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91-582: Development of the 2K22 anti-aircraft system began on 8 June 1970. At the request of the Soviet Ministry of Defense, the KBP Instrument Design Bureau in Tula , under the guidance of the appointed Chief Designer A. G. Shipunov  [ ru ] , started work on a 30mm anti-aircraft system as a replacement for the 23mm ZSU-23-4 . The project, code-named " Tunguska ", was undertaken to improve on

182-459: A Ranzhir or PPRU battery command post, which can receive target information from either AWACS or early warning radar or in the case of the PPRU its own radar equipment. Original system, with 9M311, 9M311K (3M87) or 9M311-1 missiles with a range of 8 kilometres (5.0 mi). Some of these early versions of the "Tunguska" system were known as "Treugol'nik" (Russian Треугольник— triangle ). This system

273-567: A microphone , or hydrophone , or mechanically using a resonating vibratory reed connected to diaphragm tone filter. During WW2, the Germans had at least five acoustic fuzes for anti-aircraft use under development, though none saw operational service. The most developmentally advanced of the German acoustic fuze designs was the Rheinmetall-Borsig Kranich (German for Crane ) which

364-455: A 52% success against a water target when tested in January, 1942. The United States Navy accepted that failure rate. A simulated battle conditions test was started on 12 August 1942. Gun batteries aboard cruiser USS  Cleveland  (CL-55) tested proximity-fuzed ammunition against radio-controlled drone aircraft targets over Chesapeake Bay . The tests were to be conducted over two days, but

455-494: A German neon lamp tube and a design of a prototype proximity fuze based on capacitive effects was received by British Intelligence as part of the Oslo Report . In the post-World War II era, a number of new proximity fuze systems were developed, using radio, optical, and other detection methods. A common form used in modern air-to-air weapons uses a laser as an optical source and time-of-flight for ranging. The first reference to

546-464: A complete ring about 5 metres (16 ft) from the missile. Variants of the 2K22 system have continued to serve in the Soviet and later Russian armed forces since their initial introduction in 1984. The 2K22 has also been inducted into the armed forces of a number of foreign states, most notably India. The 2K22 has been used in the 2008 South Ossetia war by Russian armed forces. The 2K22 has been used in

637-541: A continuous fire time of 23–30 seconds before running out of ammunition, and have a muzzle velocity of 960 metres per second (2,100 mph). Bursts of between 83 and 250 rounds are fired as determined by the target type, with an engagement range between 0.2 to 4.0 kilometres (0.12 to 2.49 mi). HE-T and HE-I shells are used and fitted with an A-670 time and impact fuze which includes an arming delay and self destruct mechanism. The 2K22 can fire its cannons in two primary modes of operation, radar and optical. In radar mode,

728-539: A development effort at Pye Ltd. to develop thermionic valves (electron tubes) capable of withstanding these much greater forces. Pye's research was transferred to the United States as part of the technology package delivered by the Tizard Mission when the United States entered the war. Pye's group was apparently unable to get their rugged pentodes to function reliably under high pressures until 6 August 1941, which

819-524: A fuze could be developed for anti-aircraft shells, which had to withstand much higher accelerations than rockets. The British shared a wide range of possible ideas for designing a fuze, including a photoelectric fuze and a radio fuze, with United States during the Tizard Mission in late 1940. To work in shells, a fuze needed to be miniaturized, survive the high acceleration of cannon launch, and be reliable. The National Defense Research Committee assigned

910-457: A plane perpendicular to the missile's main axis onto a photocell. When the cell current changed a certain amount in a certain time interval, the detonation was triggered. Some modern air-to-air missiles (e.g., the ASRAAM and AA-12 Adder ) use lasers to trigger detonation. They project narrow beams of laser light perpendicular to the flight of the missile. As the missile cruises towards its target

1001-445: A proximity fuse had long been considered militarily useful. Several ideas had been considered, including optical systems that shone a light, sometimes infrared , and triggered when the reflection reached a certain threshold, various ground-triggered means using radio signals, and capacitive or inductive methods similar to a metal detector . All of these suffered from the large size of pre-WWII electronics and their fragility, as well as

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1092-407: A radio fuse. An additional modification afforded greater resistance to infrared countermeasures by replacing the missile tracking flare with a pulsed IR beacon . Other improvements included an increased missile range from 8 to 10 kilometres (5.0 to 6.2 mi), improved optical tracking and accuracy, improved fire control co-ordination between components of a battery and the command post. Overall,

