The Tunisian Beverage Manufacturing Company ( French : Société de fabrication des boissons de Tunisie , SFBT), known as the Tunis Frigorific and Brewery Company until 2012, is a Tunisian food industry group focused on four main products.
119-569: Founded in 1889, under the French protectorate , the private group occupies a dominant position in the marketing of beverages: it controls approximately 85% of the national beer market, 90% of that of soft drink and 40-50% of that of mineral waters. The Tunisian Beverage Manufacturing Company operates two factories in El Omrane, Tunis and Bou Argoub in Cape Bon . In early 2012, a PET bottle production unit
238-569: A militarist policy. However, they relied on a possible British opposition to an enlargement of the French sphere of influence in North Africa (while, if anything, London was hostile about a single country controlling the whole Strait of Sicily ). In the beginning of 1881, France decided to militarily intervene in Tunisia. The motivations of this action were provided by Jules Ferry , who sustained that
357-508: A national anthem as one of the pillars of national sovereignty, and that was in 1846, it was called Salam El Bey (Beylical anthem). It was sung in honour of the Bey. Initially without lyrics, but words were written by an unknown poet and were adapted to the melody of the anthem. According to historian Othman Kaak , the music was composed by Giuseppe Verdi . Starting early in the 19th century, Tunisia came increasingly under European influence. Under
476-451: A confrontation with France. Hence Tunisia officially became a French protectorate on May 12, 1881, when the ruling Sadik Bey (1859–1882) signed the Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id). Later in 1883 his younger brother and successor 'Ali Bey signed the al-Marsa Convention. France did not enlarge its Maghreb domain beyond Algeria for half a century. The next area for expansion, at the beginning of
595-613: A fifth of Tunisia's eligible students. At the summit of the modern education system was the Sadiki College , founded by Hayreddin Pasha . Highly competitive examinations regulated admission to Sadiki, and its graduates were almost assured government positions. Many Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940, but the nationalist parties derived no more substantive benefit from
714-412: A force of 24,000 soldiers placed under the command of General Léonard-Léopold Forgemol de Bostquénard on the border between Tunisia and French Algeria . On 24 April 1881, French troops entered Tunisia from the north ( Tabarka ), the center of Kroumirie and Sakiet Sidi Youssef . Tabarka was invaded on 26 April, as well as Le Kef on the same day. The three armies can then join together to eliminate
833-407: A harder line and kept Bourguiba under house arrest from 1951 to 1954. A general strike in 1952 led to violent confrontation between the French and Tunisians, including guerrilla attacks by nationalists. Yet another change in French government, the appointment of Pierre Mendès-France as Prime Minister in 1954, brought a return to gentler approaches. International circumstances – the French defeat in
952-543: A janissary revolt in 1811. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Britain and France secured the Bey's agreement to cease sponsoring or permitting corsair raids, which had resumed during the Napoleonic conflict. After a brief resumption of raids, it stopped. In the 1820s economic activity in Tunisia took a steep downturn. The Tunisian government was particularly affected due to its monopoly positions regarding many exports. Credit
1071-520: A major loan to Tunisia in the mid-19th century and had trading interests. The opportunity to seize control of Tunisia occurred following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) . Paris did not act immediately; the French parliament remained in an anti-colonial mood and no groundswell of popular opinion mandated a takeover of Tunisia. Several developments spurred France to action. In 1880, the British owners of
1190-476: A means of bridging the gap between Arabo-Islamic and European cultures." In a more pragmatic vein, schools teaching modern subjects in a European language would produce a cadre of Tunisians with the skills necessary to staff the growing government bureaucracy. Soon after the protectorate's establishment, the Directorate of Public Education set up a unitary school system for French and Tunisian pupils designed to draw
1309-515: A memorandum grouping together 16 demands inspired by his nationalist friends. On 15 September, the Vichy government sent an end of inadmissibility in response to the monarch. On 12 October, it was the absence of Tunisians among the French directors of the administration that provoked his anger. The end of the World War II means the return in force of the French protectorate in Tunisia. The first victim
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#17328692146461428-434: A national assembly. A conciliatory French government acknowledged the desirability of autonomy, although it warned that this would come only at an unspecified time in the future; Paris proposed French and Tunisian "co-sovereignty" over the protectorate. An accord signed the next year, which granted increased powers to Tunisian officials, fell short of satisfying nationalists and outraged settlers. New French prime ministers took
1547-716: A new French holding. Germany and Britain remained silent; Italy was outraged but powerless. French public opinion was largely supportive, and the Treaty of Bardo was passed with only one dissenting vote in the Chamber of Deputies and unanimously in the Senate . As a protectorate, Tunisia's status differed from that of Algeria. The Bey remained in office as head of state, and Tunisia was deemed nominally independent, while existing treaties with other states stayed in force. France, however, took control of Tunisia's foreign affairs, finances, and maintained
1666-648: A product in a growth phase; the Marwa, Safia, Aïn Garci and Cristaline brands were owned by the group. Fruit juices represented 0.8% of turnover but offered great potential for development in the perspective of adapting the consumption of sugary drinks to a Western pattern (decline in sodas offset by the rise in fruit juices); turnover thus increased by 23% between 2009 and 2010. French protectorate of Tunisia The French protectorate of Tunisia (French: Protectorat français de Tunisie ; Arabic : الحماية الفرنسية في تونس al-ḥimāya al-Fransīya fī Tūnis ), officially
