129-707: The UK Border Agency ( UKBA ) was the border control agency of the Government of the United Kingdom and part of the Home Office that was superseded by UK Visas and Immigration , Border Force and Immigration Enforcement in April 2013. It was formed as an executive agency on 1 April 2008 by a merger of the Border and Immigration Agency (BIA), UKvisas and the detection functions of HM Revenue and Customs . The decision to create
258-413: A negative economic and social impact on the travel industry . Slow travel increased in popularity during the pandemic, with tourists visiting fewer destinations during their trips. Biosecurity measures such as restrictions on cross-border travel, the introduction of mandatory vaccination for international travellers, and the adoption of quarantine or mandatory testing measures have helped to contain
387-682: A "nasty dehumanisation". Starting in the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire established quarantine stations on many of its borders to control disease. For example, along the Greek-Turkish border, all travellers entering and exiting the Ottoman Empire would be quarantined for 9–15 days. These stations would often be manned by armed guards. If plague appeared, the Ottoman army would be deployed to enforce border control and monitor disease . One of
516-448: A common aspect of border security measures across the world. Border walls generally seek to limit unauthorised travel across an international border and are frequently implemented as a populist response to refugees and economic migrants. The India-Bangladesh barrier is a 3,406 kilometres (2,116 miles) long fence of barbed wire and concrete just under 3 metres (9 feet 10 inches) high currently under construction. Its stated aim
645-503: A consul's handbook from 1879: A bill of health is a document issued by the consul or the public authorities of the port which a ship sails from, descriptive of the health of the port at the time of the vessel's clearance. A clean bill of health certifies that at the date of its issue no infectious disease was known to exist either in the port or its neighbourhood. A suspected or touched bill of health reports that rumours were in circulation that an infectious disease had appeared but that
774-493: A country's airspace may be grounded and their crews may be detained. No country has sovereignty over international waters , including the associated airspace. All states have the freedom of fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, as well as research. Oceans, seas, and waters outside national jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas or, in Latin , mare liberum (meaning free sea ). The 1958 Convention on
903-485: A country's territory to give the country more time to respond to possibly hostile aircraft. The concept of an ADIZ is not defined in any international treaty and is not regulated by any international body, but is nevertheless a well-established aerial border control measure. Usually such zones only cover undisputed territory, do not apply to foreign aircraft not intending to enter territorial airspace, and do not overlap. Biosecurity refers to measures aimed at preventing
1032-795: A decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19 . Contemporary border control policies are complex and address a variety of distinct phenomena depending on the circumstances and political priorities of the state(s) implementing them. Consequently, there are several aspects of border control which vary in nature and importance from region to region. In addition to land borders, countries also apply border control measures to airspace and waters under their jurisdiction . Such measures control access to air and maritime territory as well as extractible resources (e.g. fish , minerals, fossil fuels). Under
1161-462: A form of passport was the bara'a , a receipt for taxes paid. Border controls were in place to ensure that only people who paid their zakah (for Muslims ) or jizya (for dhimmis ) taxes could travel freely between different regions of the Caliphate; thus, the bara'a receipt was a "basic passport". In medieval Europe, passports were issued since at least the reign of Henry V of England , as
1290-469: A jurisdiction is known as a port of entry. International airports are usually ports of entry, as are road and rail crossings on a land border . Seaports can be used as ports of entry only if a dedicated customs presence is posted there. The choice of whether to become a port of entry is up to the civil authority controlling the port. An airport of entry is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for incoming flights. These services allow
1419-550: A limited number of checkpoints where they can be crossed without legal sanctions. Arrangements or treaties may be formed to allow or mandate less restrained crossings (e.g. the Schengen Agreement ). Land border checkpoints (land ports of entry) can be contrasted with the customs and immigration facilities at seaports , international airports , and other ports of entry . Checkpoints generally serve two purposes: A border checkpoint at which travellers are permitted to enter
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#17330944760181548-541: A mass exodus of the (largely Gujarati ) Asian community of Uganda. Such ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging from anti-Asian sentiment in East Africa to Apartheid policies in South Africa and Namibia (then known as Southwest Africa under South African rule) which created bantustans and pass laws to segregate and impose border controls against non-whites, and encouraged immigration of whites at
1677-654: A means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament . In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England , and it was around this time that the term "passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the Secretary of State . The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required
1806-405: A means of preventing the spread of the disease. Prior to the emergence of COVID-19 , Yellow Fever was the primary human disease subjected to de facto vaccine passport measures by border control authorities around the world. Similar measures are in place with regard to Polio and meningococcal meningitis in regions where those diseases are endemic and countries bordering those regions. Prior to
1935-528: A modest reduction in the total number of people infected These strict border controls economic harm to the tourism industry through lost income and social harm to people who were unable to travel for family matters or other reasons. When the travel bans are lifted, many people are expected to resume traveling. However, some travel, especially business travel , may be decreased long-term as lower cost alternatives, such as teleconferencing and virtual events , are preferred. A possible long-term impact has been
2064-547: A relatively rare phenomenon until the early 20th century, prior to which many states had open international borders either in practice or due to a lack of any legal restriction. John Maynard Keynes identified World War I in particular as the point when such controls became commonplace. Decolonisation during the twentieth century saw the emergence of mass emigration from nations in the Global South , thus leading former colonial occupiers to introduce stricter border controls. In