1183-503: A variety of support facilities including the 2F55, 1R10 and 2V110 repair and maintenance vehicles, the MTO-AGZ workshop and the 9V921 test vehicle and others. These facilities provide maintenance for the 2K22 battery in the field as well as scheduled overhauls. Each system can attack six targets simultaneously (1 for each machine 2S6) limited to a ceiling of 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) and an elevation of −10° to 87°. The 2S6 combat vehicle uses

1274-448: Is about 0.7 meters), the transmitter is in or out of resonance. This causes a small cycling of the radiated power and consequently the oscillator supply current of about 200–800 Hz, the Doppler frequency. This signal is sent through a band-pass filter , amplified, and triggers the detonation when it exceeds a given amplitude. Optical sensing was developed in 1935, and patented in

1365-412: Is also fitted and designated 1RL138. The radar system is highly protected against various types of interference, and can work if there are mountains on the horizon, regardless of the background. The system is able to fire on the move using 30 mm cannons, although it must be stationary to fire missiles. The maximum target speed can be up to 500 metres per second (1,100 mph). Standard equipment of

1456-419: Is around 2.56 metres (8.4 ft) long and a mass of 57 kilograms (126 lb). Guidance is performed by the target tracking radar, it constantly relays target range, elevation and bearing to the fire-control computer, and on the basis of this data the computer generates the laying commands for the guns or the trajectory corrections for the missiles. A back-up tracking method can be used by the gunner, who uses

1547-568: Is mounted on the 2S6 integrated air defense vehicle. Main production system, with 9M311M (3M88) missiles and 2A38M autocannons. This integrated air defense vehicle 2S6M is based on the GM-352M chassis. 2F77M transporter-loader. 2F55-1, 1R10-1 and 2V110-1 repair and maintenance vehicles. Improved version with the 2S6M1 combat vehicle on a GM-5975 chassis, using the 9M311-M1 missile (range: 10 kilometres (6.2 mi)) and with an improved fire control system. Passed state trials and entered service with

1638-415: Is mounted on the rear top of the turret that when combined with the turret front mounted J-band (150 kW power) monopulse tracking radar forms the 1RL144 (NATO:Hot Shot) pulse-Doppler 3D radar system, which can detect and track targets flying as high as 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). Alongside the 1A26 digital computer and the 1G30 angle measurement system form the 1A27 radar complex. Tunguska-M has

1729-646: Is one of the main enterprises in the field of Russian defense industry , based in Tula. It is engaged in designing high-precision weapon systems for the Army, the VMF and the VKS, as well as anti-air defense systems, high-rate-of-fire cannons and small arms, in addition to civilian products. Its full name goes as "Joint-Stock Company Instrument Design Bureau named after Academic A. G. Shipunov". Its shareholders include High Precision Systems , part of

1820-509: Is the main sensing principle for artillery shells. The device described in World War II patent works as follows: The shell contains a micro- transmitter which uses the shell body as an antenna and emits a continuous wave of roughly 180–220 MHz. As the shell approaches a reflecting object, an interference pattern is created. This pattern changes with shrinking distance: every half wavelength in distance (a half wavelength at this frequency

1911-519: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine by Ukrainian and Russian forces. In June 2023, Ukraine ordered the repair, refurbishment, and spare parts through the International Fund for Ukraine. KBP Instrument Design Bureau JSC Konstruktorskoe Buro Priborostroeniya (KBP) ( Russian : АО «Конструкторское бюро приборостроения» , romanized :  AO konstruktórskoje bjuró priborostrojénija Joint-Stock Company - Instrument Design Bureau)

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2002-627: The British Army 's Anti-Aircraft Command , that was engaged in defending Britain against the V-1 flying bomb. As most of the British heavy anti-aircraft guns were deployed in a long, thin coastal strip (leaving inland free for fighter interceptors), dud shells fell into the sea, safely out of reach of capture. Over the course of the German V-1 campaign, the proportion of flying bombs that were destroyed flying through

2093-754: The Doppler effect of reflected radio waves. The use of the Doppler effect developed by this group was later incorporated in all radio proximity fuzes for bomb, rocket, and mortar applications. Later, the Ordnance Development Division of the National Bureau of Standards (which became the Harry Diamond Laboratories – and later merged into the Army Research Laboratory – in honor of its former chief in subsequent years) developed