1785-588: A young age in order to serve the Royal Family and the Makhzen , such as Mustapha Khaznadar , Kheireddine Pacha and others. Mohammed Aziz Bouattour is considered the first indigenous Tunisian to hold the office in 1882, and by the way, he is the longest-serving Prime Minister in the history of Tunisia with a period of nearly 25 years, and during his term, the French protectorate was established in Tunisia. The Prime Minister of Tunisia had an important authority in
1904-527: Is responsible before Supreme Council in accordance with Article 11 of the Constitution, which is one of the first countries in the world to stipulate it. Article 13 of the constitution affirmed that the Bey (monarch) is the supreme commander of the Tunisian armed forces, and Article 9 affirmed as well that the 1857 Fundamental Pact must be respected by him. Although the constitution limited his powers, he had
2023-520: Is to be created in Gabès. Privatized in 1979, it was partly bought by the French Castel Group . It then bought companies to strengthen its positioning in the beverage market segments, in particular mineral water companies such as Marwa (2000) and SOSTEM (2003) which exploit the historic brands Safia (still water) and Aïn Garci ( carbonated water ). At one time, there was talk of SFBT joining forces with
2142-771: The Axis were forced out of Tunisia in 1943, the Free French accused him of collaborating with the Vichy Government and deposed him. The accession of Muhammad VII on 19 June 1942 was a surprise for the Tunisians. Very popular since he convinced his father to defend the Destour in April 1922, he had a reputation for being close to the people. From 10 August, he did not hesitate to enter into conflict with Jean-Pierre Esteva by presenting him with
2261-614: The Coca-Cola group. Having crushed the competition from the global challenger, Pepsi , to the point of making it disappear from the Tunisian market in the 1990s, SFBT faced increasing competition from Virgin Cola launched in 2003 by the Meddeb group, in a market in the saturation phase. Beers accounted for 29% of turnover and ensured it a monopoly, until the establishment of a Heineken factory in 2007. The national brands Celtia and Stella account for
2380-477: The Congress of Berlin three years before. The events, in effect, demonstrated the irrealisability of the foreign policy of Cairoli and of Depretis , the impossibility of an alliance with France and the necessity of a rapprochement with Berlin and with Vienna , even if obtorto collo . However, such an inversion of the foreign policy of the last decade couldn't be led by the same men, and Benedetto Cairoli resigned from office on 29 May 1881, thus avoiding that
2499-578: The First Indochina War and insurgency of the Algerian War — spurred French efforts to solve the Tunisian question quickly and peacefully. In a speech in Tunis, Mendès-France solemnly proclaimed the autonomy of the Tunisian government, although France retained control of substantial areas of administration. In 1955, Bourguiba returned to Tunis in triumph. At the same time, the French protectorate of Morocco
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#17328692146462618-595: The Husainid Beys, trade and commerce with the Europeans increased year after year. Permanent residences were established in Tunis by many more foreign merchants, especially Italians . In 1819, the Bey agreed to quit with finality corsair raids. Also the Bey agreed with France to terminate his revenue policy whereby government agents dominated foreign trade by monopolizing the export of Tunisian goods; this change in policy opened
2737-788: The Ottoman Empire . It was ruled by the Husainid dynasty from 1705 until the establishment of the French protectorate of Tunisia in 1881. The term beylik refers to the monarch, who was called the Bey of Tunis . Under the protectorate, the institution of the Beylik was retained nominally, with the Husainids remaining as largely symbolic sovereigns. The Beys remained faithful to the Sublime Porte , but reigned as monarchs after gradually gaining independence from
2856-602: The Protectorate of Morocco , and more broadly of the French Empire. Tunisian sovereignty was more reduced in 1883, the Bey was only signing the decrees and laws prepared by the Resident General of France in Tunisia. The Tunisian government at the local level remained in place, and was only coordinating between Tunisians and the administrations set up on the model of what existed in France. The Tunisian government's budget
2975-523: The Regency of Tunis (French: Régence de Tunis ) and commonly referred to as simply French Tunisia , was established in 1881, during the French colonial empire era, and lasted until Tunisian independence in 1956. The protectorate was established by the Bardo Treaty of 12 May 1881 after a military conquest , despite Italian disapproval. It was part of French North Africa with French Algeria and
3094-536: The Vichy Government of Marshal Philippe Pétain sent to Tunis as new Resident-General Admiral Jean-Pierre Esteva , who had no intention of permitting a revival of Tunisian political activity. The arrests of Taieb Slim and Habib Thameur, central figures in the Neo-Destour party's political bureau were a result of this attitude. The Bey Muhammad VII al-Munsif moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when
3213-457: The abolition of slavery , the foundation of the military school of Bardo in 1840, the Sadiki College in 1875, and the adoption in 1861 of the first constitution of Africa and the Arab world , becoming a constitutional monarchy . The financial crises in the country followed, with Mustapha Khaznadar as prime minister, which constituted an opportunity for European intervention in Tunisia. Thus,
3332-468: The consular courts they had maintained to protect their nationals from the Tunisian judiciary. The French courts also tried cases in which one litigant was Tunisian, the other European. The protectorate authorities made no attempt to alter Muslim religious courts in which judges, or qadis, trained in Islamic law heard relevant cases. A beylical court handling criminal cases operated under French supervision in
3451-593: The ulama beforehand from the Bach-mufti Sidi Brahim Riahi , which forbade slavery, categorically and without any precedent in the Arab Muslim world. The complete abolition of slavery throughout the country was declared in a decree of 23 January 1846. However, although the abolition was accepted by the urban population, it was rejected (according to Ibn Abi Dhiaf ) at Djerba , among the Bedouins , and among
3570-458: The 16th century, custom duties were limited to 3 per cent of the value of imported goods; yet manufactured products from overseas, primarily textiles, flooded Tunisia and gradually destroyed local artisan industries. In 1861, Prime Minister Mustapha Khaznadar made an effort to modernise administration and increase revenues by doubling taxes. The primary effect, only fully felt by 1864, was widespread rural insurrection, coupled with great hardship for