2193-516: A result of the region's series of gold rushes as well as Kanakas (Pacific Islanders brought into Australia as indentured labourers) who alongside the Asians were perceived by trade unionists and White blue collar workers as a threat to the wages of White settlers. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, these discriminatory border control measures quickly expanded into
2322-551: A rigorous quarantine clause was introduced into an act regulating trade with the Levant , and various arbitrary orders were issued during the next twenty years to meet the supposed danger of infection from the Baltic states. Although no plague cases ever came to England during that period, the restrictions on traffic became more stringent, and in 1788 a very strict Quarantine Act was passed, with provisions affecting cargoes in particular. The act
2451-475: A ship to enter port on assurance from the captain that the vessel is free from contagious disease . The clearance granted is commonly referred to as 'free pratique'. A ship can signal a request for 'pratique' by flying a solid yellow square-shaped flag. This yellow flag is the Q flag in the set of international maritime signal flags . In the event that 'free pratique' is not granted, a vessel will be held in quarantine according to biosecurity rules prevailing at
2580-547: A single border control organisation was taken following a Cabinet Office report. The agency's head office was 2 Marsham Street, London. Rob Whiteman became Chief Executive in September 2011. Over 23,000 staff worked for the agency, in over 130 countries. It was divided into four main operations, each under the management of a senior director: operations, immigration and settlement, international operations and visas and law enforcement. The agency came under formal criticism from
2709-490: A uniform with rank insignia. Enforcement immigration officers wear body armour and carry handcuffs and ASP batons . Customs officers had wide-ranging powers of entry, search and detention. The main power was to detain anyone who had committed, or who the officer had reasonable grounds to suspect had committed, any offence under the Customs and Excise Acts. The UK Border Agency occasionally removed foreign national criminals at
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#17330944760182838-420: A variety of issues, ranging from customs violations and trade in unlawful goods to the suppression of unauthorised migration or travel. The specific border security measures taken by a jurisdiction vary depending on the priorities of local authorities and are affected by social, economic, and geographical factors. In India, which maintains free movement with Nepal and Bhutan, border security focuses primarily on
2967-564: A variety of purposes, ranging from enforcing customs , sanitary and phytosanitary, or biosecurity regulations to restricting migration . While some borders (including most states' internal borders and international borders within the Schengen Area ) are open and completely unguarded, others (including the vast majority of borders between countries as well as some internal borders) are subject to some degree of control and may be crossed legally only at designated checkpoints . Border controls in
3096-546: A whole were yet to become mainstream. The first act was called for due to fears that the plague might be imported from Poland and the Baltic states . The second act of 1721 was due to the prevalence of the plague at Marseille and other places in Provence , France. It was renewed in 1733 after a new outbreak in continental Europe , and again in 1743, due to an epidemic in Messina . In 1752
3225-554: Is a ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom . It is responsible for the English transport network and a limited number of transport matters in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland that have not been devolved . The department is led by the Secretary of State for Transport . The expenditure, administration, and policy of the Department of Transport are scrutinised by
3354-412: Is a case in which the prosecution should not be allowed to benefit from the serious misbehaviour of the officer in the case or the disclosure officer". The Reverend Ntege and six other defendants were formally acquitted of all 17 charges, which related to marriages of convenience in order to bypass immigration laws. Channel 4 News later reported that three immigration officers had been suspended and that
3483-510: Is also sometimes used to define an area (usually composed of several countries) which form a customs union , a customs territory , or to describe the area at airports and ports where travellers are checked through customs. Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are customs measures to protect humans, animals, and plants from diseases, pests, or contaminants. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures , concluded at
3612-440: Is an area designated for storage of commercial goods that have not cleared border controls. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are often stored in a type of customs area known as a bonded warehouse , until processed or re-exported. Ports authorised to handle international cargo generally include recognised bonded warehouses. For the purpose of customs duties , goods within the customs area are treated as being outside
3741-579: Is especially restrictive. Members of the Schengen Agreement are required to apply strict checks on travellers entering and exiting the area. These checks are co-ordinated by the European Union's Frontex agency, and subject to common rules. The details of border controls, surveillance and the conditions under which permission to enter into the Schengen Area may be granted are exhaustively detailed in
3870-512: Is not usually granted under most open skies agreements. Air cabotage policies in the European Union are uniquely liberal insofar as carriers licensed by one member state are permitted to engage in cabotage in any EU member state, with few limitations. Chile has the most liberal air cabotage rules in the world, enacted in 1979, which allow foreign airlines to operate domestic flights, conditional upon reciprocal treatment for Chilean carriers in
3999-562: Is porous and the 2021 military coup in Myanmar saw an influx of refugees seeking asylum in border states including Mizoram . The refoulement of Rohingya refugees is a contentious aspect of India's border control policy vis à vis Myanmar. Meanwhile, American border security policy is largely centred on the country's border with Mexico . Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements; including physical barriers, patrol routes, lighting, and border patrol personnel. In contrast,
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4128-427: Is to limit unauthorised migration. The project has run into several delays and there is no clear completion date for the project yet. Similar to India's barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan . The wall aims to reduce unauthorised border crossings and stem the flow of drugs, and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably
4257-464: Is used for different purposes in different contexts. The most common category of biosecurity policies are quarantine measures adopted to counteract the spread of disease and, when applied as a component of border control, focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country. Other aspects of biosecurity related to border control include mandatory vaccination policies for inbound travellers and measures to curtail
