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180-441: Turntablism is the art of manipulating sounds and creating new music, sound effects , mixes and other creative sounds and beats, typically by using two or more turntables and a cross fader -equipped DJ mixer . The mixer is plugged into a PA system (for live events) and/or broadcasting equipment (if the DJ is performing on radio, TV or Internet radio ) so that a wider audience can hear

360-419: A DJ mixer 's crossfader control and the mixer's gain and equalization controls to adjust the sound and level of each turntable. Turntablists typically use two or more turntables and headphones to cue up desired start points on different records (Greasley & Prior, 2013). Turntablists, who are often called DJs (or "deejays"), generally prefer direct-drive turntables over belt-driven or other types, because

540-400: A relief desk ( pupitre de relief , but also referred to as pupitre d'espace or potentiomètre d'espace ) and was intended to control the dynamic level of music played from several shellac players. This created a stereophonic effect by controlling the positioning of a monophonic sound source. One of five tracks, provided by a purpose-built tape machine, was controlled by the performer and

720-482: A shellac record recorder, a mixing desk with rotating potentiometers , mechanical reverberation units, filters , and microphones . This technology made a number of limited operations available to a composer: The application of the above technologies in the creation of musique concrète led to the development of a number of sound manipulation techniques including: The first tape recorders started arriving at ORTF in 1949; however, they were much less reliable than

900-416: A sound designer or audio engineer a great deal of control over how they want the car to sound. In order to make the car more ominous or low, they can mix in more of the tailpipe recording; if they want the car to sound like it is running full throttle, they can mix in more of the engine recording and reduce the interior perspective. In cartoons, a pencil being dragged down a washboard may be used to simulate

1080-536: A "symphony of noises". These journals were published in 1952 as A la recherche d'une musique concrète , and according to Brian Kane, author of Sound Unseen: Acousmatic Sound in Theory and Practice , Schaeffer was driven by: "a compositional desire to construct music from concrete objects – no matter how unsatisfactory the initial results – and a theoretical desire to find a vocabulary, solfège, or method upon which to ground such music. The development of Schaeffer's practice

1260-422: A 2 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 6 very distinct sounds) would be a 2 click orbit, etc. Orbits can be performed once as a single orbit move, or sequenced to produce a cyclical never ending type of orbit sound. Flare is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made from a combination of moving the record on the turntable by hand and quick movement of the crossfader. The flare

1440-457: A New York-based collective and booking agency, describe themselves as "representing and showcasing cis women, trans women and genderqueer talent." Sound effects A sound effect (or audio effect ) is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. In motion picture and television production,

1620-504: A broader appreciation of sound's essence in theater, beyond just supporting visuals, to acknowledge its deep influence on storytelling and audience immersion. Rost explores the criteria for 'good sound' in theater through handbooks and prioritization as guiding principles. These criteria not only dictate the creation and selection of sounds to complement the narrative and mood but also aim to maintain audience focus. Rost's analysis reveals underlying hierarchies in sound selection and emphasizes

1800-436: A common motor, each tape having an independent spool . The objective was to keep the three tapes synchronised from a common starting point. Works could then be conceived polyphonically , and thus each head conveyed a part of the information and was listened to through a dedicated loudspeaker. It was an ancestor of the multi-track player (four then eight tracks) that appeared in the 1960s. Timbres Durées by Olivier Messiaen with

1980-579: A composer and professor at Arizona State University , this composition showcases a unique melding of electronic and orchestral music elements. The concerto was first performed in notable venues including Carnegie Hall , symbolizing its acceptance into the classical music tradition. The project was initially supported by Red Bull, which helped to sponsor its development and the premiere performance. The concerto debuted at Arizona State University 's Gammage Auditorium before its major premiere at Carnegie Hall on October 2, 2005. The Concerto for Turntable features

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2160-413: A decent profit. However, it is thought by many that DJ Michael Price started slowing down vinyl recordings before the era of DJ Screw. This form of turntablism, which is usually applied to prior studio recordings (in the form of custom mixtapes) and is not prominent as a feature of live performances, de-emphasizes the role of the rapper, singer or other vocalist by distorting the vocalist's voice along with

2340-626: A feminine dislike towards these instruments. Instead she argues that women entering these fields are forced to complete the difficult task of disrupting a dominant masculine sphere. Despite this, women and girls do increasingly engage in turntable and DJ practices, individually and collectively, and "carve out spaces for themselves in EDM and DJ Culture". There are various projects dedicated to the promotion and support of these practices such as Female DJs London. Some artists and collectives go beyond these practices to be more gender inclusive. For example, Discwoman ,

2520-505: A general low percentage of women in audio technology-related jobs. In a 2013 Sound on Sound article Rosina Ncube attested that few women work in the record production and sound engineering industry. Ncube claimed that "[n]inety-five percent of music producers are male" and that female producers are less well-known than their male counterparts despite accomplishing great feats within the music industry. The vast majority of students in music technology programs are male. In hip hop music ,

2700-410: A great mistake to think of them as anologous to punctuation marks and accents in print. They should never be inserted into a program already existing. The author of a broadcast play or broadcast construction ought to have used Sound Effects as bricks with which to build, treating them as of equal value with speech and music." It lists six "totally different primary genres of Sound Effect": According to

2880-457: A group of sound projectors which form an 'orchestration' of the acoustic image". As of 2010, the Acousmonium was still performing, with 64 speakers, 35 amplifiers, and 2 consoles. Although Schaeffer's work aimed to defamiliarize the used sounds, other composers favoured the familiarity of source material by using snippets of music or speech taken from popular entertainment and mass media, with

3060-424: A legitimate electronic musical instrument—a manual analog sampler—and described turntable techniques such as backspinning, cutting, scratching and blending as basic tools for most hip hop DJs. White's study suggests the proficient hip-hop DJ must possess similar kinds of skills as those required by trained musicians, not limited to a sense of timing, hand–eye coordination, technical competence and musical creativity. By

3240-542: A manner of composing, indeed, a new mental framework of composing". Schaeffer had developed an aesthetic that was centred upon the use of sound as a primary compositional resource. The aesthetic also emphasised the importance of play ( jeu ) in the practice of sound based composition. Schaeffer's use of the word jeu , from the verb jouer , carries the same double meaning as the English verb to play : 'to enjoy oneself by interacting with one's surroundings', as well as 'to operate

3420-503: A means to define values as precisely as some other synthesisers of the day. The development of the machine was constrained by several factors. It needed to be modular and the modules had to be easily interconnected (so that the synthesiser would have more modules than slots and it would have an easy-to-use patch). It also needed to include all the major functions of a modular synthesiser including oscillators , noise-generators, filters , ring-modulators , but an intermodulation facility

3600-408: A musical instrument or by other means. An early example is the 18th century Toy Symphony . Richard Wagner in the opera Das Rheingold (1869) lets a choir of anvils introduce the scene of the dwarfs who have to work in the mines, similar to the introduction of the dwarfs in the 1937 Disney movie Snow White . Klaus Doldingers soundtrack for the 1981 movie Das Boot includes a title score with

3780-1185: A musical instrument'. By 1951 the work of Schaeffer, composer- percussionist Pierre Henry, and sound engineer Jacques Poullin had received official recognition and the Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète, Club d 'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française was established at RTF in Paris, the ancestor of the ORTF . At RTF the GRMC established the first purpose-built electroacoustic music studio. It quickly attracted many who either were or were later to become notable composers, including Olivier Messiaen , Pierre Boulez , Jean Barraqué , Karlheinz Stockhausen , Edgard Varèse , Iannis Xenakis , Michel Philippot , and Arthur Honegger . Compositional "output from 1951 to 1953 comprised Étude I (1951) and Étude II (1951) by Boulez, Timbres-durées (1952) by Messiaen, Étude aux mille collants (1952) by Stockhausen, Le microphone bien tempéré (1952) and La voile d'Orphée (1953) by Henry, Étude I (1953) by Philippot, Étude (1953) by Barraqué,

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3960-619: A musical instrument." Some turntablists use turntable techniques like beat mixing/matching , scratching , and beat juggling . Some turntablists seek to have themselves recognized as traditional musicians capable of interacting and improvising with other performers. Depending on the records and tracks selected by the DJ and their turntablist style (e.g., hip hop music ), a turntablist can create rhythmic accompaniment, percussion breaks, basslines or beat loops, atmospheric "pads", "stabs" of sudden chords or interwoven melodic lines. The underground movement of turntablism has also emerged to focus on

