is mighty by himself. Ten or fifteen kings follow Hammurabi
2145-515: The end of the 19th century BC and was ruled by the Yamhad dynasty , who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm. From the beginning of its establishment, the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors Mari , Qatna and the Old Assyrian Empire , and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king Yarim-Lim I . By the middle of
2210-586: The existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names. Halab's location has always been a factor in its prominence as an economic center. Yamhad's economy was based on trade with the Iranian Plateau , Mesopotamia , Cyprus and Anatolia , with the city of Emar as its port on the Euphrates , and Alalakh with its proximity to the sea as its port on the Mediterranean . The actions of Yarim-Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for
2275-575: The foothills of the Zagros Mountains in the east. By this point, during the Old Babylonian period in the early second millennium BC, the Amorite kingdom of Mari to the south had subdued Urkesh and made it a vassal state. Urkesh later became a Mitanni religious center. The Hurrians also migrated further west in this period. By 1725 BC they are found also in parts of northern Syria , such as Alalakh . The mixed Amorite–Hurrian kingdom of Yamhad
2340-415: The gods, and Hadad , who was the most important deity and the head of the pantheon . The kingdom was known as the "land of Hadad", who was famous as the Storm-God of Halab beginning in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. His main temple was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city and remained in use from the 24th century BC, until at least the 9th century BC. The title "Beloved of Hadad"
2405-635: The kingdom and faced Yahdun-Lim of Mari who had a dynastic alliance with Yamhad to oppose Assyria, but eventually campaigned in the north threatening the kingdom. The Yamhadite king supported the Yaminite tribes and formed an alliance with other Syrian states including Urshu , Hassum and Carchemish , against the Mariote king who defeated his enemies, who was eventually killed by his own son Sumu-Yamam. The rise of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari. The Amorite king of Assyria
2470-507: The kingdom's economy, for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria, with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia . Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants, who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions. As late as the 14th century BC, texts of the so-called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits. The markets of Yamhad became
2535-488: The main exception. The list includes some important ancient sites from the area dominated by the Hurrians. Excavation reports and images are found at the websites linked. As noted above, important discoveries of Hurrian culture and history were also made at Alalakh, Amarna, Hattusa and Ugarit. Yamhad Yamhad ( Yamḫad ) was an ancient Semitic-speaking kingdom centered on Ḥalab ( Aleppo ) in Syria . The kingdom emerged at
2600-473: The monarch ceased to be styled a Great King. Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson Mursili I , who conquered Halab c. 1600 BC and destroyed Yamhad as a major power in the Levant . Mursili then left for Babylon and sacked it, but was assassinated upon his return to his capital Hattusa , and his empire disintegrated. Halab was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again. The reestablished kingdom
2665-586: The most important sites for our knowledge about the Hurrians. Hurrian kings such as Ithi-Teshup and Ithiya ruled over Arrapha, yet by the mid-fifteenth century BC they had become vassals of the Great King of Mitanni. At the end of the second millennium BC the Urartians around Lake Van and Mount Ararat rose in power forming the Kingdom of Urartu . During the 11th and 10th centuries BC, the kingdom eventually encompassed
Ullikummi - Misplaced Pages Continue
2730-480: The north Syrian storm god Hadad was located in the city, which was known as the "City of Hadad". The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the Old Babylonian period, when Sumu-Epuh , the first Yamhadite king, was attested in a seal from Mari as the ruler of the land of Yamhad, which included, in addition to Halab, the cities of Alalakh and Tuba . Sumu-Epuh consolidated
2795-420: The rebellion by destroying Irridu, and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh, thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty. The era of Abba-El I's successors is poorly documented, and by the time of Yarim-Lim III in the mid-17th century BC, the power of Yamhad declined due to internal dissent. Yarim-Lim III ruled a weakened kingdom, and although he imposed Yamhadite hegemony over Qatna,
2860-470: The relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years; the power vacuum caused by Mari's fall opened the way for Hammurabi to extend Yamhad's hegemony over the upper Khabur valley in the east, where the ruler of Shubat Enlil became his vassal. Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son Abba-El I , whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city Irridu , which was under the authority of prince Yarim-Lim , Abba-El's brother. The king responded to
2925-487: The ruler of Babylon , a like number of Rim-Sin of Larsa , a like number of Ibal-pi-el of Eshnunna , a like number of Amud-pi-el of Qatanum , but twenty follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad." Yarim-Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom, which reached Mamma in the north. The Syrian city-states were subdued through alliances or force; Mamma, Ebla and Ugarit became vassals of Yamhad, while Qatna remained independent but came to peace with Yamhad following
2990-436: The same area. The Khabur River valley became the heart of the Hurrian lands for a millennium. The first known Hurrian kingdom emerged around the city of Urkesh (modern Tell Mozan) during the third millennium BC. There is evidence that they were initially allied with the Akkadian Empire of Mesopotamia , indicating they had a firm hold on the area by the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC). A king of Urkesh with
3055-448: The southeast, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far as west as Kizzuwatna by the Taurus mountains, Tunip in the south, Arraphe in the east, and north to Lake Van . Their sphere of influence is shown in spread Hurrian place names, personal names. Eventually, after an internal succession crisis, Mitanni fell to the Hittites, later to fall under
3120-1598: The state, but the Mesopotamian deity Sin as the god of his head. His son Hammurabi I did likewise. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon
3185-461: The status of a Great Kingdom and the Yamhadite king title became the Great King . Yarim-Lim I was succeeded by his son Hammurabi I who had a peaceful reign. He was able to force Charchemish into submission, and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam . The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it. Babylon did not attack Yamhad, however, and
