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34-635: Tusheti, the northeastern mountainous region of Georgia, is home to four tribes that consider themselves Tushetians : the Batsbi (also known as Tsovatush), the Gometsari, the Piriqiti, and the Chagma-Tush. Tsovatush people make up 50% of Tushetians. Only several hundred Tsovatush people speak Bats, whereas the other tribes (Gometsari, Piriqiti and Chagma-Tush) have lost the language. Evidence from toponymics indicates that

68-493: A nominal group in a wording. In various languages, nominal groups consisting of a noun and its modifiers belong to one of a few such categories. For instance, in English , one says I see them and they see me : the nominative pronouns I/they represent the perceiver and the accusative pronouns me/them represent the phenomenon perceived. Here, nominative and accusative are cases, that is, categories of pronouns corresponding to

102-505: A typologically common five-vowel system. Although some authors claim that all vowels but /u/ contrast in length , no minimal pairs are given in any studies of Batsbi, nor are examples of long vowels available in the literature. Bats also has the following diphthongs : /ei/ , /ui/ , /oi/ , /ai/ , /ou/ , and /au/ . All vowels and diphthongs have nasalised allophones that are the result of phonetic and morphophonemic processes: [ ĩ ẽ ã õ ũ ]. Nasalised vowels are represented in

136-431: A singular/plural and a possessive/non-possessive distinction (e.g. chair , chairs , chair's , chairs' ); there is no manifest difference in the form of chair between "The chair is here." (subject) and "I own the chair." (direct object), a distinction made instead by word order and context. Cases can be ranked in the following hierarchy, where a language that does not have a given case will tend not to have any cases to

170-492: A variety of factors, such as gender , number , phonological environment, and irregular historical factors. Pronouns sometimes have separate paradigms. In some languages, particularly Slavic languages , a case may contain different groups of endings depending on whether the word is a noun or an adjective . A single case may contain many different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots. For example, in Polish,

204-646: Is often marked in English with a preposition . For example, the English prepositional phrase with (his) foot (as in "John kicked the ball with his foot") might be rendered in Russian using a single noun in the instrumental case , or in Ancient Greek as τῷ ποδί ( tôi podí , meaning "the foot") with both words (the definite article, and the noun πούς ( poús ) "foot") changing to dative form. More formally, case has been defined as "a system of marking dependent nouns for

238-617: Is the presence of two geminate ejectives, /tːʼ/ and /qːʼ/, which are cross-linguistically rare. The most common syllable type in Batsbi is CVC. However, Batsbi words commonly contain sequences of two consonants, the second of which is often a fricative. Stop-stop clusters often contain an ejective . Those two-consonant clusters can occur in any position within the word, although less commonly word-finally. Sequences of three consonants do occur as well, although many are borrowings from Georgian . Like many clusters in non- Indo-European languages, consonant sequences in Batsbi often fail to conform to

272-723: Is the process or result of altering nouns to the correct grammatical cases. Languages with rich nominal inflection (using grammatical cases for many purposes) typically have a number of identifiable declension classes, or groups of nouns with a similar pattern of case inflection or declension. Sanskrit has six declension classes, whereas Latin is traditionally considered to have five , and Ancient Greek three . For example, Slovak has fifteen noun declension classes , five for each gender (the number may vary depending on which paradigms are counted or omitted, this mainly concerns those that modify declension of foreign words; refer to article). In Indo-European languages, declension patterns may depend on

306-476: The Mkhedruli script via a superscript ⟨ნ⟩ following the vowel in question, as in კნათ ე for [k’nat ẽ ] ' boy- GEN ' . Batsbi has a large consonant inventory , relatively typical for a Nakh-Dagestanian language, containing ejectives , pharyngeals and uvulars . Unlike its close Nakh relatives, Chechen and Ingush , Batsbi has on the other hand retained the voiceless lateral fricative /ɬ/ . Also notable

340-537: The absolutive and ergative cases. Inclusive Exclusive so ħo txo ve/vai šu as aħ atx ve eš Batsbi does not encode gender in pronouns. Gender is indexed instead on verbs and adjectives. o obi oqus oqar e is o eq icx oq Adnominal demonstratives code no gender in Batsbi. ე e DEM.proximal ფსტუიჩოვ pstʼuinčov woman-ERG ე ფსტუიჩოვ e pstʼuinčov DEM.proximal woman-ERG "This woman" ე e Tushetians Too Many Requests If you report this error to

374-674: The sonority sequencing principle . Of the words containing three-consonant onsets above, all but /pst ’ u/ “wife” and /t’k’mel/ “dust” are native to Batsbi, the other ones being loanwords from Georgian. Batsbi is an SOV language with ergative-absolutive alignment which makes extensive use of bound morphological derivation and inflection . It has both grammatical gender (i.e. noun classes) and several grammatical cases . Batsbi pronouns encode three persons, two numbers, and clusivity for first person plural (“you and us” vs . “us but not you”). Demonstratives work as third person pronouns. First and second person pronouns are shown below in