3689-485: The 1880s, was Tunisia. With an area of 155,000 square kilometers, Tunisia was a small prize, but it occupied strategic importance, across the Algerian frontier and only 150 kilometers from Sicily ; Tunisia offered good port facilities, especially at Bizerte . France and Italy, as well as Britain, counted significant expatriate communities in Tunisia and maintained consulates there. Ties were also commercial; France had advanced
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3808-571: The 19th century, as everything related to the Royal Family was kept in his office according to Article 2 of the Constitution. The Prime Minister, based on Section 9 of the Constitution, prepares the budget presented to him by the Ministry of Finance and submits it to Parliament in accordance with Article 64. The Tunisian parliament was called the Supreme Council ( Arabic : المجلس الأكبر ). It
3927-498: The Bey and followed his lead in offering no resistance to the French. At the same time, the rulers obtained the dismissal of Tunisians who had supported the 1881 rebellion or had otherwise opposed the extension of French influence. A Frenchman held the office of Secretary-General of the Tunisian government, an office created in 1883 to advise the Prime Minister and oversee the work of the bureaucracy. French experts answerable only to
4046-667: The Beys did not end until 1807, with a victory for the Tunisians led by Hammouda I . In the 19th century, the country underwent profound reforms, thanks to the reformist action of Kheireddine Pacha and his close advisers: the Minister of the Interior General Rustum , the Minister of Instruction General Hussein , the Minister Bin Diyaf and the ulama Mahmoud Kabadou , Salem Bouhageb and Mokhtar Chouikha . Among these, are
4165-555: The Camera would openly distrust him; since then he de facto disappeared from the political scene. The Italians called these events the Schiaffo di Tunisi (literally Slap of Tunis ). After the establishment of French protectorate, Italian immigrants in Tunisia would have protested and caused serious difficulties to France. However, little at a time, the problem was solved and the immigrants could later opt for French nationality and benefit from
4284-450: The Dutch brewer Heineken but the project ultimately failed. SFBT officially received MSI 20000 certification on 1 November 2008. Soft drinks accounted for 42% of turnover in 2005 and ensured it an undisputed leading position, resulting from the predominance of a range of national soda, Boga , which represented 25% of the market, and especially from the exclusive marketing of soft drinks from
4403-561: The Financial Commission, an international financial committee, was formed in 1869, under pressure from some European countries, in a circumstance in which the Tunisian financial crisis intensified and it became impossible for the state to pay its foreign debts, which at that time amounted to 125 million francs . This committee was placed under the chairmanship of the reformed minister Kheireddine Pacha , and later devolved to Mustapha Ben Ismail , and it also included representatives of
4522-655: The French State and without having its permission. By this treaty, France also undertook to ensure the durability of the monarchical regime and to preserve the Bey's status as sovereign and head of state; article 3 indicated that the Government of the French Republic undertakes to lend constant support to H.H the Bey of Tunis against any danger. The last shots were fired on 26 May where 14 French soldiers and an unknown number of Tunisians died. The return to France of half of
4641-529: The French soldiers encamped at La Manouba , not far from the Bardo Palace . At 4 pm, escorted by two squadrons of hussars, Bréart presented himself in front of the Bey's palace accompanied by his entire staff and most of the senior military officers. Tunisian soldiers honored them. They are introduced into the living room where Sadok Bey and the French consul Théodore Roustan are waiting for them. Fearing being deposed and replaced by his brother Taïeb Bey,
4760-605: The International Debt Commission's stranglehold on Tunisian finances. Responding to French pressure, the Bey's government then lowered taxes. French officials hoped that their careful monitoring of tax assessment and collection procedures would result in a more equitable system and stimulate a revival in production and commerce, generating more revenue for the state. In 1883, French law and courts were introduced; thereafter, French law applied to all French and foreign residents. The other European powers agreed to give up
4879-703: The Italians wouldn't have opposed it because some weeks before France had consented to a renewal of the Italo-French trade treaty. Italy was still paying debts contracted with France and it was primarily Italy that was politically isolated despite its tentatives towards the German Empire and Austria-Hungary (Ferry confirmed that it was Otto von Bismarck to invite Paris to act in Tunisia precising that, in case of action, Germany wouldn't have raised objections. While in Italy there
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4998-779: The Ottoman Empire was avoided; yet religious ties to the Caliph were fostered, which increased the prestige of the Beys and helped in winning approval of the local ulama and deference from the notables. Janissaries were still recruited, but increasing reliance was placed on tribal local forces. Turkish was spoken at the apex, but use of Tunisian Arabic increased in government use. Kouloughlis (children of mixed Turkish and Tunisian parentage) and native Tunisians notables were given increased admittance into higher positions and deliberations. The Husainid Beys, however, did not themselves intermarry with indigenous peoples ; instead they often turned to
5117-410: The Ottoman Empire, which then acquiesced. In 1735, Ali I gained access to the throne by dethroning his uncle Hussein I who was killed by his great-nephew Younès in 1740. In 1756, Ali I was in turn overthrown by the two sons of his predecessor who seized Tunis with the help of the governor of Constantine : Muhammad I Rashid (1756–1759) and Ali II (1759–1782). Algerian attempts to overthrow
5236-454: The Ottoman Empire. Between 1861 and 1864, the Beylik of Tunis became a constitutional monarchy after adopting the first constitution in Africa and the Arab world . The country had its own currency and an independent army, and in 1831 it adopted its flag, which is still in use today. The institution of the Beylik was finally abolished one year after independence on 25 July 1957 when the republic