2184-537: The GM-352 and later GM-352M chassis developed and produced by the Minsk Tractor Plant (MTZ) which has six road wheels with hydropneumatic suspension on each side, a drive sprocket at the rear and three return rollers. An NBC system is also integrated into the chassis, which is armored to protect it from small arms fire. an automatic gear change and diagnostic capability are available with latest Tunguska-M1 which uses

2275-541: The United Kingdom in 1936, by a Swedish inventor, probably Edward W. Brandt, using a petoscope . It was first tested as a part of a detonation device for bombs that were to be dropped over bomber aircraft, part of the UK's Air Ministry's "bombs on bombers" concept. It was considered (and later patented by Brandt) for use with anti-aircraft missiles fired from the ground. It used then a toroidal lens, that concentrated all light from

2366-660: The 1950s. The enterprise began designing guided weapons and high-precision missiles in the 1960s. The Kornet-E AT missile, the Krasnopol M-2 guided-missile system, the Tunguska and the Pantsir-S1 anti-aircraft cannon-missile systems, in addition to the Kashtan CIWS were designed in this period. KBP was heavily struck by the drastic reduction in state defence order and the financing of military R&D after 1991. Russia's debt to

2457-541: The 1973 Arab-Israeli War . Since the reaction time of a gun system is around 8–10 seconds, compared to approximately 30 seconds for a missile-based system, development was restarted. The initial designs were completed in 1973, with pilot production completed in 1976 at the Ulyanovsk Mechanical Factory. System testing and trials were conducted between September 1980 and December 1981 on the Donguzskiy range. It

2548-472: The 1RL144M radar with detection range 18 kilometres (11 mi) and tracking range 16 kilometres (9.9 mi). The mechanically scanned target acquisition radar for the Tunguska-M1 offers a 360° field of view, a detection range of around 18 kilometres (11 mi) and can detect targets flying as low as 15 metres (49 ft). Its tracking radar has a range of 16 kilometres (9.9 mi). A C/D-band IFF system

2639-631: The 2S6 and 2S6M includes a computerized fire control system, heating, ventilation, NBC system, an automatic fire detection and suppression system, navigational equipment, night vision aids, 1V116 intercom, external communications system with an R-173 receiver -modernized in the 2S6M for better communication with the command post- and monitoring equipment. The vehicle also has protection against the effects of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons. A battery of six Tunguska can automatically receive fire control information via an encrypted radio link, this allows targets to be distributed between individual units from

2730-578: The 85th anniversary of the founding of the enterprise. By this time the enterprise has integrated over 6500 inventors. On July 16, 2014, the Obama administration imposed sanctions through the US Department of Treasury 's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) by adding KBP Instrument Design Bureau and other entities to the Specially Designated Nationals List (SDN) in retaliation for

2821-502: The British cover name for solid-fueled rockets , and fired at targets supported by balloons. Rockets have relatively low acceleration and no spin creating centrifugal force , so the stresses on the delicate electronic fuze are relatively benign. It was understood that the limited application was not ideal; a proximity fuze would be useful on all types of artillery and especially anti-aircraft artillery, but those had very high accelerations. As early as September 1939, John Cockcroft began

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2912-780: The Bureau of Ordnance's Research and Development Division, coined the term to be descriptive without hinting at the technology. The anti-aircraft artillery range at Kirtland Air Force Base in New Mexico was used as one of the test facilities for the proximity fuze, where almost 50,000 test firings were conducted from 1942 to 1945. Testing also occurred at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, where about 15,000 bombs were dropped. Other locations include Ft. Fisher in North Carolina and Blossom Point, Maryland. US Navy development and early production

3003-703: The July 1943 Battle of Gela during the invasion of Sicily. After General Dwight D. Eisenhower demanded he be allowed to use the fuzes, 200,000 shells with VT fuzes (code named "POZIT" ) were used in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. They made the Allied heavy artillery far more devastating, as all the shells now exploded just before hitting the ground. German divisions were caught out in open as they had felt safe from timed fire because it

3094-522: The KBP reached 20 billion rubles in 1994. Under such conditions the bureau's survival was only possible through the means of export. KBP requested the government of Russia to provide independent military and technical cooperation with foreign countries, and was confirmed and subsequently expanded by an order of the Russian president in 2000. A total of more than 160 designs were made by the KBP up until 1 October, 2012,