3250-605: The swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth of Teshub and Kumarbi. It has been argued that the worship of Attis drew on Hurrian myth. The agglutinating and highly ergative Hurrian language is related to the Urartian language, the language of the ancient kingdom of Urartu. Together they form the Hurro-Urartian language family . The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for
3315-545: The term Shubaru was used in Assyrian sources to refer to the remnants of the Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. The Shubaru people revolted against the Assyrians multiple times in the last centuries of the second millennium BC. The term is related to Shubria , the name of a country located north of the upper Tigris River valley. Shubria was located between Urartu and Assyria and existed as an independent kingdom until its conquest by Assyria in 673–672 BC. The Shubrians worshipped
SECTION 50
#17330856709613380-634: The throne. Teshub asked Ea for help. Ea visited Upelluri and cut off the feet of Ullikummi, toppling him Hurrian The Hurrians ( / ˈ h ʊər i ən z / ; Hurrian : 𒄷𒌨𒊑 , romanized: Ḫu-ur-ri ; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were a people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age . They spoke the Hurrian language , and lived throughout northern Syria , upper Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia . The Hurrians were first documented in
3445-499: The traditional Northwest Semitic deities, and the capital Halab was considered a holy city among the other Syrian cities as a center of worship for Hadad , who was regarded as the main deity of northern Syria. Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists, as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site. Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari . The name Yamhad
3510-457: The walls of the palaces in Alalakh. Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography, which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods. Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the ankh , which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere. Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called
3575-475: The weakening was obvious as Alalakh had become all but independent under the self-declared king Ammitakum . In spite of this regression, the king of Yamhad remained the strongest king of the Syrian states, as he was referred to as a Great King by the Hittites, the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king. The rise of the Hittite kingdom in the north posed the biggest threat to Yamhad, although Yarim-Lim III and his successor Hammurabi III were able to withstand
3640-544: Was acknowledged as a vassal, and allowed to control Halab, though he had to relocate the dynasty's residence to Alalakh and relinquish the title of "King of Halab"; the use of the name Yamhad also ended. Dates are estimated and given by the Middle chronology . The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the Amorite language , and apart from a few Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Aegean influences, Yamhad belonged mainly to middle Bronze Age Syrian culture. This culture influenced
3705-439: Was acquired from Egypt. Not many examples of Hurrian metal work have survived, except from the later Urartu. Some small fine bronze lion foundation pegs were discovered at Urkesh. Among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are the oldest known instances of written music , dating from c. 1400 BC. Among these fragments are found the names of four Hurrian composers, Tapšiẖuni, Puẖiya(na), Urẖiya, and Ammiya. The Hurrian culture made
3770-499: Was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant, and styled himself as "king of the world". Shamshi-Adad surrounded Yamhad by way of alliances with Charchemish, Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east, forcing Zimri-Lim the heir of Mari to flee. Sumu-Epuh welcomed Zimri-Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari. Shamshi-Adad's most dangerous alliance
3835-450: Was built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BC. The town of Kahat was a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni. The Hurrian myth "The Songs of Ullikummi", preserved among the Hittites, is a parallel to Hesiod 's Theogony ; the castration of Uranus by Cronus may be derived from the castration of Anu by Kumarbi , while Zeus 's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of
3900-512: Was identified at Tell Billa during the middle of the second millenium BC. In 2022 Tell Billa was proposed as the possible site of the city of Šimānum (possibly known as Asimānum during the Akkadian Empire). Šimānum was important during the Ur III period (ca 2100 BC). The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the southwest, Kassites to
3965-450: Was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom. The city of Halab was a religious center in northern Syria, and was mentioned by the name Ha-lam, as a vassal of the Eblaite empire, which controlled most of Syria in the middle of the third millennium BC. Halab's fame as a Holy City contributed to its later prominence; the main temple of
SECTION 60
#17330856709614030-411: Was one of the king's titles. Hadad was the kingdom's patron god, and all treaties were concluded in his name, which was also used to threaten other kingdoms, and to declare wars. As the Hurrian presence grew, so did Hurrian religious influences and some of the Hurrian deities found a place in the Yamhadite pantheon. King Abba-El I mentioned receiving the support of the Hurrian goddess Hebat in one of
4095-504: Was ruled by kings of whom nothing but their names is known; the first is Sarra-El , who might have been the son of Yarim-Lim III. The last king of the dynasty to rule as king of Halab was Ilim-Ilimma I , whose reign ended c. 1524 when he was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king Parshatatar of Mitanni who annexed Halab. Ilim-Ilimma's son, Idrimi , fled to Emar then conquered Alalakh c. 1517 BC. Seven years following his conquest of Alalakh, Idrimi made peace with Mitanni and
4160-443: Was the only long Hurrian text known until a multi-tablet collection of literature in Hurrian with a Hittite translation was discovered at Hattusa in 1983. Hurrian settlements are distributed over three modern countries, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The heart of the Hurrian world is bisected by the modern border between Syria and Turkey. Several sites are situated within the border zone, making access for excavations problematic. A threat to
4225-628: Was with Qatna , whose king Ishi-Addu became Assyria's agent at Yamhad's borders and married his daughter to Yasmah-Adad , the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari. Sumu-Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad and was succeeded by his son Yarim-Lim I , who consolidated his father's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia. Yarim-Lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad by alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal-pi-el II of Eshnunna , then in 1777 BC he advanced to
#960039