5355-637: The Ottomans. He also restricted the legal prerogatives of the janissary and the Dey. Under Hussein I, support was provided to agriculture, especially planting olive orchards. Public works were undertaken, e.g., mosques and madrassa (schools). His popularity was demonstrated in 1715 when the kapudan-pasha of the Ottoman fleet sailed to Tunis with a new governor to replace him; instead Hussein I summoned council, composed of local civil and military leaders, who backed him against
5474-580: The Resident-General, a consultative conference representing French colonists was set up in 1891, and expanded to include appointed Tunisian representatives in 1907. From 1922 until 1954, Tunisian delegates to the Tunisian Consultative Conference were indirectly elected. The French authorities left the framework of local government intact, but devised mechanisms to control it. Qaids , roughly corresponding to provincial governors, were
5593-651: The Secretary-General and the Resident-General managed and staffed those government offices, collectively called the Technical Services, which dealt with finances, public works, education, and agriculture. To help him implement the reforms alluded to in the Conventions of La Marsa , the Resident-General had the power to promulgate executive decrees, reducing the Bey to little more than a figurehead. To advise
5712-612: The Supreme Council as an institution that was at the same time legislative, financial, judicial and administrative. This council was abandoned in 1864 after the Mejba Revolt . Husainid policy required a careful balance among several divergent parties: the distant Ottomans, the Turkish-speaking elite in Tunisia, and local Tunisians (both urban and rural, notables and clerics, landowners and remote tribal leaders). Entanglement with
5831-542: The ability to appoint members of the Supreme Council, in addition to the fact that laws are issued in his name. The Bey must be the eldest of the Husainid dynasty. The second after him becomes Bey El Mahalla (Bey of the Camp) , which was a title for the heir apparent to throne. The title came the style of Highness . The last person to carry this title was Prince Husain Bey, Bey al-Mahalla . The prime minister of Tunisia during
5950-442: The appearance of Tunisian sovereignty while reshaping the administrative structure to give France complete control of the country and render the beylical government a hollow shell devoid of meaningful powers." French officials used several methods to control the Tunisian government. They urged the Bey to nominate members of the pre-colonial ruling elite to such key posts as prime-minister, because these people were personally loyal to
6069-401: The approval of the Commission, which acted as a Tunisian Ministry of Finance . This facilitated the conclusion of a bilateral treaty between Tunisia and France in 1881 stipulating France's protection of Tunisia, and consequently, the French protectorate was established. The Beylik of Tunis was a constitutional (1861–1864) and hereditary monarchy with legislative power being exercised by
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#17328692146466188-561: The armed forces. The Tunisian economy did not, however, generate enough revenue to sustain these reforms. Central administration, additionally, was weak. Tax collection was devolved onto tax-farmers, and only one-fifth of the revenues ever reached the national treasury. Many hill tribes and desert nomads lived in quasi-independence. Economic conditions deteriorated through the 19th century, as foreign fleets curbed corsairs, and droughts perennially wreaked havoc on production of cereals and olives. Because of accords with foreign traders dating back to
6307-409: The border into Algeria caused the deaths of several Algerians, and four French, providing a pretext for the French. By mid-April, French troops had landed in Tunisia and, on 12 May 1881, forced Bey Muhammad III as-Sadiq to sign the Treaty of Bardo granting France a protectorate over Tunisia. Although soldiers took until May 1882 to occupy the whole country and stamp out resistance, Tunisia had become
6426-414: The capital. In 1896, similar courts were instituted in the provinces, also under French supervision. The protectorate introduced new ideas in education. The French director of public education looked after all schools in Tunisia, including religious ones. According to Perkins, "Many colonial officials believed that modern education would lay the groundwork for harmonious Franco-Tunisia relations by providing
6545-439: The conditions for catches at sea (distance from the coast), so as to avoid possible abuses. The situation remained the same until the Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle when European countries summoned Tunisia to put an end to this, which would be effective and definitive after the intervention of France in this question in 1836. The taxes in Tunisia in 1815 (2,2 million gold francs ) were not profitable. At
6664-456: The country to international commercial firms. In 1830 the Bey accepted to enforce in Tunisia treaties, in which European merchants enjoyed extraterritorial privileges, including the right to have their resident consuls act as the judge in legal cases involving their national's civil obligations. Also in 1830 the French royal army occupied the central coastal lands in neighboring Algeria . At that time, they were inexperienced about and lacked
6783-467: The creditor countries ( Italy , England , and France ). The Commission was one of the manifestations of foreign interference in the internal affairs of Tunisia by subjecting its finances to international control. The country's revenues were divided into two parts, one part allocated to the state's expenditures and the other to the payment of its debts. So the Bey was restricted, he could no longer grant any concession or conclude any loan agreement except with
6902-433: The era of the Beylik is the head of the government who was responsible for its affairs and was appointed and dismissed by the Bey . This office was created in 1759 with the beginning of the rule of Ali II and Rejeb Khaznadar was the first to take it, becoming the first prime minister in the history of Tunisia. With its creation, this office was the preserve of the Mamluks of foreign origin who were brought to Tunisia at
7021-468: The example of the Sfaxiens. In August, Kairouan was taken over by the rebels. The Kef military camp was besieged by 5,000 fighters led by the chief of the Ouled Ayar tribe, Ali Ben Ammar. Near Hammamet , a French military force was harassed by 6,000 insurgents between 26 and 30 August and lost 30 soldiers. European civilians were not spared. On 30 September, the Oued Zarga station was attacked and nine employees were massacred. Following this massacre, Tunis