3185-644: The Russian armed forces on 31 July 2003. The dual 2А38  [ ru ] 30 mm cannons (as well as the later 2A38M) were designed by the KBP Instrument Design Bureau and manufactured by the Tulamashzavod Joint Stock Company. The Tunguska typically carries 1,904 rounds with mixtures of APDS, AP-T, APDS Frag-T, HE-I, and API. The cannons are fired alternatively with a combined rate of fire of between 3,900 and 5,000 rounds per minute (1,950 to 2,500 rpm for each gun), which gives

3276-470: The State Corporation Rostec . The designing of high-precision weaponry is the priority of the KBP. The enterprise designs air-to-ground, ground-to-air and ground-to-ground weaponry. In addition to these, KBP also develops modern autocannons and grenade launchers. It also manufactures automatic, hand-held and under-slung grenade launchers, sniper rifles, submachine guns, pistols and revolvers for

3367-604: The Tizard Mission travelled to the US to introduce their researchers to a number of UK developments, and the topic of proximity fuses was raised. The details of the British experiments were passed to the United States Naval Research Laboratory and National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). Information was also shared with Canada in 1940 and the National Research Council of Canada delegated work on

3458-455: The Tunguska-M1 has a combat efficiency 1.3–1.5 times greater than the Tunguska-M. The GRAU index lists the "Tunguska" system as 2K22 . A complete system or battery consists of six 2S6 combat vehicles armed with the 9M311 "Treugol'nik" (triangle) surface-to-air missile and two 2A38 30 mm cannons. These are accompanied by up to three 2F77 transloader trucks. The 2K22 is also associated with

3549-433: The Tunguska-M1 uses the improved 9M311-M1 missile with an increased range of 2.5 to 10 kilometres (1.6 to 6.2 mi) and an altitude of 15 to 3,500 metres (49 to 11,483 ft). The missile has two stages, a large booster stage with four folding fins, which boosts the missile to a velocity of 900 metres per second (2,000 mph). The second stage has four fixed fins, and four steerable control surfaces. The complete missile

3640-614: The ZSU-23-4 would need to destroy a given target, and that firing at a MiG-17 (or similarly at, in case of war, NATO's Hawker Hunter or Fiat G.91 ) flying at 300 metres per second (670 mph), with an identical mass of 30 mm projectiles would result in a kill probability 1.5 times greater than with 23 mm projectiles. An increase in the maximum engagement altitude from 2,000 to 4,000 metres (6,600 to 13,100 ft) and increased effectiveness when engaging lightly armoured ground targets were also cited. The initial requirements set for

3731-493: The amplitude of this low frequency 'beat' signal corresponds to the amplitude of the signal reflected from the target. If the amplified beat frequency signal's amplitude was large enough, indicating a nearby object, then it triggered the fourth tube – a gas-filled thyratron . Upon being triggered, the thyratron conducted a large current that set off the electrical detonator. In order to be used with gun projectiles, which experience extremely high acceleration and centrifugal forces,

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3822-483: The coastal gun belt rose from 17% to 74%, reaching 82% during one day. A minor problem encountered by the British was that the fuze was sensitive enough to detonate the shell if it passed too close to a seabird and a number of seabird "kills" were recorded. The Pentagon refused to allow the Allied field artillery use of the fuzes in 1944, although the United States Navy fired proximity-fuzed anti-aircraft shells in

3913-399: The common contact fuze or timed fuze. Before the invention of the proximity fuze, detonation was induced by direct contact, a timer set at launch, or an altimeter. All of these earlier methods have disadvantages. The probability of a direct hit on a small moving target is low; a shell that just misses the target will not explode. A time- or height-triggered fuze requires good prediction by

4004-597: The complexity of the required circuitry. British military researchers at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) Samuel Curran , William Butement , Edward Shire, and Amherst Thomson conceived of the idea of a proximity fuze in the early stages of World War II . Their system involved a small, short range, Doppler radar . British tests were then carried out with "unrotated projectiles" (the contemporary British term for unguided rockets). However, British scientists were uncertain whether

4095-610: The concept of radar in the UK was made by W. A. S. Butement and P. E. Pollard, who constructed a small breadboard model of a pulsed radar in 1931. They suggested the system would be useful for coast artillery units to accurately measure the range to shipping even at night. The War Office was not interested in the concept, and told the two to work on other issues. In 1936, the Air Ministry took over Bawdsey Manor in Suffolk to further develop their prototype radar systems that emerged