4386-668: The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 in Canada, which imposed what came to be called the Chinese head tax . These policies were a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs. Similar policies were adopted in various British colonies in Australia over the latter half of the 19th century targeting Asian immigrants arriving as
4515-621: The Gulf Cooperation Council , whose economies are more similar. In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed constructing a security fence along the entire length of its 900 kilometre long desert border with Iraq. As of July 2009 it was reported that Saudis will pay $ 3.5 billion for a security fence. The combined wall and ditch will be 965 kilometres (600 miles) long and include five layers of fencing, watch towers, night-vision cameras, and radar cameras and manned by 30,000 troops. Elsewhere in Europe,
4644-657: The Immigration Act 1971 , when both at ports and inland. In practice, border force officers exercised powers under Schedule 2 of the Immigration Act 1971 and inland immigration officers under S28A-H of the Immigration Act 1971 and paragraph 17 of Schedule 2. This led to separate training for border and inland officers. This act is applicable in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. "Designated Immigration Officers" are port immigration officers who have been trained in detention under PACE. UK Border Agency immigration officers wear
4773-555: The Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) would be conducting an investigation. The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) said that it accepted that the handling of the case had fallen below acceptable standards and that it would conduct a full review. Despite the collapse of the 2014 criminal case, in 2019 a Church of England disciplinary panel removed Ntege from his office and from the priesthood over complaints concerning marriages, their administration, and
4902-637: The National Trip End Model and traffic counts on major roads. The devolution of transport policy varies around the UK; most aspects in Great Britain are decided at Westminster. Key reserved transport matters (i.e., not devolved) are as follows: Scotland Reserved matters: Scotland's comparability factor (the proportion of spending in this area devolved to the Scottish Government)
5031-535: The Parliamentary Ombudsman for consistently poor service, a backlog of hundreds of thousands of cases, and a large and increasing number of complaints. In the first nine months of 2009–10, 97% of investigations reported by the Ombudsman resulted in a complaint against the agency being upheld. The complainants were asylum, residence, or other immigration applicants. In April 2012, the border control division of
5160-534: The Republic of Macedonia began erecting a fence on its border with Greece in November 2015. In 2003, Botswana began building a 480 kilometres (300 miles) long electric fence along its border with Zimbabwe . The official reason for the fence is to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among livestock. Zimbabweans argue that the height of the fence is clearly intended to keep out people. Botswana has responded that
5289-609: The Transport Committee . The Department for Transport has six strategic objectives: The department "creates the strategic framework" for transport services, which are delivered through a wide range of public and private sector bodies including its own executive agencies. The DfT sponsors the following public bodies: DfT publications include the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges and Transport Analysis Guidance (TAG, formerly WebTAG). The DfT maintains datasets including
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5418-561: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), states exercise varying degrees of control over different categories of territorial waters: Vessels not complying with a state's maritime policies may be subject to ship arrest and enforcement action by the state's authorities. Maritime border control measures are controversial in the context of international trade disputes, as was
5547-554: The Uruguay Round of the Multilateral Trade Negotiations , establishes the types of SPS measures each jurisdiction is permitted to impose. Examples of SPS are tolerance limits for residues, restricted use of substances, labelling requirements related to food safety, hygienic requirements and quarantine requirements. In certain countries, sanitary and phytosanitary measures focuses extensively on curtailing and regulating
5676-511: The Western Han (202 BCE-220 CE), if not in the Qin dynasty . They required such details as age, height, and bodily features. These passports ( zhuan ) determined a person's ability to move throughout imperial counties and through points of control. Even children needed passports, but those of one year or less who were in their mother's care may not have needed them. In the medieval Islamic Caliphate ,
5805-786: The White Australia Policy , while subsequent legislation in America (e.g. the Immigration Act of 1891 , the Naturalisation Act of 1906 , and the Immigration Act of 1917 ) resulted in an even stricter policy targeting immigrants from both Asia and parts of southern and eastern Europe. Even following the adoption of measures such as the White Australia Policy and the Chinese Exclusion Act in English-speaking settler colonies, pervasive control of international borders remained
5934-508: The airspace above its land territory, internal waters, and territorial sea. Consequently, states have the authority to regulate flyover rights and tax foreign aircraft utilising their airspace. Additionally, the International Civil Aviation Organization designates states to administer international airspace, including airspace over waters not forming part of any state's territorial sea. Aircraft unlawfully entering
6063-421: The border with Canada is primarily composed of joint border patrol and security camera programmes, forming the longest undefended border in the world. In remote areas along the border with Canada, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points. Border security on the Schengen Area's external borders
6192-489: The eradication of Smallpox , similar Carte Jaune requirements were in force for that disease around the world. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic , biosecurity measures have become a highly visible aspect of border control across the globe. Most notably, quarantine and mandatory COVID-19 vaccination for international travellers. Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the implementation of biosecurity measures has had
6321-593: The 20th century also saw the standardisation of refugee travel documents under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951 and the 1954 Convention travel document for stateless people under the similar 1954 statelessness convention. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 produced a drastic tightening of border controls across the globe. Many countries and regions have imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions for citizens of or recent travellers to