7140-459: The fall of France. Despite his commitment to terminate the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader Habib Bourguiba had no desire to exchange the control of the French Republic for that of Fascist Italy or Nazi Germany , whose state ideologies he abhorred. He feared that associating with the Axis would bring short-term benefit at the cost of long-term tragedy. Following the Second Armistice at Compiègne between France and Germany,
7259-455: The far south and at Sfax continued until December. The Bey was soon compelled to come to terms with the French occupation of the country, signing the first of a series of treaties. These documents provided that the Bey continue as head of state, but with the French given effective control over a great deal of Tunisian governance, in the form of a protectorate . With her own substantial interests in Tunisia, Italy protested but would not risk
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#17328692146467378-411: The finance minister Mahmoud Ben Ayed fled to France with the government budget . However, the diversions continued under his successors. This situation pushed the speaker of the Supreme Council, Kheireddine Pacha , to resign and the Supreme Council to be dissolved. At the beginning of 1864, a serious crisis broke out due to poor financial management on the part of Prime Minister Mustapha Khaznadar :
7497-468: The football club of the Stade Tunisien which was under patronage of the royal family. They are also found in Tunisian pastries : one, called Bey sigh, is made of pink, green and white marzipan ; the other, called bey's baklawa, is a form of Tunisian baklava . A new coat of arms for Tunisia was adopted in 1858 during the reign of Sadok Bey , while preserving the same green and red dynasty colors, according to Henry Dunant after his visit to Tunisia, with
7616-602: The general population. The government had to negotiate a new loan from foreign bankers. In 1867, an attempt to secure money failed; government revenues were insufficient to meet annual interest payments on the national debt. Tunisia plunged towards bankruptcy. Two years later France, Italy and Britain set up an international finance commission to sort out Tunisia's economic problems and safeguard Western interests. Their actions enjoyed only partial success, largely because of opposition from foreign traders to increases in customs levies. In 1873, Khaznadar again undertook reforms and attacked
7735-419: The government some of their catches, which include Christian slaves. The peace treaties, which multiplied in the 18th century (with Austria in 1748 and 1784, Venice in 1764–1766 and 1792, Spain in 1791 and the United States in 1797 ) regulated the navy and limited its effects. First of all, the treaties imposed requirements (possession of authorizations for ships and passports for people) and also identified
7854-510: The government, depending on their loyalty to the Bey of Tunis. The French Revolution and reactions to it negatively affected European economic activity leading to shortages which provided business opportunities for Tunisia, i.e., regarding goods in high demand but short in supply, the result might be handsome profits. The capable and well-regarded Hammouda Pasha (1782–1813) was Bey of Tunis (the fifth) during this period of prosperity; he also turned back an Algerian invasion in 1807, and quelled
7973-491: The idea of invading the country in the 1860s. Italian was the lingua franca of Tunisian diplomacy well into the 19th century, and of the various expatriate communities in Tunis who did not speak Arabic. For this reason, the first foreign policy objective of Benedetto Cairoli 's government was the colonisation of Tunisia , to which both France and Italy aspired. Cairoli, like Agostino Depretis before him, never considered to proceed to occupation, being generally hostile towards
8092-504: The institution of mamluks for marriage partners. Mamluks also served in elite positions. The local ulama were courted, with funding for religious education and the clerics. Local jurists ( Maliki ) entered government service. Marabouts of the rural faithful were mollified. Tribal sheikhs were recognized and invited to conferences. Especially favored at the top were a handful of prominent families, Turkish-speaking, who were given business and land opportunities, as well as important posts in
8211-421: The knowledge of how to develop a colony. After defeating Algeria in 1807, the army maintained the same structure, but Ahmad I wanted to change the military policy and was keen to reform and modernize the armed forces, especially since France occupied Algeria in 1830 and its army became a threat to Tunisia. He was also influenced by what he saw during his visit to France of architectural progress, especially in
8330-473: The local level, the work of the Resident-General, closely supervising the qaids and sheikhs. After 1884, a network of contrôleurs civils overlay the qaids' administration throughout the country, except in the extreme south. There, because of the more hostile nature of the tribes and the tenuous hold of the central government, military officers, making up a Service des Renseignements (Intelligence Service), fulfilled this duty. Successive Residents-General, fearing
8449-415: The majority of sales, but the group also produces the brands Löwenbräu , 33 Export and Beck's under license. Production, which reached 1,000,000 hectoliters in 2002, was stimulated by strong tourist demand. This product was regulated by an advertising ban and a restriction on its public marketing. Mineral waters represented 8% of turnover and appeared as early as 2000, via a strategy of company buyouts, as
8568-467: The military force encouraged the country to take up arms. The signal for the revolt was given by Sfax on 27 June. The local authorities were overwhelmed and the Europeans have to evacuate the city in disaster. The rebellion was put down by marines from the Mediterranean squadron who retook the city on 16 July after four hours of street fighting, as well as Gabès on 30 July. The whole country imitated
8687-463: The mobilization of the Tunisian people. The occupation of the country in 1942 by Germany and the deposition of Moncef Bey in 1943 by the French authorities reinforced the exasperation of the population. After three years of guerrilla warfare, internal autonomy was granted in 1955. The protectorate was finally abolished on 20 March 1956. In 1859, Tunisia was ruled by the Bey Muhammad III , and