4140-428: A new collective, called Groupe de Recherches Musicales (GRM) and set about recruiting new members including Luc Ferrari , Beatriz Ferreyra , François-Bernard Mâche , Iannis Xenakis , Bernard Parmegiani , and Mireille Chamass-Kyrou . Later arrivals included Ivo Malec , Philippe Carson, Romuald Vandelle, Edgardo Canton and François Bayle . GRM was one of several theoretical and experimental groups working under

4320-612: A new pattern. A simple example would be to use two copies of the same drum pattern to evolve the pattern by doubling the snares, syncopating the drum kick, adding rhythm and variation to the existing pattern. From this concept, which Steve Dee showcased in the early 1990s at DJ battles, Beat Juggling evolved throughout the decade to the point where by the end of it, it had become an intricate technique to create entirely new "beats" and rhythms out of existing, pre-recorded ones (van Veen & Attias, 2012). These were now not just limited to using drum patterns, but could also consist of other sounds –

4500-626: A performance situation; an attitude that has stayed with acousmatic music to the present day. After the longstanding rivalry with the electronic music of the Cologne studio had subsided, in 1970 the GRM finally created an electronic studio using tools developed by the physicist Enrico Chiarucci, called the Studio 54, which featured the "Coupigny modular synthesiser" and a Moog synthesiser. The Coupigny synthesiser , named for its designer François Coupigny, director of

4680-452: A pianist, if someone plays the guitar, we call them a guitarist, why don't we call ourselves Turntablists?" found in the documentary " Scratch (2001 film) " which was released in 2001. John Oswald described the art: "A phonograph in the hands of a 'hiphop/scratch' artist who plays a record like an electronic washboard with a phonographic needle as a plectrum , produces sounds which are unique and not reproduced—the record player becomes

4860-456: A presentation of Bayle's Expérience acoustique . The Acousmonium is a specialised sound reinforcement system consisting of between 50 and 100 loudspeakers , depending on the character of the concert, of varying shape and size. The system was designed specifically for the concert presentation of musique-concrète-based works but with the added enhancement of sound spatialisation. Loudspeakers are placed both on stage and at positions throughout

5040-461: A routine (A combination of various technical scratches, beat juggles, and other elements, including body tricks) within a limited time period, after which the routine is judged by a panel of experts. The winner is selected based upon score. These organized competitions evolved from actual old school "battles" where DJs challenged each other at parties, and the "judge" was usually the audience, who would indicate their collective will by cheering louder for

5220-458: A set of sound recordings was produced, entitled Le solfège de l'objet sonore (Music Theory of the Acoustic Object), to provide examples of concepts dealt with in the treatise. The development of musique concrète was facilitated by the emergence of new music technology in post-war Europe. Access to microphones, phonographs, and later magnetic tape recorders (created in 1939 and acquired by

5400-408: A sharp "stabbing" noise". A "crab" is a type of scratch used by turntablists and originally developed by DJ Qbert . It is one of the most difficult scratch techniques to master. The crab is done by pushing the record forward and back while pushing the crossfader mixer open or closed through a quick succession of 4 movements with the fingers. Variations can also include 3 or 2 fingers, and generally it

5580-509: A sonar sound to reflect the U-boat setting. John Barry integrated into the title song of Moonraker (1979) a sound representing the beep of a Sputnik like satellite. Gao, Jianliang, Zhao, Yuezhe, and Pan, Lili explained how sound absorption in the stage area influences the acoustics within an opera house auditorium. Their research, using computer models and scale experiments, revealed that sound absorption significantly affects sound clarity and

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5760-414: A sound collage in the film Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931), during the first transformation scene, as "pre-musique concrète". Ottorino Respighi 's Pines of Rome (1924) calls for a phonograph recording of birdsong to be played during the third movement. In 1942, French composer and theoretician Pierre Schaeffer began his exploration of radiophony when he joined Jacques Copeau and his pupils in

5940-549: A sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. Traditionally, in the twentieth century, they were created with Foley . The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, dialogue , music , and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though

6120-478: A sound to meet his or her needs. The most common sound design tool is the use of layering to create a new, interesting sound out of two or three old, average sounds. For example, the sound of a bullet impact into a pig carcass may be mixed with the sound of a melon being gouged to add to the stickiness or gore of the effect. If the effect is featured in a close-up, the designer may also add an impact sweetener from his or her library. The sweetener may simply be

6300-406: A specific moment where the audience will not notice that the DJ has switched records. Using that idea, Grandmaster Flash elaborated on Kool Herc's invention of break-beat DJing and came up with the quick-mix theory , in which Flash sectioned off a part of the record like a clock . He described it as being "...like cutting, the backspin, and the double-back." Kool Herc's revolutionary techniques set

6480-444: A studio-based art. Although there was no direct line traceable between the two Pierres and Marley Marl , it was as if musique concrète went truant from the academy and became street music, the soundtrack to block parties and driving." He described this era of hip hop as "the most vibrant and flourishing descendant – albeit an indirect one – of musique concrète ". Chicago Reader ' s J. Niimi writes that when Public Enemy producers

6660-402: A system that involved three operators: one in charge of the machines, a second controlling the mixing desk, and third to provide guidance to the others. Because of this the synthesiser and desk were combined and organised in a manner that allowed it to be used easily by a composer. Independently of the mixing tracks (24 in total), it had a coupled connection patch that permitted the organisation of

6840-470: A three-track tape recorder ; a machine with ten playback heads to replay tape loops in echo (the morphophone); a keyboard -controlled machine to play tape loops at preset speeds (the keyboard, chromatic , or Tolana phonogène ); a slide-controlled machine to replay tape loops at a continuously variable range of speeds (the handle, continuous, or Sareg phonogène ); and a device to distribute an encoded track across four loudspeakers , including one hanging from

7020-612: A topic of conversation among the hip-hop DJ community. In 2010, Rebekah Farrugia stated that in the EDM sphere, a male-centric culture has contributed to the marginalisation of women who seek to engage and contribute. Whilst turntablism and broader DJ practices should not be conflated, Katz suggests that the broad use, or lack of use, of the turntable by women across genres and disciplines is impacted by "male technophilia". Historian Ruth Oldenziel concurs in her writing on female engagement with engineering technology. Oldenziel argues that socialization

7200-411: A turntable as the solo instrument, complemented by a full symphony orchestra. This arrangement necessitated the development of "scratch notation" by DJ Radar to transcribe his turntable manipulations into a format readable by classically trained musicians. This innovative scoring method was crucial for integrating the turntable's electronic sounds with the acoustic orchestra. The premiere at Carnegie Hall

7380-418: A whole new technique of production, less dependent on performance skills, could be developed. Tape editing brought a new technique called " micromontage ", in which very small fragments of sound were edited together, thus creating completely new sounds or structures on a larger scale. During the GRMC period from 1951 to 1958, Schaeffer and Poullin developed a number of novel sound creation tools. These included

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7560-473: A work of "blind cinema" without visuals, introduced recordings of environmental sound, to represent the urban soundscape of Berlin , two decades before musique concrète was formalised. Ruttmann's soundtrack has been retrospectively called musique concrète . According to Seth Kim-Cohen the piece was the first to "organise 'concrete' sounds into a formal, artistic composition." Composer Irwin Bazelon referred to

7740-640: Is a central factor in the lack of female engagement with technology, insisting that the historical socialisation of boys as technophiles has contributed to the prevalence of men who engage with technology. Lucy Green, professor of music at the University College London , focused on gender in relation to musical performers and creators, and specifically on educational frameworks as they relate to both. She suggests that women's alienation from fields with strong technical aspects such as DJing, sound engineering and music producing should not only be attributed to

7920-452: Is also credited with furthering the concept of scratching by practicing the rhythmic scratching of a record on one or more turntables (often two), using different velocities to alter the pitch of the note or sound on the recording (Alberts 2002). DXT appeared (as DST) on Herbie Hancock 's hit song " Rockit ". These early pioneers cemented the fundamental practice that would later become the emerging turntablist art form. Scratching would during

8100-408: Is common. Two microphones record the engine directly: one is taped to the underside of the hood, near the engine block. The second microphone is covered in a wind screen and tightly attached to the rear bumper, within an inch or so of the tailpipe. The third microphone, which is often a stereo microphone, is stationed inside the car to get the car interior. Having all of these tracks at once gives