4186-657: The domestic aircraft of the Soviet Air Force were equipped with weapons from the Tula designers. Activities of the company were restored under the supervision of engineer-gunsmith Igor Dimitriev during the post-war years. KBP designed the PM , APS pistols, the AM-23 cannon, the 23-mm anti-aircraft cannon 2A7 for the Shilka system, the ZU-23 AAA alongside its dual 2A14 cannons in the 1940s and

4277-473: The finished product were complete, a sample of the fuzes produced from each lot was shipped to the National Bureau of Standards, where they were subjected to a series of rigorous tests at the specially built Control Testing Laboratory. These tests included low- and high-temperature tests, humidity tests, and sudden jolt tests. By 1944, a large proportion of the American electronics industry concentrated on making

4368-441: The fire control programs, missiles and the general reliability of the system, and improved autocannons , 2A38M. Tunguska underwent further improvement when, in 2003, the Russian armed forces accepted the Tunguska-M1 or 2K22M1 into service. The M1 introduced the new 9M311-M1 missile, which made a number of changes allowing the 2K22M1 to engage small targets like cruise missiles by replacing the eight-beam laser proximity fuze with

4459-445: The first automated production techniques for manufacturing radio proximity fuzes at low cost. While working for a defense contractor in the mid-1940s, Soviet spy Julius Rosenberg stole a working model of an American proximity fuze and delivered it to Soviet intelligence. It was not a fuze for anti-aircraft shells, the most valuable type. In the US, NDRC focused on radio fuzes for use with anti-aircraft artillery, where acceleration

4550-408: The fuze and the target was not constant but rather constantly changing due to the high speed of the fuze and any motion of the target. When the distance between the fuze and the target changed rapidly, then the phase relationship also changed rapidly. The signals were in-phase one instant and out-of-phase a few hundred microseconds later. The result was a heterodyne beat frequency which corresponded to

4641-460: The fuze design also needed to utilize many shock-hardening techniques. These included planar electrodes, and packing the components in wax and oil to equalize the stresses. To prevent premature detonation, the inbuilt battery that armed the shell had a several millisecond delay before its electrolytes were activated, giving the projectile time to clear the area of the gun. The designation VT means 'variable time'. Captain S. R. Shumaker, Director of

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4732-512: The fuze for anti-aircraft shells was done in the United States, not in England. Tuve said that despite being pleased by the outcome of the Butement et al. vs. Varian patent suit, which affirmed that the fuze was a UK invention and thereby saved the U.S. Navy millions of dollars by waiving royalty fees, the fuze design delivered by the Tizard Mission was "not the one we made to work!". A key improvement

4823-506: The fuze to a team at the University of Toronto . Prior to and following receipt of circuitry designs from the British, various experiments were carried out by Richard B. Roberts, Henry H. Porter, and Robert B. Brode under the direction of NDRC Section T Chairman Merle Tuve. Tuve's group was known as Section T, which was located at APL throughout the war. As Tuve later put it in an interview: "We heard some rumors of circuits they were using in

4914-601: The fuzes. Procurement contracts increased from US$ 60 million in 1942, to $ 200 million in 1943, to $ 300 million in 1944 and were topped by $ 450 million in 1945. As volume increased, efficiency came into play and the cost per fuze fell from $ 732 in 1942 to $ 18 in 1945. This permitted the purchase of over 22 million fuzes for approximately one billion dollars ($ 14.6 billion in 2021 USD ). The main suppliers were Crosley , RCA , Eastman Kodak , McQuay-Norris and Sylvania . There were also over two thousand suppliers and subsuppliers, ranging from powder manufacturers to machine shops. It

5005-465: The gunner and accurate timing by the fuze. If either is wrong, then even accurately aimed shells may explode harmlessly before reaching the target or after passing it. At the start of the Blitz , it was estimated that it took 20,000 rounds to shoot down a single aircraft; other estimates put the figure as high as 100,000 or as low as 2,500. With a proximity fuze, the shell or missile need only pass close by

5096-502: The gunners to determine, was the same as that of the target and (2) a fuze would emit high-frequency radio waves that would interact with the target and produce, as a consequence of the high relative speed of target and projectile, a Doppler-frequency signal sensed in the oscillator. In May 1940, a formal proposal from Butement, Edward Shire, and Amherst Thomson was sent to the British Air Defence Establishment based on

5187-404: The laser energy simply beams out into space. As the missile passes its target some of the energy strikes the target and is reflected to the missile, where detectors sense it and detonate the warhead. Acoustic proximity fuzes are actuated by the acoustic emissions from a target (example an aircraft's engine or ship's propeller). Actuation can be either through an electronic circuit coupled to