6450-421: The 21st century are tightly intertwined with intricate systems of travel documents, visas, and increasingly complex policies that vary between countries. It is estimated that the indirect economic cost of border controls, particularly migration restrictions, cost many trillions of dollars and the size of the global economy could double if migration restrictions were lifted. States and rulers have always regarded
6579-518: The African continent, a significant portion of countries in the region require arriving passengers to present an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (Carte Jaune) certifying that they have received the Yellow Fever vaccine . A variety of other countries require travellers who have visited areas where Yellow Fever is endemic to present a certificate in order to clear border checkpoints as
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#17330944760186708-527: The American military. Members of both the Democratic and Republican parties who opposed Trump's border control policies regarded the border wall as unnecessary or undesirable, arguing that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including tackling the economic issues that lead to immigration being a relevant issue altogether, border surveillance or an increase in
6837-580: The Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Myanmar borders. India's primary focus with regard to the border with Bangladesh is to deter unlawful immigration and drug trafficking. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Indian territory by terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc.). In contrast, India's border with Myanmar
6966-605: The British government under Boris Johnson announced a programme under which BN(O)s would have leave to remain in the UK with rights to work and study for five years, after which they may apply for settled status . They would then be eligible for full citizenship after holding settled status for 12 months. This was implemented as the eponymously named "British National (Overseas) visa", a residence permit that BN(O)s and their dependent family members have been able to apply for since 31 January 2021. BN(O)s and their dependents who arrived in
7095-673: The COVID-19 pandemic, many jurisdictions across the globe introduced biosecurity measures on internal borders. This ranged from quarantine measures imposed upon individuals crossing state lines within America to prohibitions on interstate travel in Australia . Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, which its customs authority enforces. The import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden, in which case customs controls enforce such policies. Customs enforcement at borders can also entail collecting excise tax and preventing
7224-711: The CTA. Despite the CTA it is still possible to be deported from the UK to the Republic of Ireland and vice versa. Entry to the UK via the Channel Tunnel from France or Belgium or by ferry through selected ports in north-east France is controlled by juxtaposed immigration controls in Britain, France, and Belgium , i.e. travellers clear UK passport control in France or Belgium and those travelling to France or Belgium clear French controls while in
7353-521: The High Seas defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and where "no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its sovereignty". Ships sailing the high seas are generally under the jurisdiction of their flag state (if there is one); however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy , any nation can exercise jurisdiction under
7482-625: The Home Office's strategy, immigration and international group, sought to investigate wider issues relating to the performance of UKBA regarding racism. It was then announced on 5 November by Theresa May that an independent inquiry would also be undertaken, led by the Chief Inspector of the UK Border Agency , John Vine. His report was published on 20 February 2012. The Border Force became a separate organisation on 1 March 2012. In October 2014,
7611-475: The Hungarian government under right-wing strongman Viktor Orbán. Similarly, Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a border barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods. The difference between the countries' economic situations means that many Yemenis head to Saudi Arabia to find work. Saudi Arabia does not have a barrier with its other neighbours in
7740-604: The Republic of China and are usually off-limits to foreign vessels. In India, foreign vessels engaging in the coasting trade require a licence that is generally only issued when no local vessel is available. Similarly, a foreign vessel may only be issued a licence to engage in cabotage in Brazil if there are no Brazilian flagged vessels available for the intended transport. As with maritime cabotage, most jurisdictions heavily restrict cabotage in passenger aviation, though rules regarding air cargo are typically more lax. Passenger cabotage
7869-685: The Schengen Borders Code. All persons crossing external borders—inbound or outbound—are subject to a check by a border guard . The only exception is for regular cross-border commuters (both those with the right of free movement and third-country nationals) who are well known to the border guards: once an initial check has shown that there is no alert on record relating to them in the Schengen Information System or national databases, they can only be subject to occasional 'random' checks, rather than systematic checks every time they cross
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#17330944760187998-754: The UK before the new immigration route became available were granted "Leave Outside the Rules" at the discretion of the Border Force to remain in the country for up to six months as a temporary measure. In effect, this retroactively granted BN(O)s a path to right of abode in the United Kingdom. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic , about 7,000 people had entered the UK under this scheme between July 2020 and January 2021. Ethnic tensions created during colonial occupation also resulted in discriminatory policies being adopted in newly independent African nations, such as Uganda under Idi Amin which banned Asians from Uganda , thus creating
8127-456: The UK's borders, although management of the new organisation was integrated and progressively officers were cross trained and empowered to deal with customs and immigration matters at the border. The Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 received Royal Assent on 21 July 2009. This allowed the concurrent exercise of customs powers by HMRC Commissioners and the Director of Border Revenue; it
8256-417: The UK. Belgium does not maintain controls in the UK as the first Schengen country entered is France. UK Border Agency checkpoints in France were operated at Gare de Calais-Fréthun , Gare de Lille Europe , Gare de Marne-la-Vallée–Chessy , Gare d'Avignon-Centre , Channel Tunnel, Calais ferry terminal, Dunkirk ferry terminal and Gare du Nord station, Paris. A checkpoint operated at Boulogne-sur-Mer until
8385-520: The UKBA was separated from the rest of the agency as the Border Force . On 26 March 2013, following a scathing report into the agency's incompetence by the Home Affairs Select Committee, it was announced by Home Secretary Theresa May that the UK Border Agency would be abolished and its work returned to the Home Office. Its executive agency status was removed as of 31 March 2013 and the agency