8280-513: Is emotionally immediate. If a sound editor uses such sounds in the context of emotional climax or a character's subjective experience, they can add to the drama of a situation in a way visuals simply cannot. If a visual effects artist were to do something similar to the 'whooshing fall' example, it would probably look ridiculous or at least excessively melodramatic. The conjectural sound principle applies even to happenstance sounds, such as tires squealing, doorknobs turning or people walking. If

8460-449: Is generally regarded as the foundational development in hip hop history, as it gave rise to all other elements of the genre. His influence on the concept of "DJ as turntablist" is equally profound. To understand the significance of this achievement, it is important to first define the " break ". Briefly, the "break" of a song is a musical fragment only seconds in length, which typically takes the form of an "interlude" in which all or most of

8640-491: Is known today, however, did not surface until the advent of hip hop in the 1970s. Examples of turntable effects can also be found on popular records produced in the 1960s and 1970s. This was most prominent in Jamaican dub music of the 1960s, among deejays in the Jamaican sound system culture. Dub music introduced the techniques of mixing and scratching vinyl, which Jamaican immigrants introduced to American hip hop culture in

8820-423: Is made from moving the record on the turntable by hand. The tear is much like a baby scratch in that one does not need the fader to perform it, but unlike a baby scratch, when the DJ pulls the record back he or she pauses his or her hand for a split second in the middle of the stroke. The result is one forward sound and two distinct backward sounds. This scratch can also be performed by doing the opposite and placing

9000-406: Is part of where this whole thing about turntablist came from. This was a time where all these new techniques were coming out, like flares and stuff, and there were probably 20 people or so, in around California between Frisco and LA, who knew about these. So we worked on them, talked about it and kicked about the ideas that these techniques and new ways of scratching gave us. By the mid- to late 1990s

9180-404: Is recommended for beginners to start with 2 fingers and work their way to 4. It is a difficult move to master but also versatile and quite rewarding if done right. Visual elements may be linked to turntable movement, incorporating digital media including photographs, graphic stills, film, video, and computer-generated effects into live performance. A separate video mixer is used in combination with

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9360-425: Is specialized, with sound editors known as specialists in an area of sound effects (e.g. a Car cutter or Guns cutter ). Foley is another method of adding sound effects. Foley is more of a technique for creating sound effects than a type of sound effect, but it is often used for creating the incidental real-world sounds that are very specific to what is going on onscreen, such as footsteps. With this technique,

9540-457: The Spin Science online resource in 2005, " DJ Babu " added the following comments about the birth and spread of the term: It was around 95, I was heavily into the whole battling thing, working on the tables constantly, mastering new techniques and scratches...[I] made this mixtape called "Comprehension", and on there was a track called "Turntablism" which featured Melo-D and D-Styles. And this

9720-413: The potentiomètre d'espace in normal use: One found one's self sitting in a small studio which was equipped with four loudspeakers—two in front of one—right and left; one behind one and a fourth suspended above. In the front center were four large loops and an executant moving a small magnetic unit through the air. The four loops controlled the four speakers, and while all four were giving off sounds all

9900-421: The " Beat Junkies " / " Dilated Peoples " was the one who originally coined the term "turntablist". In 1995 while working on the groundbreaking mixtape "Comprehension", DJ Babu hand wrote the name "Babu The Turntablist" on hundreds of copies of this mixtape to describe his style of DJing, while working on the track "Turntablism" with " D-Styles " and DJ Melo-D, Babu would say "if someone plays the piano, we call them

10080-781: The "distorting-mirror" sound of psychedelic rock , and that concrète 's contrasting tones and timbres were suited to the effects of psychedelic drugs . Following the Beatles' example, many groups incorporated found sounds into otherwise typical pop songs for psychedelic effect, resulting in "pop and rock musique concrète flirtations"; examples include the Lovin' Spoonful 's " Summer in the City " (1966), Love 's " 7 and 7 Is " (1967) and The Box Tops ' " The Letter " (1967). Popular musicians more versed in modern classical and experimental music utilised elements of musique concrète more maturely, including Zappa and

10260-509: The "keyboard deconstructions" of John Cage and Conlon Nancarrow . The Beatles continued their use of concrète on songs such as " Strawberry Fields Forever ", " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite! " and " I Am the Walrus " (all 1967), before the approach climaxed with the pure musique concrète piece " Revolution 9 " (1968); afterwards, John Lennon , alongside wife and Fluxus artist Yoko Ono , continued

10440-455: The 1980s become a staple of hip hop music, being used by producers and DJs on records and in live shows. By the end of the 1980s it was very common to hear scratching on a record, generally as part of the chorus of a track or within its production. On stage the DJ would provide the music for the MCs to rhyme and rap to, scratching records during the performance and showcasing his or her skills alongside

10620-493: The 1980s, deejays such as Grandmaster Flash utitlised turnables to "[montage] in real time" with portions of rock, R&B and disco records, in order to create groove -based music with percussive scratching ; this provided a parallel breakthrough to collage artist Christian Marclay 's use of vinyl records as a "noise-generating medium" in his own work. Reynolds wrote: "As sampling technology grew more affordable, DJs-turned-producers like Eric B. developed hip-hop into

10800-480: The Beatles' musique concrète experimentation as helping popularise avant-garde art in the era, alongside Jimi Hendrix 's use of noise and feedback , Bob Dylan 's surreal lyricism and Frank Zappa 's "ironic detachment". In The Wire , Edwin Pouncey wrote that the 1960s represented the height of confluence between rock and academic music, noting that composers like Luciano Berio and Pierre Henry found likeness in

10980-568: The Bomb Squad "unwittingly revisited" the concept of musique concrète with their sample-based music, they proved that the technique "worked great as pop". In 1989, John Diliberto of Music Technology described the group Art of Noise as having both digitised and synthesised musique concrète and "locked it into a crunching groove and turned it into dance music for the '80s". He wrote that while Schaeffer and Henry used tapes in their work, Art of Noise "uses Fairlight CMIs and Akai S1000 samplers and

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11160-533: The DJ they thought performed better. The DMC World DJ Championships has been hosted since 1985. There are separate competitions for solo DJs and DJ teams, the title of World Champion being bestowed on the winners of each. They also maintain a turntablism hall of fame. In Western popular music , women musicians have achieved great success in singing and songwriting roles, with top examples being Madonna , Celine Dion and Rihanna . However, there are relatively few women DJs or turntablists. Part of this may stem from

11340-501: The DJing aspect of the art form by combining turntablist skills with the trademark skills of club DJs, while others explored alternative routes in utilizing the turntable as an instrument or production tool solely for the purpose of making music – either by using solely the turntable or by incorporating it into the production process alongside tools such as drum machines, samplers, computer software, and so on. Digital turntablism techniques later

11520-567: The Detonator" "Soul Food" (both 1989)", and Gang Starr 's " DJ Premier in Deep Concentration" (1989). The appearance of turntablists and the birth of turntablism was prompted by one major factor – the disappearance or downplaying of the role of the DJ in hip-hop groups, on records and in live shows at the turn of the 1990s. This disappearance has been widely documented in books and documentaries (among them Black Noise and Scratch ), and

11700-604: The Group for Technical Research, and the Studio 54 mixing desk had a major influence on the evolution of GRM and from the point of their introduction on they brought a new quality to the music. The mixing desk and synthesiser were combined in one unit and were created specifically for the creation of musique concrète. The design of the desk was influenced by trade union rules at French National Radio that required technicians and production staff to have clearly defined duties. The solitary practice of musique concrète composition did not suit

11880-534: The Middle East Radio studios processed the material using reverberation, echo, voltage controls, and re-recording. The resulting tape-based composition, entitled The Expression of Zaar , was presented in 1944 at an art gallery event in Cairo. El-Dabh has described his initial activities as an attempt to unlock "the inner sound" of the recordings. While his early compositional work was not widely known outside of Egypt at

12060-707: The Mothers of Invention on pieces like the Edgard Varèse tribute " The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet " (1966), " The Chrome Planted Megaphone of Destiny " and Lumpy Gravy (both 1968), and Jefferson Airplane 's "Would You Like a Snack?" (1968), while the Grateful Dead 's album Anthem of the Sun (1968), which featured Berio student Phil Lesh on bass, features musique concrète passages that Pouncey compared to Varèse's Deserts and