5278-422: The late 1930s, Butement turned his attention to other concepts, and among these was the idea of a proximity fuze: ...Into this stepped W. A. S. Butement, designer of radar sets CD/CHL and GL , with a proposal on 30 October 1939 for two kinds of radio fuze: (1) a radar set would track the projectile, and the operator would transmit a signal to a radio receiver in the fuze when the range, the difficult quantity for

5369-785: The law enforcement agencies. KBP was founded on 1 October, 1927 as an organization at Tula Weapons Factory, engaging in designing small arms. The first major success the organization made was in the Red Armory, where its Tokarev pistol was adopted into use in February 1931. In 1936, it was renamed TsKB-14 (Central design bureau No 14). During the Great Patriotic War large successes were made by aviation machineguns such as ShVAK , ShKAS , Berezin UB as well as VYa and Berezin B-20 aviation cannons. Over 80% of

5460-869: The most original and effective military developments in World War II was the proximity, or 'VT', fuze. It found use in both the Army and the Navy, and was employed in the defense of London. While no one invention won the war, the proximity fuze must be listed among the very small group of developments, such as radar, upon which victory very largely depended. The fuze was later found to be able to detonate artillery shells in air bursts , greatly increasing their anti-personnel effects. In Germany, more than 30 (perhaps as many as 50) different proximity fuze designs were developed, or researched, for anti-aircraft use, but none saw service. These included acoustic fuzes triggered by engine sound, one developed by Rheinmetall-Borsig based on electrostatic fields, and radio fuzes. In mid-November 1939,

5551-401: The new GM-5975 chassis developed and produced by MMZ . GM-5975.25 has a cruising range of 500 kilometres (310 mi) and a maximum speed of 65 km/h (40 mph). It can function in ambient temperatures of −50 to 50 °C (−58 to 122 °F) and up to an altitude of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). It has an ability of climb hills with up to a 35° slope. Overall, the layout is similar to

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5642-481: The next year as Chain Home . The Army was suddenly extremely interested in the topic of radar, and sent Butement and Pollard to Bawdsey to form what became known as the "Army Cell". Their first project was a revival of their original work on coast defense, but they were soon told to start a second project to develop a range-only radar to aid anti-aircraft guns . As these projects moved from development into prototype form in

5733-532: The observed shortcomings of the ZSU-23-4 (short range and no early warning) and a counter to new ground attack aircraft in development, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II and the AH-64 Apache , which were designed to be highly resistant to 23 mm cannons. Studies were conducted and demonstrated that a 30 mm cannon would require from a third to a half of the number of shells that the 23 mm cannon of

5824-647: The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War . KBP's shares are held by OAO NPO Vysokotochnye Kompleksy and State Company Rostec . It has the following subsidiaries: The following weapons have been designed by KBP: Proximity fuze A proximity fuze (also VT fuze or "variable time fuze") is a fuze that detonates an explosive device automatically when it approaches within a certain distance of its target. Proximity fuzes are designed for elusive military targets such as aircraft and missiles, as well as ships at sea and ground forces. This sophisticated trigger mechanism may increase lethality by 5 to 10 times compared to

5915-402: The oscillator's plate current, thereby enabling detection. However, the phase relationship between the oscillator's transmitted signal and the signal reflected from the target varied depended on the round trip distance between the fuze and the target. When the reflected signal was in phase, the oscillator amplitude would increase and the oscillator's plate current would also increase. But when

6006-429: The previous ZSU-23-4 with a large central 360-degree rotating turret (designated the 2A40) containing the armament, sensors and three of the crew: the commander, gunner and radar operator. The driver sits in the front left of the hull, with a gas turbine APU to his right and the multi-fuel diesel engine in the rear of the hull. An electromechanically scanned parabolic E-band (10 kW power) target acquisition radar

6097-623: The primary contractor, other members of the Soviet military-industrial complex were involved in the project; the chassis was developed at the Minsk tractor factory, the radio equipment at the Ulyanovsk Mechanical Factory , central computer at NIEMI ("Antey"), guidance and navigational systems by VNII "Signal", and optics were developed by the Leningrad Optical Mechanical Association ( LOMO ). However, development

6188-477: The radio shell fuze was completed by Tuve's group, known as Section T, at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab (APL). Over 100 American companies were mobilized to build some 20 million shell fuzes. The proximity fuze was one of the most important technological innovations of World War II. It was so important that it was a secret guarded to a similar level as the atom bomb project or D-Day invasion. Admiral Lewis Strauss wrote that, One of