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408-1489: The subject (" I kicked John"), and forms such as me , him and us are used for the object ("John kicked me "). As a language evolves, cases can merge (for instance, in Ancient Greek , the locative case merged with the dative), a phenomenon known as syncretism . Languages such as Sanskrit , Kannada , Latin , Tamil , and Russian have extensive case systems, with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and determiners all inflecting (usually by means of different suffixes ) to indicate their case. The number of cases differs between languages: Persian has three; modern English has three but for pronouns only; Torlakian dialects , Classical and Modern Standard Arabic have three; German , Icelandic , Modern Greek , and Irish have four; Albanian , Romanian and Ancient Greek have five; Bengali , Latin, Russian, Slovak , Kajkavian , Slovenian , and Turkish each have at least six; Armenian , Czech , Georgian , Latvian , Lithuanian , Polish , Serbo-Croatian and Ukrainian have seven; Mongolian , Marathi , Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu , Malayalam , Assamese and Greenlandic have eight; Old Nubian and Sinhalese have nine; Basque has 13; Estonian has 14; Finnish has 15; Hungarian has 18; and Tsez has at least 36 cases. Commonly encountered cases include nominative , accusative , dative and genitive . A role that one of those languages marks by case

442-573: The "first," "second," "third" and so on. For example, the common "when-then" construction is called the सति सप्तमी (Sati Saptami) or "The Good Seventh" as it uses the locative, which is the seventh case. In the most common case concord system, only the head-word (the noun) in a phrase is marked for case. This system appears in many Papuan languages as well as in Turkic , Mongolian , Quechua , Dravidian , Indo-Aryan , and other languages. In Basque and various Amazonian and Australian languages , only

476-755: The Indo-European languages had eight morphological cases , although modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms. Among modern languages, cases still feature prominently in most of the Balto-Slavic languages (except Macedonian and Bulgarian ), with most having six to eight cases, as well as Icelandic , German and Modern Greek , which have four. In German, cases are mostly marked on articles and adjectives, and less so on nouns. In Icelandic, articles, adjectives, personal names and nouns are all marked for case, making it

510-568: The Latin casus , which is derived from the verb cadere , "to fall", from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱad- . The Latin word is a calque of the Greek πτῶσις , ptôsis , lit. "falling, fall". The sense is that all other cases are considered to have "fallen" away from the nominative. This imagery is also reflected in the word declension , from Latin declinere , "to lean", from

544-787: The PIE root *ḱley- . The equivalent to "case" in several other European languages also derives from casus , including cas in French, caso in Italian and Kasus in German. The Russian word паде́ж ( padyézh ) is a calque from Greek and similarly contains a root meaning "fall", and the German Fall and Czech pád simply mean "fall", and are used for both the concept of grammatical case and to refer to physical falls. The Dutch equivalent naamval translates as 'noun case', in which 'noun' has

578-537: The Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 110023350 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Fri, 29 Nov 2024 08:38:51 GMT Grammatical case A grammatical case is a category of nouns and noun modifiers ( determiners , adjectives , participles , and numerals ) that corresponds to one or more potential grammatical functions for

612-464: The accusative or the vocative cases are placed after the nominative and before the genitive. For example: For similar reasons, the customary order of the four cases in Icelandic is nominative–accusative–dative–genitive, as illustrated below: Sanskrit similarly arranges cases in the order nominative-accusative-instrumental-dative-ablative-genitive-locative-vocative. The cases are individually named as

646-512: The accusative, genitive, and dative have merged to an oblique case, but many of these languages still retain vocative, locative, and ablative cases. Old English had an instrumental case, but neither a locative nor a prepositional case. The traditional case order (nom-gen-dat-acc) was expressed for the first time in The Art of Grammar in the 2nd century BC: Πτώσεις ὀνομάτων εἰσὶ πέντε· ὀρθή, γενική, δοτική, αἰτιατική, κλητική. There are five Cases,

680-425: The bus stop, in the future John is waiting for us at the bus stop . We will see what will happen in the future . by hand with John This letter was written by hand . I took a trip there with John . All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary significantly from language to language, and as such they are often more complex. Case is based fundamentally on changes to

714-826: The first grammar of an indigenous Caucasian language based on sound scientific principles. Batsbi belongs to the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family. The language is not mutually intelligible with either Chechen or Ingush , the other two Nakh languages. Most speakers of Bats live in the village of Zemo-Alvani , on the Kakheti Plain , in the Akhmeta Municipality of Georgia. There are some families of Bats in Tbilisi and other bigger towns in Georgia. Bats has