12240-596: The SL-1200 remained the most widely used turntable in DJ culture for the next several decades. Turntablism as a modern art form and musical practice has its roots within African-American inner city hip-hop of the late 1970s. Kool Herc (a Jamaican DJ who immigrated to New York City), Afrika Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash are widely credited for having cemented the now established role of DJ as hip hop's foremost instrumentalist. Kool Herc's invention of break-beat DJing

12420-614: The Schaeffer's Groupe de Recherche de Musique Concrète (Research Group on Concrete Music) in 1952), facilitated by an association with the French national broadcasting organization, at that time the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française, gave Schaeffer and his colleagues an opportunity to experiment with recording technology and tape manipulation. In 1948, a typical radio studio consisted of a series of shellac record players ,

12600-518: The Technics SL-1100. Due to its strong motor, durability, and fidelity, it was adopted by early hip hop artists. A forefather of turntablism was DJ Kool Herc , an immigrant from Jamaica to New York City. He introduced turntable techniques from Jamaican dub music, while developing new techniques made possible by the direct-drive turntable technology of the Technics SL-1100 , which he used for

12780-654: The United Kingdom at 49 pence, the album was described by writer Chris Jones as "a contender for the most widely heard piece of musique concrete" after "Revolution 9". Another German group, Kraftwerk , achieved a surprise hit in 1975 with " Autobahn ", which contained a "sampled collage of revving engines, horns and traffic noise". Stephen Dalton of The Times wrote: "This droll blend of accessible pop and avant-garde musique concrete propelled Kraftwerk across America for three months". Steve Taylor writes that industrial groups Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire continued

12960-503: The abstract medium of notation and that created using so-called sound objects ( l'objet sonore ). By the early 1950s musique concrète was contrasted with "pure" elektronische Musik as then developed in West Germany – based solely on the use of electronically produced sounds rather than recorded sounds – but the distinction has since been blurred such that the term "electronic music" covers both meanings. Schaeffer's work resulted in

13140-406: The action onscreen is essentially recreated to try to match it as closely as possible. If done correctly it is very hard for audiences to tell what sounds were added and what sounds were originally recorded (location sound). In the early days of film and radio, Foley artists would add sounds in real time or pre-recorded sound effects would be played back from analog discs in real time (while watching

13320-533: The approach as ' plunderphonics '. Oswald's Plexure (1993) was created using recognisable elements of rock and pop music from 1982 to 1992. In the 1960s, as popular music began to increase in cultural importance and question its role as commercial entertainment, many popular musicians began taking influence from the post-war avant-garde, including the Beatles , who incorporated techniques such as tape loops, speed manipulation, and reverse playback in their song " Tomorrow Never Knows " (1966). Bernard Gendron describes

13500-509: The approach on their solo works Two Virgins (1968) and Life with the Lions (1969). The musique concrète elements present on Pink Floyd 's best-selling album The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), including the cash register sounds on " Money ", have been cited as notable examples of the practice's influence on popular music. Also in 1973, German band Faust released The Faust Tapes ; priced in

13680-409: The audience, rather than just across the front stage. On stage, the control system allowed a performer to position a sound either to the left or right, above or behind the audience, simply by moving a small, hand held transmitter coil towards or away from four somewhat larger receiver coils arranged around the performer in a manner reflecting the loudspeaker positions. A contemporary eyewitness described

13860-427: The author, "It is axiomatic that every Sound Effect, to whatever category it belongs, must register in the listener's mind instantaneously. If it fails to do so its presence could not be justified." In the context of motion pictures and television, sound effects refers to an entire hierarchy of sound elements, whose production encompasses many different disciplines, including: Each of these sound effect categories

14040-413: The belt can be stretched or damaged by "scratching" and other turntable manipulation such as slowing down a record, whereas a direct drive turntable can be stopped, slowed down, or spun backwards without damaging the electric motor. The word turntablist is claimed to be originated by Luis " DJ Disk " Quintanilla ( Primus , Herbie Hancock , Invisibl Skratch Piklz ). After a phone conversation with Disk, it

14220-520: The centre of the ceiling (the potentiomètre d'espace ). Speed variation was a powerful tool for sound design applications. It had been identified that transformations brought about by varying playback speed lead to modification in the character of the sound material: The phonogène was a machine capable of modifying sound structure significantly and it provided composers with a means to adapt sound to meet specific compositional contexts. The initial phonogènes were manufactured in 1953 by two subcontractors:

14400-463: The channel while moving the record backwards creating a more controlled sounding "baby scratch". Done in quick succession it sounds as though a chirp sound is being produced. A "stab" is quite similar to the chirp technique but requires the crossfade mixer to be "closed". The stab requires the user to push the record forward and back quickly and moving the crossfade mixer with a thumb pressed against it, which results in minimal sound coming out, producing

14580-572: The chromatic phonogène by a company called Tolana, and the sliding version by the SAREG Company. A third version was developed later at ORTF. An outline of the unique capabilities of the various phonogènes can be seen here: This original tape recorder was one of the first machines permitting the simultaneous listening of several synchronised sources. Until 1958 musique concrète, radio and the studio machines were monophonic . The three-head tape recorder superposed three magnetic tapes that were dragged by

14760-446: The climate for the return of the DJ was created by inventing transformer scratching. Developed by DJ Spinbad , DJ Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff , transforming was basically clicking the fader on and off while moving a block of sound (a riff or a short verbal phrase) across the stylus. Expanding the tonal as well as rhythmic possibilities of scratching, the transformer scratch epitomized the chopped-up aesthetic of hip hop culture. Hip hop

14940-459: The concept of musique acousmatique . Schaeffer had borrowed the term acousmatic from Pythagoras and defined it as: " Acousmatic, adjective : referring to a sound that one hears without seeing the causes behind it ". In 1966 Schaeffer published the book Traité des objets musicaux (Treatise on Musical Objects) which represented the culmination of some 20 years of research in the field of musique concrète . In conjunction with this publication,

15120-474: The concrète tradition with collages constructed with tape manipulation and loops, while Ian Inglis credits Brian Eno for introducing new sensibilities "about what could be in included in the canon of popular music", citing his 1970s ambient work and the musique concrete collages on My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (1981), which combines tape samples with synthesised sounds. With the emergence of hip hop music in

15300-410: The course for the development of turntablism as an art form in significant ways. Most important, however, he developed a new form of DJing that did not consist of just playing and mixing records one after the other. The type of DJ that specializes in mixing a set is well respected for his/her own set of unique skills, but playlist mixing is still DJing in the traditional sense. Kool Herc instead originated

15480-411: The disk, in contact with the tape. A sound up to four seconds long could be recorded on the looped tape and the ten playback heads would then read the information with different delays, according to their (adjustable) positions around the disk. A separate amplifier and band-pass filter for each head could modify the spectrum of the sound, and additional feedback loops could transmit the information to

15660-522: The early 1970s. Beyond dub music, Creedence Clearwater Revival 's 1968 self-titled debut album features a backspin effect in the song "Walk on the Water". Turntablism has origins in the invention of direct-drive turntables . Early belt-drive turntables were unsuitable for turntablism, since they had a slow start-up time, and they were prone to wear-and-tear and breakage, as the belt would break from backspinning or scratching. The first direct-drive turntable

15840-434: The effect, recordists may use several DAT , hard disk , or Nagra recorders and a large number of microphones. During a cannon - and musket -fire recording session for the 2003 film The Alamo , conducted by Jon Johnson and Charles Maynes , two to three DAT machines were used. One machine was stationed near the cannon itself, so it could record the actual firing. Another was stationed several hundred yards away, below

16020-610: The emergence of pioneering artists ( Mix Master Mike , DJ Qbert , DJ Quest, DJ Krush , A-Trak , Ricci Rucker, Mike Boo, Pumpin' Pete, Prime Cuts) and crews (Invisibl Skratch Piklz, Beat Junkies, The Allies, X-Ecutioners ), record labels ( Asphodel ), DJ Battles ( DMC ) and the evolution of scratching and other turntablism practices such as Beat Juggling which are viewable in the IDA (International DJ Association/ITF) World Finals. More sophisticated methods of scratching were developed during that decade, with crews and individual DJs concentrating on