6279-424: The reflected signal was out of phase then the combined radio signal amplitude would decrease, which would decrease the plate current. So the changing phase relationship between the oscillator signal and the reflected signal complicated the measurement of the amplitude of that small reflected signal. This problem was resolved by taking advantage of the change in frequency of the reflected signal. The distance between

6370-466: The rockets over in England, then they gave us the circuits, but I had already articulated the thing into the rockets, the bombs and shell." As Tuve understood, the circuitry of the fuze was rudimentary. In his words, "The one outstanding characteristic in this situation is the fact that success of this type of fuze is not dependent on a basic technical idea – all of the ideas are simple and well known everywhere." The critical work of adapting

6461-481: The second of the two concepts. A breadboard circuit was constructed, and the concept was tested in the laboratory by moving a sheet of tin at various distances. Early field testing connected the circuit to a thyratron trigger operating a tower-mounted camera which photographed passing aircraft to determine distance of fuze function. Prototype fuzes were then constructed in June 1940, and installed in "unrotated projectiles",

6552-646: The stabilized sight of the Tunguska to track the target in elevation and azimuth. The gunner is initially cued towards the target by the system's search radar. Once the missile is steered to within 5 metres (16 ft) of the target, an active laser or radio fuse (9M311-M1) is triggered. A contact fuse is also fitted. The warhead weighs about 9 kilograms (20 lb), and is a continuous-rod system, consisting of 600 millimetres (24 in) long, 6 to 9 millimetres (0.24 to 0.35 in) diameter rods, which break into fragments weighing 2–3 grams (0.071–0.106 oz). The rods form

6643-508: The system were to achieve twice the performance in terms of range, altitude and combat effectiveness of the ZSU-23-4, additionally the system should have a reaction time no greater than 10 seconds. Due to the similarities in the fire control of artillery and missiles, it was decided that the Tunguska would be a combined gun and missile system. A combined system is more effective than the ZSU-23-4, engaging targets at long-range with missiles, and shorter range targets with guns. In addition to KBP as

6734-466: The target at some time during its flight. The proximity fuze makes the problem simpler than the previous methods. Proximity fuzes are also useful for producing air bursts against ground targets. A contact fuze would explode when it hit the ground; it would not be very effective at scattering shrapnel. A timer fuze can be set to explode a few meters above the ground but the timing is vital and usually requires observers to provide information for adjusting

6825-449: The target tracking is fully automatic, with the guns aimed using data from the radar. In optical mode, the gunner tracks the target through the 1A29 stabilized sight, with the radar providing range data. The system uses the same 9M311 (NATO: SA-19/SA-N-11) missile family as the naval CIWS Kashtan which can engage targets at a range of 1.5 to 8 kilometres (0.93 to 4.97 mi) and to an altitude of 5 to 3,500 metres (16 to 11,483 ft)

6916-557: The task to the physicist Merle Tuve at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. Also eventually pulled in were researchers from the National Bureau of Standards (this research unit of NBS later became part of the Army Research Laboratory ). Work was split in 1942, with Tuve's group working on proximity fuzes for shells, while the National Bureau of Standards researchers focused on the technically easier task of bombs and rockets. Work on

7007-773: The testing stopped when drones were destroyed early on the first day. The three drones were destroyed with just four projectiles. A particularly successful application was the 90 mm shell with VT fuze with the SCR-584 automatic tracking radar and the M9 Gun Director fire control computer . The combination of these three inventions was successful in shooting down many V-1 flying bombs aimed at London and Antwerp, otherwise difficult targets for anti-aircraft guns due to their small size and high speed. The Allied fuze used constructive and destructive interference to detect its target. The design had four or five electron tubes. One tube

7098-432: The timing. Observers may not be practical in many situations, the ground may be uneven, and the practice is slow in any event. Proximity fuzes fitted to such weapons as artillery and mortar shells solve this problem by having a range of set burst heights [e.g. 2, 4 or 10 m (7, 13 or 33 ft)] above ground that are selected by gun crews. The shell bursts at the appropriate height above ground. The idea of

7189-466: The use of acoustic proximity fuzes for anti-aircraft weapons but concluded that there were more promising technological approaches. The NDRC research highlighted the speed of sound as a major limitation in the design and use of acoustic fuzes, particularly in relation to missiles and high-speed aircraft. Hydroacoustic influence is widely used as a detonation mechanism for naval mines and torpedoes . A ship's propeller rotating in water produces