8514-486: The United Kingdom is managed within a wider Common Travel Area (CTA). The CTA is an intergovernmental agreement that allows freedom of movement within an area that encompasses the UK, Isle of Man, Channel Islands (Guernsey, Jersey, Sark and Alderney) and the Republic of Ireland. Authorised entry to any of the above essentially allows entry to all the others but it is the responsibility of the person entering to ensure that they are properly documented for entry to other parts of
8643-434: The United Kingdom this process took place in stages, with British nationality law eventually shifting from recognising all Commonwealth citizens as British subjects to today's complex British nationality law which distinguishes between British citizens, modern British Subjects , British Overseas Citizens , and overseas nationals , with each non-standard category created as a result of attempts to balance border control and
8772-632: The Welsh Government) was 36.6% for 2021/22. This represents a significant reduction (e.g. it was 80.9% in 2015) due to the controversial classification of HS2 as an 'England and Wales' project. The Ministry of Transport was established by the Ministry of Transport Act 1919 ( 9 & 10 Geo. 5 . c. 50) which provided for the transfer to the new ministry of powers and duties of any government department in respect of railways , light railways , tramways , canals and inland waterways , roads , bridges and ferries , and vehicles and traffic thereon, harbours , docks and piers . In September 1919, all
8901-475: The ability of refugees and migrants to enter the European Union via the two Spanish cities on the Moroccan coast. Similar measures have been taken on the Schengen area's borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis in Syria. The creation of European Union's collective border security organisation, Frontex , is another aspect of the bloc's growing focus on border security. Within the Schengen Area, border security has become an especially prominent priority for
9030-412: The ability to determine who enters or remains in their territories as a key test of their sovereignty, but prior to World War I , border controls were only sporadically implemented. In medieval Europe, for example, the boundaries between rival countries and centres of power were largely symbolic or consisted of amorphous borderlands, 'marches', and 'debatable lands' of indeterminate or contested status and
9159-437: The agency had provided inaccurate reports to the Home Affairs Select Committee over a number of years. The agency was split internally on 1 April 2013, becoming a visa and immigration service and separate immigration law enforcement service. Staff held a mixture of powers granted to them by their status as immigration officers and customs officers. Immigration officers had the power of arrest and detention conferred on them by
9288-611: The agency in January 2011 to become the Permanent Secretary at the Department for Transport . Deputy Chief Executive Jonathan Sedgwick was acting chief until the new CEO, Rob Whiteman, took over on 26 September 2011. Sedgwick then became director of international operations and visas. In July 2011, the strategic policy functions of the agency moved to the Home Office. Home Secretary Theresa May announced to Parliament on 26 March 2013 that
9417-412: The agency would be abolished due to continuing poor performance, and replaced by two new smaller organisations which would focus on the visa system and immigration law enforcement respectively. The UKBA's performance was described as "not good enough", partly blamed on the size of the organisation. A report by MPs also criticised the agency, and described it as "not fit for purpose". It was also claimed that
9546-539: The airport to serve as an initial port of entry for foreign visitors arriving in a country. While the terms airport of entry and international airport are generally used interchangeably, not all international airports qualify as airports of entry since international airports without any immigration or customs facilities exist in the Schengen Area whose members have eliminated border controls with each other. Airports of entry are usually larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate
9675-416: The border security industry for having a vested interest in increasing border militarisation in order to increase profits. Furthermore, the same companies are also often involved in the arms trade and thus profit twice: first from fuelling the conflicts, repression and human rights abuses that have led refugees to flee their homes and later from intercepting them along their migration routes. Border walls are
9804-515: The border. Additionally, border security in Europe is increasingly being outsourced to private companies, with the border security market growing at a rate of 7% per year. In its Border Wars series, the Transnational Institute showed that the arms and security industry helps shape European border security policy through lobbying, regular interactions with EU's border institutions and its shaping of research policy. The institute criticises
9933-577: The borders" at certain times in ways ministers would "not have agreed with". The BBC reported that staff may have been told not to scan biometric passports at certain times, which contain a digital image of the holder's face, which can be used to compare with the printed version and check the passport has not been forged. It is also believed that "warning index checks" at Heathrow and Calais were also suspended, which would have applied strict security checks against official watchlists of terrorists, criminals, and deported illegal immigrants. After Clark refused
10062-648: The case following France's detention of British fishermen in October 2021 in the aftermath of Brexit or when the Indonesian navy detained the crew of the Seven Seas Conqueress alleging that the vessel was unlawfully fishing within Indonesian territorial waters while the Singaporean government claimed the vessel was in Singaporean waters near Pedra Branca . Similarly, international law accords each state control over
10191-553: The common policy. Luggage tags for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries within the Schengen Area can use the green lane, although airports outside the Schengen Area or with frequent flights arriving from jurisdictions within Schengen but outside the European Union may use blue channels for convenience and efficiency. A customs area
10320-602: The country. The agency's E-Borders programme checked travellers to and from the UK in advance of travel, using data provided by passengers via their airline or ferry operators. The organisation used automatic clearance gates at main international airports. The agency managed the UK Government's limit on non-European economic migration to the UK. It was responsible for in-country enforcement operations, investigating organised immigration crime and to detecting immigration offenders including illegal entrants and overstayers. The body
10449-451: The country. This allows easy transshipment to a third country without customs authorities being involved. For this reason, customs areas are usually carefully controlled and fenced to prevent smuggling . However, the area is still territorially part of the country, so the goods within the area are subject to other local laws (for example drug laws and biosecurity regulations), and thus may be searched, impounded or turned back. The term