16200-629: The establishment of France's Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète (GRMC), which attracted important figures including Pierre Henry , Luc Ferrari , Pierre Boulez , Karlheinz Stockhausen , Edgard Varèse , and Iannis Xenakis . From the late 1960s onward, and particularly in France, the term acousmatic music ( musique acousmatique ) was used in reference to fixed media compositions that utilized both musique concrète- based techniques and live sound spatialisation. In 1928 music critic André Cœuroy wrote in his book Panorama of Contemporary Music that "perhaps

16380-428: The ethic that "truly contemporary art should reflect not just nature or the industrial-urban environment but the mediascape in which humans increasingly dwelled", according to writer Simon Reynolds . Composers such as James Tenney and Arne Mellnäs created pieces in the 1960s that recontextualised the music of Elvis Presley and the singer's own voice, respectively, while later in the decade, Bernard Parmegiani created

16560-455: The evolution of scratching , other practices such as drumming (or scratch drumming) and beat juggling were also evolved significantly during the 1990s. Beat juggling was invented by Steve Dee , a member of the X-Men (later renamed X-Ecutioners ) crew. Beat juggling essentially involves the manipulation of two identical or different drum patterns on two different turntables via the mixer to create

16740-408: The fader off the side of the fader slot it makes a distinct clicking noise. For this reason, flares are named according to clicks. A simple one click forward flare would be a forward scratch starting with the sound on as the DJ bounces/clicks the fader against the side once extremely quickly in the middle of the forward stroke creating two distinct sounds in one stroke of your record hand and ending with

16920-407: The fader open. In the same manner, 2 clicks, 3 clicks, and even more clicks (if a DJ is fast enough) can be performed to do different types of flares. The discovery and development of the flare scratch was instrumental in elevating this art form to the level of speed and technical scratching that is seen in the 2010s. A "chirp" is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made with a mix of moving

17100-451: The field. When the required sound effect is of a small subject, such as scissors cutting, cloth ripping, or footsteps, the sound effect is best recorded in a studio, under controlled conditions in a process known as Foley . Many sound effects cannot be recorded in a studio, such as explosions, gunfire, and automobile or aircraft maneuvers. These effects must be recorded by a professional audio engineer . When such big sounds are required,

17280-526: The first sound system he set up after emigrating to New York. The signature technique he developed was playing two copies of the same record on two turntables in alternation to extend the b-dancers ' favorite section, switching back and forth between the two to loop the breaks to a rhythmic beat. The most influential turntable was the Technics SL-1200 , which was developed in 1971 by a team led by Shuichi Obata at Matsushita, which then released it onto

17460-603: The foundation of the Studio d'Essai de la Radiodiffusion nationale . The studio originally functioned as a center for the French Resistance on radio, which in August 1944 was responsible for the first broadcasts in liberated Paris. It was here that Schaeffer began to experiment with creative radiophonic techniques using the sound technologies of the time. In 1948 Schaeffer began to keep a set of journals describing his attempt to create

17640-440: The functions (though not the title) of Group Director to colleagues. Since 1961 GRM has had six Group Directors: Michel Philippot (1960–1961), Luc Ferrari (1962–1963), Bernard Baschet and François Vercken (1964–1966). From the beginning of 1966, François Bayle took over the direction for the duration of thirty-one years, to 1997. He was then replaced by Daniel Teruggi. The group continued to refine Schaeffer's ideas and strengthened

17820-408: The golden age of hip hop , who originally developed many of the concepts and techniques that evolved into modern turntablism. Within the realm of hip hop, notable modern turntablists are the cinematic DJ Shadow , who influenced Diplo and RJD2 , among others, and the experimental DJ Spooky , whose Optometry albums showed that the turntablist can perfectly fit within a jazz setting. Mix Master Mike

18000-511: The group at the end of 1957, and immediately stated his disapproval of the direction the GRMC had taken. A proposal was then made to "renew completely the spirit, the methods and the personnel of the Group, with a view to undertake research and to offer a much needed welcome to young composers". Following the emergence of differences within the GRMC, Pierre Henry, Philippe Arthuys, and several of their colleagues, resigned in April 1958. Schaeffer created

18180-434: The hand or foot. Photoplayer operators activate sound effects either by flipping switches on the machine or pulling cow-tail pull-strings, which hang above. Sounds like bells and drums are made mechanically, sirens and horns electronically. Due to its smaller size, a photoplayer usually has fewer special effects than a theater organ, or less complex ones. The principles involved with modern video game sound effects (since

18360-438: The hip-hop genre. A transform is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is made from a combination of moving the record on the turntable by hand and repeated movement of the crossfader . The name, which has been associated with DJ Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff , comes from its similarity to the sound made by the robots in the 1980s cartoon , The Transformers . A tear is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It

18540-504: The idea of creating a sequence for his own purposes, introducing the idea of the DJ as the "feature" of parties, whose performance on any given night would be different from on another night, because the music would be created by the DJ, mixing a bassline from one song with a beat from another song (Greasley & Prior, 2013). The DJ would be examined critically by the crowd on both a technical and entertainment level. Grand Wizzard Theodore , an apprentice of Flash, who accidentally isolated

18720-420: The idea of a creative role for the recording medium was introduced and Arnheim stated that: "The rediscovery of the musicality of sound in noise and in language, and the reunification of music, noise and language in order to obtain a unity of material: that is one of the chief artistic tasks of radio". Possible antecedents to musique concrète have been noted; Walter Ruttmann 's film Wochend ( Weekend ) (1930),

18900-408: The immersive nature of theater sound goes beyond traditional analysis, providing fresh perspectives on how sound interacts with societal contexts. Brown offers a fresh look at Ovadija's exploration of sound in theater, questioning the traditional focus on visuals over audio. He points out the significant, yet often overlooked, role of sound in shaping theater's impact and experience. Brown pushes for

19080-470: The increases in storage capacity and playback quality has allowed sampled sound to be used. The modern systems also frequently utilize positional audio , often with hardware acceleration, and real-time audio post-processing, which can also be tied to the 3D graphics development. Based on the internal state of the game, multiple different calculations can be made. This will allow for, for example, realistic sound dampening, echoes and Doppler effect. Historically

19260-451: The introduction of sample playback) are essentially the same as those of motion pictures. Typically a game project requires two jobs to be completed: sounds must be recorded or selected from a library and a sound engine must be programmed so that those sounds can be incorporated into the game's interactive environment. In earlier computers and video game systems, sound effects were typically produced using sound synthesis . In modern systems,

19440-510: The introduction of the Coupigny. Pierre Henry had used oscillators to produce sounds as early as 1955. But a synthesiser with envelope control was something Pierre Schaeffer was against, since it favoured the preconception of music and therefore deviated from Schaeffer's principle of "making through listening". Because of Schaeffer's concerns the Coupigny synthesiser was conceived as a sound-event generator with parameters controlled globally, without

19620-532: The lead on work that began in the early 1950s, with Jacques Poullin's potentiomètre d'espace, a system designed to move monophonic sound sources across four speakers, Bayle and the engineer Jean-Claude Lallemand created an orchestra of loudspeakers ( un orchestre de haut-parleurs ) known as the Acousmonium in 1974. An inaugural concert took place on 14 February 1974 at the Espace Pierre Cardin in Paris with

19800-401: The listener will not be caught off guard as much by unusual sound effects. In contrast, when creating sound effects for historical accuracy and realism, the listener likely had a lifetime of exposure to some of these sounds and so there are expectations of what they should sound like. In the previous example, the phased 'whoosh' of the victim's fall has no analog in real-life experience, but it

19980-460: The low percentage of women DJs and turntablists may stem from the overall male domination of the entire hip hop music industry. Most of the top rappers, MCs, DJs, record producers and music executives are men. There are a small number of high-profile women, but they are rare. In 2007, University of North Carolina music professor Mark Katz's article stated that it is rare for women to compete in turntable battles and that this gender disparity has become

20160-403: The machines within the studio. It also had a number of remote controls for operating tape recorders. The system was easily adaptable to any context, particularly that of interfacing with external equipment. Before the late 1960s the musique concrète produced at GRM had largely been based on the recording and manipulation of sounds, but synthesised sounds had featured in a number of works prior to