8806-455: The modernization of the national emblem and the addition of the phrase Oh God of hidden kindness, save this Kingdom of Tunis . This was due to that period in which epidemics abounded in the Kingdom and led to human losses, in addition to the spread of Sufism in Tunisian culture, which used to call God as the owner of hidden kindness, influenced by Sidi Belhassen Chedly . Tunisia also adopted
8925-449: The monarch in conjunction with Supreme Council. The Bey is considered the leader of the Husainid dynasty , the head of the state, the symbol of its unity, and the protector of its borders. He also exercises power through the government and the Supreme Council, as stipulated in Article 12 of the 1861 Constitution. What distinguishes the system of government at that time, is that the monarch
9044-517: The monarch signed the treaty at 7:11 pm. However, he managed to prevent the French troops from entering the capital. By this text, France deprived the Tunisian State of the right of active legation by entrusting diplomatic and consular agents of France in foreign countries with the protection of Tunisian interests and nationals of the Beylik. As for the Bey, he can no longer conclude any act of an international nature without having first informed
9163-404: The most important figures in local administration. At the outset of the protectorate, some sixty of them had the responsibility of maintaining order and collecting taxes in districts either defined by tribal membership, or by geographical limits. The central government appointed the qaids , usually choosing a person from a major family of the tribe or district to ensure respect and authority. Below
9282-413: The mountain tribes who resisted until 26 May. Encouraged by the inertia of the Tunisian army, which had not moved to defend the town of Le Kef against the French attack, Jules Ferry decided to send a force of 6,000 soldiers under the command of General Jules Aimé Bréart to land at Bizerte from 1 May 1881. The city had no resistance and on 8 May 8, the military force took the road to Tunis . On May 12,
9401-457: The name of Hussein I . Hussein I reigned alone over Tunisia, establishing a real monarchy and became Possessor of the Kingdom of Tunis , disposing over all his subjects the right of high and low justice. His decrees and decisions had the force of law . As Bey of Tunis he sought to be perceived as a popular Muslim interested in local issues and prosperity. He appointed as qadi a Tunisian Maliki jurist, instead of an Hanafi preferred by
9520-427: The national flag of Tunisia since 1831 until now. This made the Tunisian flag the oldest Arab and African flag, and among the ten oldest flags in the world . The coat of arms has been adopted also since the beginning of the 19th century in red and green , which are the colors of the ruling Husainid dynasty. The coat of arms's colors had an impact on Tunisian public culture . Because these colors are also those of
9639-599: The necessary equipment to improve the army, so he took care of some industries, such as the gunpowder industry in Tunisia, and created a sophisticated navy. As part of his maneuvering to maintain Tunisia's sovereignty, Ahmed Bey sent 4,000 Tunisian troops against the Russian Empire during the Crimean War (1854–1856). In doing so he allied Tunisia with Turkey , France , and Britain . On 29 April 1841, Ahmed I Bey had an interview with Thomas Reade who advised him to ban
9758-415: The new environment. Foreign trade proved to be a Trojan Horse . Activities of maritime corsairs were important at that time because independence from the sultan led to the decline of its financial support and Tunisia therefore had to increase the number of its catches at sea in order to survive. The Tunisian Navy reached its peak during the reign of Hammouda I (1782–1814), where ships, leaving from
9877-409: The northeast, and the other half were nomadic shepherds who roamed the interior. There were several towns, including Tunis with nearly 100,000 inhabitants, and Kairouan with 15,000, where traders and artisans were active, despite being severely affected by foreign competition. The traditional Tunisian textile industry couldn't compete with imported goods from industrialized Europe. The financial world
9996-590: The organization of their army, which made him want to follow their strategy and form a Tunisian army on the French style. In a major step, the Bey initiated the recruitment and conscription of individual Tunisians (instead of foreigners or by tribes) to serve in the army and navy, a step which would work to reduce the customary division between the state and its citizens. So, he founded the Bardo Military Academy in 1840 for Tunisian soldiers to graduate from, relying on French assistance. He also worked to provide
10115-406: The peasants who required a cheap and obedient workforce. This resistance justified the second abolition announced in a decree of Ali III Bey on 28 May 1890. This decree promulgated financial sanctions (in the form of fines) and penal sanctions (in the form of imprisonment) for those who continued to engage in the slave trade or to keep slaves as servants. The colonial accounts tended to pass over
10234-622: The pillars of modern state sovereignty. The Beylik adopted a national flag distinguished from the rest. In fact, several Muslim countries along the south coast of the Mediterranean Sea used a plain red naval flag. After the destruction of the Tunisian naval division at the Battle of Navarino on 20 October 1827, the Bey Hussein II decided to create a flag to use for the fleet of Tunisia, to distinguish it from other fleets. It has been adopted as
10353-612: The population. These circumstances made the Tunisian government unable, despite all levies and demands, to collect the tax revenues they deemed necessary to modernise Tunisia. The Congress of Berlin, held in 1878, convened to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 , which had been won by Russia . At the Congress arrangements were also understood, e.g., by Germany and Britain , wherein France would be allowed to incorporate Tunisia. Italy
10472-558: The ports of Bizerte , La Goulette , Porto Farina , Sousse , Sfax and Djerba , seized Spanish , Corsican , Neapolitan , Venetians , etc. The Tunisian government maintained during this period from 15 to 20 corsairs, the same number of them being attached to companies or individuals, among whom sometimes high-ranking figures such as the Keeper of the Seals Moustapha Khodja or the caïds of Bizerte, Sfax or Porto Farina, and give
10591-539: The powerful Prime Minister, Mustapha Khaznadar , who according to Wesseling "had been pulling the strings ever since 1837." Khaznadar was minister of finance and foreign affairs and was assisted by the interior, defence, and naval ministers. In 1861, Tunisia was granted a constitution with a clear division of ministerial powers and responsibilities, but in practice, Khaznadar was the absolute sovereign. He pursued reformist policies promoting economic development, specifically aimed at improving infrastructure, communication, and