10578-651: The department was reorganised into three major sections: Secretarial, Finance and Roads. The ministry's functions were exercised initially throughout the United Kingdom. An Irish Branch was established in 1920, but then was taken over by the government of the Irish Free State on the transfer of functions in 1922. The department took over transport functions of Scottish departments in the same year, though certain functions relating to local government, loan sanction, byelaws and housing were excepted. In May 1937, power to make provisional orders for harbour, pier and ferry works
10707-446: The doctrine of universal jurisdiction regardless of maritime borders. As part of their air and maritime border control policies, most countries restrict or regulate the ability of foreign airlines and vessels to transport of goods or passengers between sea ports and airports in their jurisdiction, known as cabotage . Restrictions on maritime cabotage apply exist in most countries with territorial and internal waters so as to protect
10836-462: The domestic shipping industry from foreign competition, preserve domestically owned shipping infrastructure for national security purposes, and ensure safety in congested territorial waters. For example, in America, the Jones Act provides for extremely strict restrictions on cabotage. Similarly, China does not permit foreign flagged vessels to conduct domestic transport or domestic transhipments without
10965-418: The earliest systematic attempts of modern nation states to implement border controls to restrict entry of particular groups were policies adopted by Canada, Australia, and America to curtail immigration of Asians in white settler states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first anti-East Asian policy implemented in this era was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in America, which was followed suit by
11094-537: The end of their prison terms. Over 5000 foreign national prisoners were deported each year. The agency also removed failed asylum seekers and others illegally in the UK. A 2009 report by the National Audit Office cited lack of detention space to support the asylum process. The agency had over 3000 detention spaces in removal centres run by private contractors or the Prison Service . Immigration control within
11223-430: The ethnic origins of their holders. The creation of British Nationality (Overseas) status, for instance, (with fewer privileges than British citizen status) was met with criticism from many Hong Kong residents who felt that British citizenship would have been more appropriate in light of the "moral debt" owed to them by the UK. Some British politicians and magazines also criticised the creation of BN(O) status. In 2020,
11352-506: The expense of Blacks as well as Indians and other Asians. Whilst border control in Europe and east of the Pacific have tightened over time, they have largely been liberalised in Africa, from Yoweri Museveni 's reversal of Idi Amin's anti-Asian border controls to the fall of Apartheid (and thus racialised border controls) in South Africa. The development of border control policies over the course of
11481-472: The fence is designed to keep out cattle, and to ensure that entrants have their shoes disinfected at legal border crossings. Botswana also argued that the government continues to encourage legal movement into the country. Zimbabwe was unconvinced, and the barrier remains a source of tension. A Border checkpoint is a place where goods or individuals moving across borders are inspected for compliance with border control measures. Access-controlled borders often have
11610-435: The foreign airline's country. Countries apply special provisions to the ability of foreign airlines to carry passengers between two domestic destinations through an offshore hub. Many countries implement air defence identification zones (ADIZs) requiring aircraft approaching within a specified distance of its airspace to contact or seek prior authorisation from its military or transport authorities. An ADIZ may extend beyond
11739-658: The heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel. International airports often also host domestic flights , which often help feed both passengers and cargo into international ones (and vice versa). Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid-20th century, when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights. Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among
11868-555: The high output of dangerous and illegal drugs in the Golden Triangle as well as in regions further west such as Afghanistan. A similar problem exists east of the Pacific, and has resulted in countries such as Mexico and the United States tightening border control in response to the northward flow of illegal substances from regions such as Colombia. The Mexican Drug War and similar cartel activity in neighbouring areas has exacerbated
11997-654: The import of foreign agricultural products in order to protect domestic ecosystems. For example, Australian border controls restrict most (if not all) food products, certain wooden products and other similar items. Similar restrictions exist in Canada, America and New Zealand. Border control in many countries in Asia and the Americas prioritises enforcing customs laws pertaining to narcotics. For instance, India and Malaysia are focusing resources on eliminating drug smuggling from Myanmar and Thailand respectively. The issue stems largely from
12126-413: The improper retention of funds. Border control Border control comprises measures taken by governments to monitor and regulate the movement of people, animals, and goods across land, air, and maritime borders . While border control is typically associated with international borders, it also encompasses controls imposed on internal borders within a single state. Border control measures serve
12255-418: The initial arrival of COVID-19 in a country, but that they produced only modest overall effects unless combined with domestic infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions. (This is consistent with prior research on influenza and other communicable diseases. ) Travel bans early in the pandemic were most effective for isolated locations, such as small island nations . During
12384-570: The introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses , bacteria , etc.) to animals and plants in order to mitigate the risk of transmission of infectious disease . In agriculture , these measures are aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests , invasive species , and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the human population . The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism . The definition has sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it
12513-426: The most affected areas. Other countries and regions have imposed global restrictions that apply to all foreign countries and territories, or prevent their own citizens from travelling overseas. The imposition of border controls has curtailed the spread of the virus, but because they were first implemented after community spread was established in multiple countries in different regions of the world, they produced only