20340-608: The manipulation of the record in time with the manipulation of the cross fader on the mixer to create new rhythms and sonic artifacts with a variety of sounds. The evolution of scratching from a fairly simple sound and simple rhythmic cadences to more complicated sounds and more intricate rhythmical patterns allowed the practitioners to further evolve what could be done with scratching musically. These new ways of scratching were all given names, from flare to crab or orbit , and spread as DJs taught each other, practiced together or just showed off their new techniques to other DJs. Alongside

20520-424: The manner in which sound recording revealed what was hidden in the act of basic acoustic listening. Epstein's reference to this "phenomenon of an epiphanic being", which appears through the transduction of sound, proved influential on Schaeffer's concept of reduced listening. Schaeffer would explicitly cite Jean Epstein with reference to his use of extra-musical sound material. Epstein had already imagined that "through

20700-416: The market in 1972. It was adopted by New York City hip hop DJs such as Grand Wizard Theodore and Afrika Bambaataa in the 1970s. As they experimented with the SL-1200 decks, they developed scratching techniques when they found that the motor would continue to spin at the correct RPM even if the DJ wiggled the record back and forth on the platter. Since then, turntablism spread widely in hip hop culture, and

20880-459: The mid-90s the disappearance of the DJ in hip hop had created a sub-culture which would come to be known as turntablism and which focused entirely on the DJ using his turntables and a mixer to manipulate sounds and create music. By pushing the practice of DJing away, hip hop created the grounds for this sub-culture to evolve (Greasley & Prior, 2013). The origin of the terms turntablist and turntablism are widely contested and argued about, but over

21060-404: The mixed pieces Toute la lyre (1951) and Orphée 53 (1953) by Schaeffer/Henry, and the film music Masquerage (1952) by Schaeffer and Astrologie (1953) by Henry. In 1954 Varèse and Honegger visited to work on the tape parts of Déserts and La rivière endormie ". In the early and mid 1950s Schaeffer's commitments to RTF included official missions that often required extended absences from

21240-463: The most recognizable technique of turntablism: scratching . He put his hand on a record one day, to silence the music on the turntable while his mother was calling out to him and thus accidentally discovered the sound of scratching by moving the record back and forth under the stylus . Though Theodore discovered scratching, it was Flash who helped push the early concept and showcase it to the public, in his live shows and on recordings. DJ Grand Mixer DXT

21420-399: The music stops except for the percussion. Kool Herc introduced the break-beat technique as a way of extending the break indefinitely. This is done by buying two of the same record, finding the break on each record, and switching from one to the other using the DJ mixer: e.g., as record A plays, the DJ quickly backtracks to the same break on record B , which will again take the place of A at

21600-427: The musical values they were potentially containing". According to Pierre Henry , "musique concrète was not a study of timbre, it is focused on envelopes, forms. It must be presented by means of non-traditional characteristics, you see … one might say that the origin of this music is also found in the interest in 'plastifying' music, of rendering it plastic like sculpture…musique concrète, in my opinion … led to

21780-476: The need for further research into the historical and practical aspects of theater sound. The most realistic sound effects may originate from original sources; the closest sound to machine-gun fire could be an original recording of actual machine guns. Despite this, real life and actual practice do not always coincide with theory. When recordings of real life do not sound realistic on playback, Foley and effects are used to create more convincing sounds. For example,

21960-406: The other four tracks each supplied a single loudspeaker. This provided a mixture of live and preset sound positions. The placement of loudspeakers in the performance space included two loudspeakers at the front right and left of the audience, one placed at the rear, and in the centre of the space a loudspeaker was placed in a high position above the audience. The sounds could therefore be moved around

22140-443: The pause on the forward stroke instead. A basic tear is usually performed with the crossfader open the entire time, but it can also be combined with other scratches such as flares for example by doing tears with the record hand and cutting the sound in and out with the fader hand. An orbit is a type of scratch used by turntablists. It is generally any scratch that incorporates both a forward and backward movement, or vice versa, of

22320-400: The performance space and a mixing console is used to manipulate the placement of acousmatic material across the speaker array, using a performative technique known as sound diffusion . Bayle has commented that the purpose of the Acousmonium is to "substitute a momentary classical disposition of sound making, which diffuses the sound from the circumference towards the centre of the hall, by

22500-414: The picture). Today, with effects held in digital format, it is easy to create any required sequence to be played in any desired timeline. In the days of silent film, sound effects were added by the operator of a theater organ or photoplayer , both of which also supplied the soundtrack of the film. Theater organ sound effects are usually electric or electro-pneumatic, and activated by a button pressed with

22680-421: The pieces Pop'electric and Du pop a l'ane , which used fragments of musical genres such as easy listening , dixieland , classical music and progressive rock . Reynolds writes that this approach continued in the later work of musicians Matmos , whose A Chance to Cut Is a Chance to Cure (2001) was created with the sounds of cosmetic surgery , and the "pop- collage " work of John Oswald , who referred to

22860-446: The pitch and tempo ("screwing") and syncopated beat skipping ("chopping"), among other added effects of sound manipulation. DJ Screw Robert Earl Davis of Texas, innovated the art of chopping and screwing coining the phrase "chopped n screwed", taking original contemporary hit records and replaying them in the "chopped n screwed" art form. This gained a very large following finally paving the way for small, independent rap labels to turn

23040-482: The processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, often are called sound effects . This area and sound design have been slowly merged since the late-twentieth century. The term sound effect dates back to the early days of radio. In its Year Book 1931 the BBC published a major article about "The Use of Sound Effects". It considers sound effects deeply linked with broadcasting and states: "It would be

23220-416: The question "who says what to whom?" Schaeffer added "how?", thereby creating a platform for research into audiovisual communication and mass media, audible phenomena and music in general (including non-Western musics). At the GRM the theoretical teaching remained based on practice and could be summed up in the catch phrase do and listen . Schaeffer kept up a practice established with the GRMC of delegating

23400-453: The realistic sound of bacon frying can be the crumpling of cellophane, while rain may be recorded as salt falling on a piece of tin foil. Less realistic sound effects are digitally synthesized or sampled and sequenced (the same recording played repeatedly using a sequencer). When the producer or content creator demands high-fidelity sound effects, the sound editor usually must augment his available library with new sound effects recorded in

23580-407: The record and incorporating movement with the crossfade mixer. It was invented by DJ Jazzy Jeff . The scratch is somewhat difficult to perform because it takes a good amount of coordination. The scratch starts out with the cross-fader open. The DJ then moves the record forward while simultaneously closing the previously opened channel ending the first sound. Then, in a reverse fashion, the DJ opens

23760-409: The record in sequence. The orbit was developed by DJ Disk who incorporated the flare after being shown by DJ Qbert . Usually when someone is referring to an orbit, they are most likely talking about flare orbits. For example, A 1 click forward flare and a 1 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 4 very quick distinct sounds) would be a 1 click orbit. A 2 click forward flare and

23940-409: The recording head. The resulting repetitions of a sound occurred at different time intervals, and could be filtered or modified through feedback. This system was also easily capable of producing artificial reverberation or continuous sounds. At the premiere of Pierre Schaeffer's Symphonie pour un homme seul in 1951, a system that was designed for the spatial control of sound was tested. It was called

24120-406: The recordist will begin contacting professionals or technicians in the same way a producer may arrange a crew; if the recordist needs an explosion, they may contact a demolition company to see if any buildings are scheduled to be destroyed with explosives in the near future. If the recordist requires a volley of cannon fire, they may contact historical re-enactors or gun enthusiasts. Depending on

24300-461: The rest of the recording (van Veen & Attias, 2012). Arguably, this combination of distortion and audial effects against the original recording grants greater freedom of improvisation to the DJ than did the previous forms of turntablism. Via the ChopNotSlop movement, "Chopped and screwed" has also been applied to other genres of music such as R&B and rock music, thus transcending its roots within

24480-486: The revue Kultur und Schallplatte that "there will be a greater interest in creating music in a way that will be peculiar to the gramophone record". The following year, 1931, Boris de Schloezer also expressed the opinion that one could write for the gramophone or for the wireless just as one can for the piano or the violin. Shortly after, German art theorist Rudolf Arnheim discussed the effects of microphonic recording in an essay entitled "Radio", published in 1936. In it