10710-475: The property believed the deal had been completed, but a British citizen, ostensibly representing neighbouring landholders, preempted the sale and occupied the land (though without paying for it). A judge sent by London to investigate discovered that the British purchaser was acting on behalf of the Bey's government and Italian businessmen; moreover, he discovered that the Briton had used fraud to stake his claim. The sale
10829-453: The public debt, heavy loans abroad contracted under catastrophic conditions (continuation of embezzlement) and doubling of the tax lead to a new revolt of the tribes of the center of the country who refused to pay this tax. Shortly after the Revolt of Mejba , the Bey ordered to collect the taxes. At the same time, Haydar Afendi, ambassador of the Ottoman Empire , arrived with financial aid to remedy
10948-459: The qaids were cheikhs, the leaders of tribes, villages, and town quarters. The central government also appointed them but on the recommendation of the qaids. After the French invasion, most qaids and cheikhs were allowed to retain their post, and therefore few of them resisted the new authorities. To keep a close watch on developments outside the capital, Tunisia's new rulers organised the contrôleurs civils. These French officials replicated, at
11067-487: The railway linking Tunis with the coast put their company up for sale. An Italian concern successfully bid for the enterprise, leaving France worried about possible Italian intervention. Another incident, also in 1880, concerned the sale of a 100 000 hectare property by a former Tunisian prime minister. Negotiations involved complicated arrangements to forestall preemption of the sale by the Bey's government or by proprietors of adjacent tracts of land. A French consortium buying
11186-543: The return of the deposed Bey and institutional reform. In 1945, the two Destour parties joined other dissident groups to petition for autonomy. The following year, Habib Bourguiba and the Néo-Destour Party switched their aim to independence. Fearing arrest, Bourguiba spent much of the next three years in Cairo , where in 1950, he issued a seven-point manifesto demanding the restitution of Tunisian sovereignty and election of
11305-464: The right to station military troops within its territory. The Conventions of La Marsa , signed in 1883, by Bey Ali Muddat ibn al-Husayn , formally established the French protectorate. It deprived the Bey of Tunis of control over internal matters by committing him to implement administrative, judicial, and financial reform dictated by France. In Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic and European World , Kenneth J. Perkins writes: "Cambon carefully kept
11424-535: The same time, the Bey coveted Tripolitania . In 1848, to maintain his army of 5,000 soldiers, the Bey increased taxation, which provoked a revolt, finally put down. Taxation is reduced, but a loan of 35 million gold francs, at a rate of 7%, is contracted with French bankers. However, reckless spending continued: a Versailles-style palace, in Mohamedia , and another in La Goulette , a military school and an arsenal. Worse,
11543-538: The same vantages as French colonists. Italo-French relation dangerously fractured . Among the hypotheses weighed by the Italian military staff, a possible invasion of the Italian Peninsula by French troops was not excluded. Taking the pretext of border incidents between the Algerian tribe of Ouled Nahd and the Tunisian tribe of Kroumirs on 30 and 31 March 1881, the French government led by Jules Ferry decided to send
11662-458: The situation. The sum offered is entrusted by the Bey to Khaznadar. But the latter recovered this sum for his personal use. Once again, a loan of 30 million gold francs had to be contracted, which provoked the intervention of the European countries (in particular France). In this context, the constitution was even suspended on 1 May 1864. Tunisia was one of the first countries in the region to adopt
11781-533: The sizable colony of Tunisian Italians. Direct attempts by the French to negotiate with the Bey their entry into Tunisia failed. France waited, searching to find reasons to justify the timing of a preemptive strike, now actively contemplated. Italians would call such strike the Schiaffo di Tunisi . Italy had a strong interest in Tunisia since at least the early 19th century, and the Kingdom of Italy had briefly entertained
11900-553: The slave trade. Ahmed Bey was convinced of the necessity of this action; and he was considered open to progress and quick to act against all forms of fanaticism. He decided to ban the export of slaves the same day that he met with Reade. Proceeding in stages, he closed the slave market of Tunis in August and declared in December 1842 that everyone born in the country would thereafter be free. To alleviate discontent, Ahmed obtained fatwas from
12019-457: The soldiers' tendency toward direct rule – which belied the official French myth that Tunisians continued to govern Tunisia – worked to bring the Service des Renseignements under their control, finally doing so at the end of the century. Shoring up the debt-ridden Tunisian treasury was one of Cambon's main priorities. In 1884, France guaranteed the Tunisian debt, paving the way for the termination of
12138-515: The state, and 40 chosen among the notables who do not receive remuneration. Among its members were Ahmad ibn Abi Diyaf and Giuseppe Raffo . The functions of the Council were fixed in Chapter 7 of the Constitution. The most important of these functions were to legislate, revise, explain and interpret laws, approve taxes, monitor ministers, and discuss the budget. These functions confirmed the importance of
12257-460: The strengthening of Ottoman authority in the east, and was therefore not too unhappy in 1830 when another country, France, had settled on his western borders. According to Wesseling, the bey considered the conquest of his country by the Porte would be worse than a possible conquest by France. At the time, Tunisia had just over a million inhabitants. Half of these were sedentary farmers who lived mainly in
12376-470: The surrounding countryside. In the spring of 1881, they raided across the border into French Algeria, attacking the Algerian Ouled-Nebed tribe. On 30 March 1881 French troops clashed with the raiders. Using the pretext of droit de poursuite (right of pursuit) France responded by invading Tunisia, sending an army of about 36,000. Their advance to Tunis was rapidly executed, though tribal opposition in