12642-1371: The most complex and interconnected in the world. By the second decade of the 21st century, there were over 1,200 international airports and almost two billion international passengers along with 50 million metric tons (49,000,000 long tons; 55,000,000 short tons) of cargo passing through them annually. Border inspections are also meant to protect each country's agriculture from pests . National and international phytosanitary authorities maintain databases of border interceptions , occurrences, and establishments . Bebber et al. , 2019 analyses such records and finds that they underreport many important pest species, that island nations are more vulnerable because they have lower border-to-area ratios, and that pests are moving poleward to follow humans' crops as our crops follow global warming . Department for Transport King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee The Department for Transport ( DfT )
12771-562: The need to mitigate statelessness . This aspect of the rise of border control in the 20th century has proven controversial. The British Nationality Act 1981 has been criticised by experts, as well as by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of the United Nations, on the grounds that the different classes of British nationality it created are, in fact, closely related to
12900-529: The number of customs agents. Additionally, in August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford , British Columbia, and Whatcom County , Washington. Border walls have formed a major component of European border control policy following the European migrant crisis . The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain's border with Morocco are designed to curtail
13029-477: The offer to take early retirement, he was suspended and the investigation began. A two-week inquiry led by former Metropolitan Police detective Dave Wood, currently head of the agency's enforcement and crime group, sought to discover to what extent checks were scaled down, and what the security implications might have been. A second investigation, led by former MI6 official Mike Anderson, the Director General of
13158-641: The one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials. Former president Donald Trump 's proposal to build a new wall along the border formed a major feature of his 2016 presidential campaign and, over the course of his presidency, his administration spent approximately US$ 15 billion on the project, with US$ 5 billion appropriated from US Customs and Border Protection , US$ 6.3 billion appropriated from anti-narcotics initiative funded by congress, and US$ 3.6 billion appropriated from
13287-579: The port closed in August 2010. United States border preclearance is an equivalent system operated by that country's equivalent to the UKBA at some airports outside the US. There have also been difficulties with the management of student visas under Tier 4 of the Points-Based System. The assessment of the Independent Chief Inspector , carried out between July and August 2010, found that there
13416-538: The port of entry until a border control officer inspects the vessel. During the COVID-19 pandemic , a controversy arose as to who granted pratique to the Ruby Princess . A related concept is the 'bill of health', a document issued by officials of a port of departure indicating to the officials of the port of arrival whether it is likely that the ship is carrying a contagious disease , either literally on board as fomites or via its crewmen or passengers. As defined in
13545-565: The powers of the Road Board, the Ministry of Health, and the Board of Trade in respect of transport, were transferred to the new ministry. Initially, the department was organised to carry out supervisory, development and executive functions, but the end of railway and canal control by 1921, and the settlement of financial agreements relating to the wartime operations of the railways reduced its role. In 1923,
13674-512: The prior approval of the Ministry of Transport. While Hong Kong and Macau maintain distinct internal cabotage regimes from the mainland, maritime cabotage between either territory and the mainland is considered domestic carriage and accordingly is off limits to foreign vessels. Similarly, maritime crossings across the Taiwan Strait requires special permits from both the People's Republic of China and
13803-623: The problem. In certain countries illegal importing, exporting, sale, or possession of drugs constitute capital offences and may result in a death sentence. A 2015 article by The Economist says that the laws of 32 countries provide for capital punishment for drug smuggling, but only in six countries – China , Iran , Saudi Arabia , Vietnam , Malaysia , and Singapore –are drug offenders known to be routinely executed. Additionally, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia impose mandatory death sentences on individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across their borders. For example, Muhammad Ridzuan Ali
13932-483: The public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to
14061-505: The rate of one masha per pass to enter and exit the country. Chapter 34 of the Second Book of Arthashastra concerns with the duties of the Mudrādhyakṣa ( lit. ' Superintendent of Seals ' ) who must issue sealed passes before a person could enter or leave the countryside. Passports resembling those issued today were an important part of the Chinese bureaucracy as early as
14190-492: The real 'borders' consisted of the fortified walls that surrounded towns and cities, where the authorities could exclude undesirable or incompatible people at the gates, from vagrants, beggars and the 'wandering poor', to 'masterless women', lepers, Romani, or Jews. The concept of border controls has its origins in antiquity. In Asia, the existence of border controls is evidenced in classical texts. The Arthashastra ( c. 3rd century BCE ) makes mention of passes issued at
14319-450: The regions of the United Kingdom, liaising with the police, HMRC, local authorities and the public. In August 2009 HM Revenue and Customs transferred several thousand customs detection officers to the agency, following Parliament agreeing to give it customs control powers. The agency then began to investigate smuggling. The agency was developing a single primary border control line at the UK border combining controls of people and goods entering
14448-461: The responsibility of: The name "Ministry of Transport" lives on in the annual MOT test , a test of vehicle safety , roadworthiness , and exhaust emissions , which most vehicles used on public roads in the UK are required to pass annually once they reach three years old (four years for vehicles in Northern Ireland ). Following a series of strikes, poor performance, concerns over access for
14577-439: The risk posed by bioterrorism or invasive species . Quarantine measures are frequently implemented with regard to the mobility of animals, including both pets and livestock. Notably, in order to reduce the risk of introducing rabies from continental Europe, the United Kingdom used to require that dogs, and most other animals introduced to the country, spend six months in quarantine at an HM Customs and Excise pound. This policy