7280-512: The velocity difference. Viewed another way, the received signal frequency was Doppler-shifted from the oscillator frequency by the relative motion of the fuze and target. Consequently, a low frequency signal, corresponding to the frequency difference between the oscillator and the received signal, developed at the oscillator's plate terminal. Two of the four tubes in the VT fuze were used to detect, filter, and amplify this low frequency signal. Note here that

7371-544: Was a mechanical device utilizing a diaphragm tone filter sensitive to frequencies between 140 and 500 Hz connected to a resonating vibratory reed switch used to fire an electrical igniter. The Schmetterling , Enzian , Rheintochter and X4 guided missiles were all designed for use with the Kranich acoustic proximity fuze. During WW2 , the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) investigated

7462-518: Was able to come up with a new fuze design and managed to demonstrate its feasibility through extensive testing at the Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren, Virginia. On 6 May 1941, the NBS team built six fuzes which were placed in air-dropped bombs and successfully tested over water. Given their previous work on radio and radiosondes at NBS, Diamond and Hinman developed the proximity fuze which employed

7553-451: Was after the successful tests by the American group. Looking for a short-term solution to the valve problem, in 1940 the British ordered 20,000 miniature electron tubes intended for use in hearing aids from Western Electric Company and Radio Corporation of America . An American team under Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr. correctly deduced that they were meant for experiments with proximity fuzes for bombs and rockets. In September 1940,

7644-502: Was among the first mass-production applications of printed circuits . Vannevar Bush , head of the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) during the war, credited the proximity fuze with three significant effects. At first the fuzes were only used in situations where they could not be captured by the Germans. They were used in land-based artillery in the South Pacific in 1944. Also in 1944, fuzes were allocated to

7735-437: Was an oscillator connected to an antenna; it functioned as both a transmitter and an autodyne detector (receiver). When the target was far away, little of the oscillator's transmitted energy would be reflected to the fuze. When a target was nearby, it would reflect a significant portion of the oscillator's signal. The amplitude of the reflected signal corresponded to the closeness of the target. This reflected signal would affect

7826-475: Was introduced by Lloyd Berkner , who developed a system using separate transmitter and receiver circuits. In December 1940, Tuve invited Harry Diamond and Wilbur S. Hinman, Jr, of the United States National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to investigate Berkner's improved fuze and develop a proximity fuze for rockets and bombs to use against German Luftwaffe aircraft. In just two days, Diamond

7917-555: Was officially accepted into service on 8 September 1982 and the initial version, which was designated 2K22/2S6, had four missiles in the ready to fire position (two on each side) and two 2A38 autocannons. The Tunguska entered into limited service from 1984, when the first batteries were delivered to the army. After a limited production run of the original 2K22, an improved version designated 2K22M/2S6M entered service in 1990. The 2K22M featured several improvements with eight ready-to-fire missiles (four on each side) as well as modifications to

8008-623: Was outsourced to the Wurlitzer company, at their barrel organ factory in North Tonawanda, New York . First large scale production of tubes for the new fuzes was at a General Electric plant in Cleveland, Ohio formerly used for manufacture of Christmas-tree lamps. Fuze assembly was completed at General Electric plants in Schenectady, New York and Bridgeport, Connecticut . Once inspections of

8099-402: Was slowed between 1975 and 1977 after the introduction of the 9K33 Osa missile system, which seemed to fill the same requirement but with greater missile performance. After some considerable debate, it was felt that a purely missile-based system would not be as effective at dealing with very low flying attack helicopters attacking at short range with no warning as had been proven so successful in

8190-582: Was thought that the bad weather would prevent accurate observation. U.S. General George S. Patton credited the introduction of proximity fuzes with saving Liège and stated that their use required a revision of the tactics of land warfare. Bombs and rockets fitted with radio proximity fuzes were in limited service with both the USAAF and USN at the end of WWII.  The main targets for these proximity fuze detonated bombs and rockets were anti-aircraft emplacements and airfields . Radio frequency sensing ( radar )

8281-418: Was up to 20,000  g , compared to about 100  g for rockets and much less for dropped bombs. In addition to extreme acceleration, artillery shells were spun by the rifling of the gun barrels to close to 30,000 rpm, creating immense centrifugal force. Working with Western Electric Company and Raytheon Company , miniature hearing-aid tubes were modified to withstand this extreme stress. The T-3 fuze had

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