24660-783: The same year Schaeffer discussed, in writing, the question surrounding the transformation of time perceived through recording. The essay evidenced knowledge of sound manipulation techniques he would further exploit compositionally. In 1948 Schaeffer formally initiated "research in to noises" at the Club d'Essai and on 5 October 1948 the results of his initial experimentation were premiered at a concert given in Paris. Five works for phonograph – known collectively as Cinq études de bruits (Five Studies of Noises) including Étude violette ( Study in Purple ) and Étude aux chemins de fer (Study with Railroads) – were presented. By 1949 Schaeffer's compositional work

24840-438: The screen seem terrified simply by giving the actor a different gait. In music and film/television production, some typical effects used in recording and amplified performances are: Musique concr%C3%A8te The theoretical basis of musique concrète as a compositional practice was developed by French composer Pierre Schaeffer beginning in the early 1940s. It was largely an attempt to differentiate between music based on

25020-684: The shellac players, to the point that the Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950–1951) was mainly composed with records even if the tape recorder was available. In 1950, when the machines finally functioned correctly, the techniques of the studio were expanded. A range of new sound manipulation practices were explored using improved media manipulation methods and operations such as continuous speed variation. A completely new possibility of organising sounds appeared with tape editing, which permitted tape to be spliced and arranged with much more precision. The "axe-cut junctions" were replaced with micrometric junctions and

25200-494: The simplicity of game environments reduced the required number of sounds needed, and thus only one or two people were directly responsible for the sound recording and design. As the video game business has grown and computer sound reproduction quality has increased, however, the team of sound designers dedicated to game projects has likewise grown and the demands placed on them may now approach those of mid-budget motion pictures. Some pieces of music use sound effects that are made by

25380-462: The skills of the DJ. In the 2010s, there are turntablism competitions, where turntablists demonstrate advanced beat juggling and scratching skills. The use of the turntable as a musical instrument has its roots dating back to the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s when musique concrète composers did experiments with audio equipment. Experimental composers (such as John Cage , Halim El-Dabh , and Pierre Schaeffer ) used them to sample and create music that

25560-580: The skyscrapers of multitrack recording to create their updated sound". As described by Will Hodgkinson , Art of Noise brought classical and avant-garde sounds into pop by "[aiming] to emulate the musique concrète composers of the 1950s" via Fairlight samplers instead of tape. In a piece for Pitchfork , musicians Matmos noted the use of musique concrète in later popular music, including the crying baby effects in Aaliyah 's " Are You That Somebody? " (1998) or Missy Elliott 's " backwards chorus ", while noting that

25740-463: The sound editor may add the sound of a broom whooshing by a microphone, pitch-shifted down and time-expanded to further emphasize the death. If the film is science-fiction, the designer may phaser the whoosh to give it a more sci-fi feel. (For a list of many sound effects processes available to a sound designer, see the bottom of this article.) When creating sound effects for films, sound recordists and editors do not generally concern themselves with

25920-508: The sound editor wants to communicate that a driver is in a hurry to leave, they will cut the sound of tires squealing when the car accelerates from a stop; even if the car is on a dirt road, the effect will work if the audience is dramatically engaged. If a character is afraid of someone on the other side of a door, the turning of the doorknob can take a second or more, and the mechanism of the knob can possess dozens of clicking parts. A skillful Foley artist can make someone walking calmly across

26100-431: The sound of a hammer pounding hardwood, equalized so that only the low-end can be heard. The low end gives the three sounds together added weight, so that the audience actually feels the weight of the bullet hit the victim. If the victim is the villain, and his death is climactic, the sound designer may add reverb to the impact, in order to enhance the dramatic beat. And then, as the victim falls over in slow motion,

26280-471: The sound of a sputtering engine. What is considered today to be the first recorded sound effect was of Big Ben striking 10:30, 10:45, and 11:00. It was recorded on a brown wax cylinder by technicians at Edison House in London on July 16, 1890. This recording is currently in the public domain. As the car example demonstrates, the ability to make multiple simultaneous recordings of the same subject—through

26460-432: The sound of hip hop, Grandmaster DST was busy cutting "real" musicians on their own turf. His scratching on Herbie Hancock's 1983 single, "Rockit", makes it perhaps the most influential DJ track of them all – even more than (Grandmaster Flash's) " Wheels of Steel ", it established the DJ as the star of the record, even if he wasn't the frontman. Compared to "Rockit", West Street Mob 's "Break Dancin' – Electric Boogie" (1983)

26640-449: The studios. This led him to invest Philippe Arthuys with responsibility for the GRMC in his absence, with Pierre Henry operating as Director of Works. Pierre Henry's composing talent developed greatly during this period at the GRMC and he worked with experimental filmmakers such as Max de Haas, Jean Grémillon , Enrico Fulchignoni, and Jean Rouch and with choreographers including Dick Sanders and Maurice Béjart. Schaeffer returned to run

26820-576: The technical assistance of Pierre Henry was the first work composed for this tape recorder in 1952. A rapid rhythmic polyphony was distributed over the three channels. This machine was conceived to build complex forms through repetition, and accumulation of events through delays , filtering and feedback . It consisted of a large rotating disk, 50 cm in diameter, on which was stuck a tape with its magnetic side facing outward. A series of twelve movable magnetic heads (one each recording head and erasing head, and ten playback heads) were positioned around

27000-421: The terms "turntablism" and "turntablist" had become established and accepted to define the practice and practitioner of using turntables and a mixer to create or manipulate sounds and music. This could be done by scratching a record or manipulating the rhythms on the record either by drumming, looping or beat juggling. The decade of the 1990s is also important in shaping the turntablist art form and culture as it saw

27180-478: The time is not far off when a composer will be able to represent through recording, music specifically composed for the gramophone ". In the same period the American composer Henry Cowell , in referring to the projects of Nikolai Lopatnikoff , believed that "there was a wide field open for the composition of music for phonographic discs". This sentiment was echoed further in 1930 by Igor Stravinsky , when he stated in

27360-548: The time it takes for sound to fade, but not the volume. More absorption led to clearer sounds but quicker fades, showing the intricate dance between stage and auditorium acoustics. In his book "Sound: A Reader in Theatre Practice," Brown effectively connects the dots between theory and practice in the world of theater sound. He presents an engaging look into how sound design in theater has evolved, blending historical insights with current philosophical thoughts. Brown argues that

27540-579: The time, El-Dabh would eventually gain recognition for his influential work at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in Manhattan in the late 1950s. Following Schaeffer's work with Studio d'Essai at Radiodiffusion Nationale during the early 1940s he was credited with originating the theory and practice of musique concrète. The Studio d'Essai was renamed Club d'Essai de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française in 1946 and in

27720-428: The time, the distance of the unit from the loops determined the volume of sound sent out from each. The music thus came to one at varying intensity from various parts of the room, and this spatial projection gave new sense to the rather abstract sequence of sound originally recorded. The central concept underlying this method was the notion that music should be controlled during public presentation in order to create

27900-409: The trajectory of the ball, to record the sound of the cannonball passing by. When the crew recorded musket fire, a set of microphones were arrayed close to the target (in this case a swine carcass) to record the musket-ball impacts. A counter-example is the common technique for recording an automobile. For recording onboard car sounds (which include the car interiors), a three- microphone technique

28080-461: The transposition of natural sounds, it becomes possible to create chords and dissonances, melodies and symphonies of noise, which are a new and specifically cinematographic music". As a student in Cairo in the early to mid-1940s, Egyptian composer Halim El-Dabh began experimenting with electroacoustic music using a cumbersome wire recorder . He recorded the sounds of an ancient zaar ceremony and at

28260-531: The turntable. In 2005 the International Turntablist Federation World final introduced the 'Experimental' category to recognise visual artistry. Like many other musical instrumentalists, turntablists compete to see who can develop the fastest, most innovative and most creative approaches to their instrument. The selection of a champion comes from the culmination of battles between turntablists. Battling involves each turntablist performing

28440-421: The turntablist's music. Turntablists typically manipulate records on a turntable by moving the record with their hand to cue the stylus to exact points on a record, and by touching or moving the platter or record to stop, slow down, speed up or, spin the record backwards, or moving the turntable platter back and forth (the popular rhythmic " scratching " effect which is a key part of hip hop music ), all while using

28620-404: The ultimate aim being to create a new rhythm out of the pre-recorded existing ones. While beat juggling is not as popular as scratching due to the more demanding rhythmical knowledge it requires, it has proved popular within DJ battles and in certain compositional situations (van Veen & Attias, 2012). One of the earliest academic studies of turntablism (White 1996) argued for its designation as