14706-446: The rumour had not been confirmed by any known cases. A foul bill of health or the absence of a clean bill of health implies that the place the vessel cleared from was infected with a contagious disease. The two latter cases would render the vessel liable to quarantine. Another category of biosecurity measures adopted by border control organisations is mandatory vaccination . As a result of the prevalence of Yellow Fever across much of
14835-615: The smuggling of dangerous or illegal goods. A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods. In many countries, border controls for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels in order to prioritise customs enforcement. Within the European Union's common customs area, airports may operate additional blue channels for passengers arriving from within that area. For such passengers, border control may focus specifically on prohibited items and other goods that are not covered by
14964-522: The spread of COVID-19. While test-based border screening measures may prove effective under certain circumstances, they may fail to detect a significant quantity positive cases if only conducted upon arrival without follow-up. A minimum 10-day quarantine may be beneficial in preventing the spread of COVID-19 and may be more effective if combined with an additional control measure like border screening. A study in Science found that travel restrictions could delay
15093-673: The trial of the Reverend Nathan Ntege – accused of conducting almost 500 sham marriages at a church in Thornton Heath, South London between 2007 and 2011 – collapsed after it became apparent that evidence had been tampered with, concealed, or even possibly destroyed. As immigration officers were questioned in the witness box of the Inner London Crown Court it became clear that not only had video footage gone missing but that an investigation log had been tampered with. The trial
15222-713: Was 91.7% for 2021/22. Northern Ireland Reserved matters: The department's devolved counterparts in Northern Ireland are: Northern Ireland's comparability factor (the proportion of spending in this area devolved to the Northern Ireland Executive) was 95.4% for 2021/22. Wales Reserved matters: The department's devolved counterpart in Wales is the Minister for Climate Change. Wales' comparability factor (the proportion of spending in this area devolved to
15351-587: Was a list of lost applicants. Following allegations that staff were told to relax some identity checks, in November 2011 the UK Home Office suspended: Brodie Clark , the Head of the Border Force ; Carole Upshall, director of the Border Force South and European Operation; Graham Kyle, director of operations at Heathrow Airport. The Home Office is presently investigating allegations that Clark had agreed to "open up
15480-672: Was abolished in 2000 in favour of a scheme generally known as Pet Passports , where animals can avoid quarantine if they have documentation showing they are up to date on their appropriate vaccinations . In the past, quarantine measures were implemented by European countries in order to curtail the Bubonic Plague and Cholera . In the British Isles, for example, the Quarantine Act 1710 ( 9 Ann. ) established maritime quarantine policies in an era in which strict border control measures as
15609-542: Was also responsible for the deportation of foreign national criminals at the end of sentences. The UK Border Agency's budget combined with that of the Border Force was £2.17 billion in 2011–12. Under the spending review the agency was required to cut costs by up to 23%. At its peak the agency employed around 25,000 staff, but 5,000 posts were due to be cut by 2015 against the 2011-12 levels. Founding Chief Executive Lin Homer left
15738-419: Was an inconsistent response towards applications, with some cases given extra time to prepare and others dismissed for minor reasons. In November 2011, the Home Affairs Select Committee issued a report that found that 124,000 deportation cases had been shelved by the UKBA. The report said the cases had been dumped in a "controlled archive", a term used to try to hide the fact from authorities and auditors that it
15867-830: Was executed in Singapore on 19 May 2017 for drug trafficking. According to a 2011 article by the Lawyers Collective , an NGO in India , "32 countries impose capital punishment for offences involving narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances." South Korean law provides for capital punishment for drug offences, but South Korea has a de facto moratorium on capital punishment as there have been no executions since 1997, even though there are still people on death row and new death sentences continue to be handed down. Border security refers to measures taken by one or more governments to enforce their border control policies. Such measures target
15996-441: Was halted by Judge Nic Madge, who said in court: "I am satisfied that officers at the heart of this prosecution have deliberately concealed important evidence and lied on oath. The bad faith and misconduct started in 2011, when two of the principal defendants were arrested, and has continued throughout the course of this trial. In my judgment, it has tainted the whole case. It has tainted the prosecution against all seven defendants. It
16125-476: Was made to seal the ports. In 1847 the privy council ordered all arrivals with a clean bill of health from the Black Sea and the Levant to be admitted, provided there had been no case of plague during the voyage and afterwards, the practice of quarantine was discontinued. In modern maritime law , biosecurity measures for arriving vessels centre around 'pratique', a licence from border control officials permitting
16254-515: Was revised in 1801 and 1805, and in 1823–24 an elaborate inquiry was followed by an act making quarantine only at the discretion of the Privy Council , which recognised yellow fever or other highly infectious diseases as calling for quarantine, along with plague. The threat of cholera in 1831 was the last occasion in England of the use of quarantine restrictions. Cholera affected every country in Europe despite all efforts to keep it out. When cholera returned to England in 1849, 1853 and 1865–66, no attempt
16383-428: Was split into three new organisations; UK Visas and Immigration focusing on the visa system, Immigration Enforcement focusing on immigration law enforcement and Border Force , providing immigration and customs law enforcement at ports of entry in the UK. The agency attained full agency status on 1 April 2009. Immigration Officers and Customs Officers retained their own powers for the enforcement and administration of
16512-409: Was the first step in overhauling immigration and customs legislation. The UK Border Agency had a staff of 23,500 people located in over 130 countries. Overseas staff vetted visa applications and operated an intelligence and liaison network, acting as the first layer of border control for the UK. The organisation operated as the single force at the border for the UK. Local immigration teams worked within
16641-485: Was transferred to the Secretary of State for Scotland. The growth of road transport increased the responsibilities of the ministry, and in the 1930s, and especially with defence preparations preceding the outbreak of war, government responsibilities for all means of transport increased significantly. Government control of transport and diverse associated matters has been reorganised a number of times in modern history, being
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