12495-487: The two peoples closer together. French was the medium of instruction in these Franco-Arab schools, and their curriculum imitated that of schools in metropolitan France . French-speaking students who attended them studied Arabic as a second language. Ethnic mixing rarely occurred in schools in the cities, in which various religious denominations continued to run elementary schools. The Franco-Arab schools attained somewhat greater success in rural areas but never enrolled more than
12614-522: The widespread financial abuses within the bureaucracy. The results were initially promising, but bad harvests and palace intrigue led to his downfall. The Bey reigned over Tunisia, whose southern borders were ill-defined against the Sahara. To the east lay Tripolitania , province of the Ottoman Empire, which had made itself practically independent until Sultan Mahmud II successfully restored his authority by force in 1835. The Bey of Tunisia became worried of
12733-482: Was Moncef Bey who took advantage of the weakening of the French to publicize the Tunisian cause. Little suspected of having collaborated with the Axis powers , he can only be blamed for the decorations awarded on 12 April to German and Italian generals. He was however deposed by a decree of the general of Free France , Henri Giraud , on 13 May 1943 and exiled to Laghouat in the Franco-Algerian South. He
12852-502: Was a debate about the reliability of the news about a possible French action in Tunisia, a twenty-thousand-men expeditionary corps was preparing in the Toulon arsenal . On 3 May a French contingent of two thousand men landed in Bizerte , followed on 11 May by the rest of the forces. The episode gave an ulterior confirm of the Italian political isolation, and rekindled the polemics that had followed
12971-609: Was an institution that was established during the reign of Muhammad III in a period characterized by the adoption of many reforms, including the declaration of the Fundamental Pact (1857), the Tunisian Journal (1860) and the adoption of the Constitution (1861). According to Article 44 of this constitution, this council was composed of 60 members: 20 members were chosen among the senior officials and high-ranking officers of
13090-436: Was cancelled, and French buyers got the property. Paris moved to protect French claims, as London and Berlin gently warned that if France did not act, they might reconsider their go-ahead for French occupation. French diplomats scrambled to convince unenthusiastic parliamentarians and bureaucrats, all the while looking for a new incident to precipitate intervention. In March 1881, a foray by Tunisian Khroumir tribesmen across
13209-504: Was declared. Following the Revolutions of Tunis which saw Ibrahim Sharif overthrow Muradids' power, the latter became the first bey to combine this function with that of Pasha . Taken to Algiers following a defeat against the Dey of Algiers , and unable to put an end to the troubles which agitated the country, he was a victim, on 10 July 1705 of a coup of Al-Husayn I ibn Ali , who took
13328-518: Was dominated by Tunisian Jews , while a growing number of Europeans, almost exclusively Italians and Maltese, settled in Tunisia. In 1870, there were 15,000 of them. The economic situation of Tunisian townsmen may accordingly have been under pressure, but it was flourishing in comparison with that of the fellahin , peasants who laboured under a whole series of taxes and requisitions. From 1867 to 1868, crop failure, subsequent famine, and epidemics of cholera and typhus combined to kill some 20 percent of
13447-427: Was obtained to weather the deficits, but eventually the debt would grow to unmanageable levels. Tunisia had sought to bring up to date its commerce and trade. Yet different foreign business interests began to increasingly exercised control over domestic markets; imports of European manufactures often changed consumer pricing which could impact harshly on the livelihood of Tunisian artisans, whose goods did not fare well in
13566-497: Was occupied on 7 October by French troops to reassure the foreign population. Troops are sent as reinforcements from French Algeria. On 26 October, Kairouan was recaptured from the insurgents by the French forces. Ben Ammar's fighters were routed on 22 October; the last resisters were surrounded on 20 November. The last fighting stops at the end of December 1881. In northwest Tunisia, the Khroumir tribe episodically launched raids into
13685-592: Was promised Tripolitania in what became Libya. Britain supported French influence in Tunisia in exchange for its own protectorate over Cyprus (recently "purchased" from the Ottomans), and French cooperation regarding a nationalist revolt in Egypt . In the meantime, however, an Italian company apparently bought the Tunis-Goulette-Marsa rail line; yet French strategy worked to circumvent this and other issues created by
13804-524: Was put in place allowing the acquisition or the confiscation of land to create lots of colonization resold to the French colonists. The first nationalist party, Destour , was created in 1920, but its political activity decreased rapidly in 1922. However, Tunisians educated in French universities revived the nationalist movement. A new party, the Neo Destour , was created in 1934 whose methods quickly showed their effectiveness. Police repression only accentuated
13923-453: Was quickly cleaned up, which made it possible to launch multiple infrastructure construction programs (roads, railways, ports, lighthouses, schools, hospitals, etc.) and the reforms that took place during the Beylik era contributed to this, which completely transformed the country above all for the benefit of the settlers, mostly Italians whose numbers were growing rapidly. A whole land legislation
14042-504: Was replaced by Lamine Bey who accepted the throne despite the conditions under which his predecessor was forced to abdicate. Rejected by a large part of the Tunisian population, he only gained his legitimacy on the death of Moncef on 1 September 1948, which put an end to the hopes of Tunisians to see the Nationalist Bey return to the throne. Decolonisation proved a protracted and controversial affair. In Tunisia, nationalists demanded
14161-479: Was terminated which further paved way for Tunisian independence, as decolonisation gained pace. The next year, the French revoked the clause of the Treaty of Bardo that had established the protectorate in 1881 and recognised the independence of the Kingdom of Tunisia under Muhammad VIII al-Amin on 20 March. Beylik of Tunis The Beylik of Tunis ( Arabic : بايلك تونس ) was a de facto independent state located in present-day Tunisia , formally part of
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