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748-606: The functions they have in representation. English has largely lost its inflected case system but personal pronouns still have three cases, which are simplified forms of the nominative, accusative (including functions formerly handled by the dative ) and genitive cases. They are used with personal pronouns : subjective case (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever), objective case (me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever) and possessive case (my, mine; your, yours; his; her, hers; its; our, ours; their, theirs; whose; whosever). Forms such as I , he and we are used for

782-403: The more extensive case system of Old English ). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by word order , by prepositions , and by the " Saxon genitive " ( -'s ). Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases: Most English personal pronouns have five forms: the nominative case form,

816-474: The most conservative Germanic language . The eight historical Indo-European cases are as follows, with examples either of the English case or of the English syntactic alternative to case: John waited for us at the bus stop. Obey the law . The clerk gave a discount to us . According to the law ... of (the) The pages of the book turned yellow. The table is made out of wood . Hello, John! O John , how are you! (archaic) at

850-455: The noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence – one of the defining features of so-called fusional languages . Old English was a fusional language, but Modern English does not work this way. Modern English has largely abandoned the inflectional case system of Proto-Indo-European in favor of analytic constructions. The personal pronouns of Modern English retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class (a remnant of

884-424: The oblique case form, a distinct reflexive or intensive form (such as myself , ourselves ) which is based upon the possessive determiner form but is coreferential to a preceding instance of nominative or oblique, and the possessive case forms, which include both a determiner form (such as my , our ) and a predicatively-used independent form (such as mine , ours ) which is distinct (with two exceptions:

918-701: The older meaning of both 'adjective (noun)' and '(substantive) noun'. The Finnish equivalent is sija , whose main meaning is "position" or "place". Similar to Latin, Sanskrit uses the term विभक्ति (vibhakti) which may be interpreted as the specific or distinct "bendings" or "experiences" of a word, from the verb भुज् (bhuj) and the prefix वि (vi) , and names the individual cases using ordinal numbers. Although not very prominent in modern English, cases featured much more saliently in Old English and other ancient Indo-European languages , such as Latin , Old Persian , Ancient Greek , and Sanskrit . Historically,

952-568: The other three Tushetian tribes formerly spoke Bats, suggesting that all Tushetians once did and over time the Georgian language replaced Bats. The mountainous terrain preserved the culture and traditions of Tushetians, but the history of isolation makes it more difficult to document them as only a few records exist. The first grammar of Bats, Über die Thusch-Sprache , was compiled by the German orientalist Anton Schiefner (1817–1879), making it into

986-423: The phrase-final word (not necessarily the noun) is marked for case. In many Indo-European , Finnic , and Semitic languages , case is marked on the noun, the determiner, and usually the adjective. Other systems are less common. In some languages, there is double-marking of a word as both genitive (to indicate semantic role) and another case such as accusative (to establish concord with the head noun). Declension

1020-405: The right [nominative], the generic [genitive], the dative, the accusative, and the vocative. Latin grammars, such as Ars grammatica , followed the Greek tradition, but added the ablative case of Latin. Later other European languages also followed that Graeco-Roman tradition. However, for some languages, such as Latin, due to case syncretism the order may be changed for convenience, where

1054-410: The right of the missing case: This is, however, only a general tendency. Many forms of Central German , such as Colognian and Luxembourgish , have a dative case but lack a genitive. In Irish nouns, the nominative and accusative have fallen together, whereas the dative–locative has remained separate in some paradigms; Irish also has genitive and vocative cases. In many modern Indo-Aryan languages,

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1088-662: The sentence. It is widely accepted that the Ancient Greeks had a certain idea of the forms of a name in their own language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to prove this. Grammatical cases were first recognized by the Stoics and from some philosophers of the Peripatetic school . The advancements of those philosophers were later employed by the philologists of the Library of Alexandria . The English word case used in this sense comes from

1122-564: The third person singular masculine he and the third person singular neuter it , which use the same form for both determiner and independent [ his car , it is his ]). The interrogative personal pronoun who exhibits the greatest diversity of forms within the modern English pronoun system, having definite nominative, oblique, and genitive forms ( who , whom , whose ) and equivalently-coordinating indefinite forms ( whoever , whomever , and whosever ). Although English pronouns can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), nouns show only

1156-534: The type of relationship they bear to their heads ". Cases should be distinguished from thematic roles such as agent and patient . They are often closely related, and in languages such as Latin, several thematic roles are realised by a somewhat fixed case for deponent verbs, but cases are a syntagmatic/phrasal category, and thematic roles are the function of a syntagma/phrase in a larger structure. Languages having cases often exhibit free word order , as thematic roles are not required to be marked by position in

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