28800-486: The umbrella of the Schaeffer-led Service de la Recherche at ORTF (1960–1974). Together with the GRM, three other groups existed: the Groupe de Recherches Image GRI, the Groupe de Recherches Technologiques GRT and the Groupe de Recherches Langage which became the Groupe d'Etudes Critiques. Communication was the one theme that unified the various groups, all of which were devoted to production and creation. In terms of

28980-448: The use of several DAT or multitrack recorders—has made sound recording into a sophisticated craft. The sound effect can be shaped by the sound editor or sound designer , not just for realism, but for emotional effect. Once the sound effects are recorded or captured, they are usually loaded into a computer integrated with an audio non-linear editing system . This allows a sound editor or sound designer to heavily manipulate

29160-510: The verbal skills of the MC. The most well known example of this 'equation' of MCs and DJ is probably Run-D.M.C. who were composed of two MCs and one DJ. The DJ, Jam Master Jay , was an integral part of the group since his turntablism was critical to Run DMC's productions and performances. While Flash and Bambaataa were using the turntable to explore repetition, alter rhythm and create the instrumental stabs and punch phrasing that would come to characterize

29340-498: The verisimilitude or accuracy of the sounds they present. The sound of a bullet entering a person from a close distance may sound nothing like the sound designed in the above example, but since very few people are aware of how such a thing actually sounds, the job of designing the effect is mainly an issue of creating a conjectural sound which feeds the audience's expectations while still suspending disbelief. Sci-fi and fantasy genres can be more forgiving in terms of audience expectations;

29520-489: The year 2000, turntablism and turntablists had become widely publicized and accepted in the mainstream and within hip hop as valid artists. Through this recognition came further evolution. This evolution took many shapes and forms: some continued to concentrate on the foundations of the art form and its original links to hip hop culture, some became producers utilizing the skills they'd learnt as turntablists and incorporating those into their productions, some concentrated more on

29700-608: The years some facts have been established by various documentaries ( Battlesounds , Doug Pray 's Scratch ), books (DJ Culture), conferences (Skratchcon 2000) and interviews in online and printed magazines. These facts are that the origins of the words most likely lay with practitioners on the US West Coast, centered on the San Francisco Bay Area . Some claim that DJ Disk , a member of the Invisibl Skratch Piklz ,

29880-532: Was a founding member of the influential turntablist group Invisibl Skratch Piklz (begun in 1989 as Shadow of the Prophet) and later DJ for the Beastie Boys . Cut Chemist , DJ Nu-Mark , and Kid Koala are also known as virtuosi of the turntables. Concerto for Turntable is a groundbreaking musical work that integrates the art of turntablism with classical music composition. Co-created by DJ Radar and Raul Yanez ,

30060-542: Was coined into a term called controllerism , which inspired a movement of new digital DJs such as DJ Buddy Holly and Moldover. DJ Buddy and Moldover went on to create a song called "Controllerism" that pays homage to the sound of digitally emulated turntablism. New DJs, turntablists and crews owe a distinct debt to pioneer old-school DJs like Kool DJ Herc , Grand Wizard Theodore , Grandmixer DST , Grandmaster Flash , and Afrika Bambaataa , also DJ Jazzy Jeff , DJ Cash Money , DJ Scratch , DJ Clark Kent , and other DJs of

30240-622: Was entirely produced by the turntable. Cage's Imaginary Landscape No. 1 (1939) is composed for two variable speed turntables, frequency recordings, muted piano and cymbal . Edgard Varèse experimented with turntables even earlier in 1930, though he never formally produced any works using them. Though this school of thought and practice is not directly linked to the 1970s–2010 definition of turntablism within hip hop and DJ culture, it has had an influence on modern experimental sonic/artists such as Christian Marclay , Janek Schaefer , Otomo Yoshihide , Philip Jeck , and Maria Chavez . Turntablism as it

30420-499: Was informed by encounters with voice actors, and microphone usage and radiophonic art played an important part in inspiring and consolidating Schaeffer's conception of sound-based composition. Another important influence on Schaeffer's practice was cinema, and the techniques of recording and montage, which were originally associated with cinematographic practice, came to "serve as the substrate of musique concrète". Marc Battier notes that, prior to Schaeffer, Jean Epstein drew attention to

30600-498: Was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic ), based in Osaka , Japan. It eliminated belts, and instead employed a motor to directly drive a platter on which a vinyl record rests. In 1969, Matsushita released it as the SP-10 , the first direct-drive turntable on the market, and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables. In 1971, Matsushita released

30780-403: Was invented by its namesake, DJ Flare in 1987. This scratch technique is much like the "transform" in some ways, only instead of starting with the sound that is cutting up off, one starts with the sound on and concentrate on cutting the sound into pieces by bouncing the fader off the cut outside of the fader slot to make the sound cut out and then back in a split second. Each time the DJ bounces

30960-408: Was known publicly as musique concrète . Schaeffer stated: "when I proposed the term 'musique concrète,' I intended … to point out an opposition with the way musical work usually goes. Instead of notating musical ideas on paper with the symbols of solfege and entrusting their realization to well-known instruments, the question was to collect concrete sounds, wherever they came from, and to abstract

31140-410: Was later popularised in 1995 by DJ Babu to describe the difference between a DJ who simply plays and mixes records and one who performs by physically manipulating the records, stylus, turntables, turntable speed controls and mixer to produce new sounds. The new term coincided with the resurgence of hip-hop DJing in the 1990s. According to most DJ historians, it has been documented that " DJ Babu " of

31320-488: Was less effective in generating precisely defined frequencies and triggering specific sounds. The Coupigny synthesiser also served as the model for a smaller, portable unit, which has been used down to the present day. In 1966 composer and technician François Bayle was placed in charge of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and in 1975, GRM was integrated with the new Institut national de l'audiovisuel (INA – Audiovisual National Institute) with Bayle as its head. In taking

31500-465: Was linked to the increased use of DAT tapes and other studio techniques that would ultimately push the DJ further away from the original hip-hop equation of the MC as the vocalist and the DJ as the music provider alongside the producer. This push and disappearance of the DJ meant that the practices of the DJ, such as scratching, went back underground and were cultivated and built upon by a generation of people who grew up with hip hop, DJs and scratching. By

31680-611: Was met with enthusiastic responses, highlighting the potential of digital instruments within classical music settings and demonstrating the artistic validity of turntablism. Starting in the 1980s in the Southern United States and burgeoning in the 2000s, a meta-genre of hip hop called " chopped and screwed " became a significant and popular form of turntablism. Often using a greater variety of vinyl emulation software rather than normal turntables, "chopped and screwed" stood out from previous standards of turntablism in its slowing of

31860-480: Was punk negation. As great as "Break Dancin'" was, though, it highlighted the limited tonal range of scratching, which was in danger of becoming a short-lived fad like human beat-boxing until the emergence of Code Money's DJ Brethren from Philadelphia in the mid-1980s. Despite New York's continued pre-eminence in the hip-hop world, scratch DJing was modernized less than 100 miles down the road in Philadelphia , where

32040-481: Was starting to become big money and the cult of personality started to take over. Hip hop became very much at the service of the rapper and Cash Money and DJ Jazzy Jeff were accorded maybe one track on an album – for example, DJ Jazzy Jeff's " A Touch of Jazz " (1987) and " Jazzy's in the House " (1988) and Cash Money's "The Music Maker" (1988). Other crucial DJ tracks from this period include Tuff Crew 's DJ Too Tuff's "Behold

32220-477: Was the first to coin the term, others claim that " DJ Babu ", a member of the " Beat Junkies ", was responsible for coining and spreading the term turntablist after inscribing it on his mixtapes as"Babu the Turntablist" and passing them around. Another claim credits DJ Supreme, 1991 World Supremacy Champion and DJ for Lauryn Hill . The truth most likely lies somewhere in between all these facts. In an interview with

32400-476: Was viewed as the primary requirement; to enable complex synthesis processes such as frequency modulation , amplitude modulation , and modulation via an external source. No keyboard was attached to the synthesiser and instead a specific and somewhat complex envelope generator was used to shape sound. This synthesiser was well-adapted to the production of continuous and complex sounds using intermodulation techniques such as cross-synthesis and frequency modulation but

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