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104-651: Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have changed their lifestyles from Great Lakes woodlands to Northern Plains and by the mid-19th century, the US government forced them onto reservations. At the time of their first European contact in the 16th century, the Cheyenne lived in what is now Minnesota . They were close allies of the Arapaho and loosely aligned with the Lakota . By the early 18th century, they were forced west by other tribes across

208-508: A few Cheyenne, as their horses were fresh. This was the first battle that the Cheyenne fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on each side; J.E.B. Stuart , then a young lieutenant, was shot in the breast while attacking a Cheyenne warrior with a sabre. The troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned Cheyenne camp; they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo meat. Sumner continued to Bent's Fort . To punish

312-522: A phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs. (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)" Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, ⟨á⟩ , ⟨é⟩ , and ⟨ó⟩ . The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in

416-742: A stage station and fort at Julesburg . The Indians made numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of Julesburg, and raided the fort again in early February. They captured much loot and killed many European Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. (See Battle of Julesburg , Battle of Mud Springs , Battle of Rush Creek , Powder River Expedition , Battle of Platte Bridge ) Black Kettle continued to desire peace and did not join in

520-409: A stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below. Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede the consonants [t] , [s] , [ʃ] , [k] , or [x] followed by an [e] . The rule is linked to the rule of e - epenthesis , which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary. A vowel that does not have a high pitch

624-408: A stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch. A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high. A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by

728-565: A unified tribe. The Cheyenne tribes today descend from two related tribes, the Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas (Cheyenne proper) and Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio). The latter merged with the Tsétshéstȧhese in the mid-19th century. Their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god Ma'heo'o, whom

832-464: A variety of dependent clause types. Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning. Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy. The third order governs commands. Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages, distinguishes two types of imperative mood , one indicating immediate action, and

936-730: A variety of purposes, some apparently related to astronomical calculations and ritual observances. These peoples were generally hunters and gatherers, while also relying on some farming to produce food on the fertile land in the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. Because of this reliance on farming, these tribes did not migrate like the more northern Eastern Woodlands tribes and instead stayed in one place, which resulted in them developing new social and political structures. The Eastern Woodlands tribes located further north (Algonquian-speaking people) relied heavily on hunting to acquire food. These tribes did not plant many crops, however, some tribes, such as

1040-487: A word final high. A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel. A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low. According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes

1144-562: Is Sáhea'eo'o , a word that sounds similar to the Lakota word Šahíya . Another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is "a bit like the [people of an] alien speech" (literally, "red-talker"). According to George Bird Grinnell , the Lakota had referred to themselves and fellow Siouan -language bands as "white talkers", and those of other language families, such as the Algonquian Cheyenne, as "red talkers" ( Šahíyena ). The etymology of

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1248-554: Is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, although with continuing intermarriage it has become increasingly difficult to separate the tribes. The Cheyenne called themselves Tsétsêhéstâhese (more commonly as the Tsitsistas ; singular: Tsétsêhéstaestse ), which translates to "those who are like this". The Suhtai, also called the Só'taeo'o, Só'taétaneo'o, Sutaio (singular: Só'taétane) traveled with

1352-489: Is a morphologically polysynthetic language with a sophisticated, agglutinating verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure. Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences. Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate noun classification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of clusivity in

1456-435: Is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. ⟨e⟩ represents the phoneme symbolized /e/ , and ⟨š⟩ represents /ʃ/ . Low tone is usually unmarked. The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows: 0 indicates

1560-581: Is an increment before any remaining * k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e ) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the * k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch." Cheyenne

1664-713: Is considered endangered, at different levels, in both states. Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages , which is a sub-category of the Algic languages . Specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language . However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot , is an areal rather than genetic subgrouping. Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana and in Oklahoma . On

1768-634: Is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by [h] . Non-high [a] and [o] become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by a voiced vowel and followed by an [h] , a consonant, and two or more syllables. émane [ɪmaṅɪ] 'He is drinking.' Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced. The [h] is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels. There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne. Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have

1872-473: Is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem. Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation. Thus, návóómo could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context. Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme /-h-/ , which changes to /-x-/ , /-s-/ , /-š-/ or /-'-/ before

1976-550: Is kept in the vonȧhéome (old term) or hóhkėha'éome (new term) ("Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee"). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the Sun Dance . His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic Plains horse culture . They replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from

2080-419: Is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, the cow, the white man, and other new things to the Cheyenne. He was named for motsé'eonȯtse ( sweetgrass ), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many Plains peoples in ceremonies. The Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of male power. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is the symbol of female power. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and

2184-529: Is the Contrary Warrior Society, most notable for riding backward into battle as a sign of bravery. All six societies and their various branches exist among the Southern and Northern Cheyenne nations in present times. Warriors used a combination of weapons from war clubs , tomahawks , and bows and arrows, and lances to firearms acquired through raiding and trade. The enemies of the Cheyenne included

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2288-529: Is to the west; the Subarctic area to the north. The Indigenous people of the Eastern Woodlands spoke languages belonging to several language groups, including Algonquian , Iroquoian , Muskogean , and Siouan , as well as apparently isolated languages such as Calusa , Chitimacha , Natchez , Timucua , Tunica and Yuchi . Many of these languages are still spoken today. The earliest known inhabitants of

2392-406: Is written as ⟨x⟩ orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with a dot over vowels . Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high [a] and [o] is also usually devoiced preceding h followed by

2496-514: The Apsáalooke (Óoetaneo'o – "crow (bird) people"), Shoshone (Sósone'eo'o), Blackfeet (Mo'ȯhtávėhahtátaneo'o, same literal meaning), Interior Salish and Kuntenai (Kȧhkoestséataneo'o – "flat-headed-people"), Nez Perce (Otaesétaneo'o – "pierced nose people"), Arikara , Gros Ventre (Hestóetaneo'o – "beggars for meat", "spongers" or Mȯhónooneo'o – lit. "scouting all over ones"), Assiniboine , and Plains Cree (Vóhkoohétaneo'o – "rabbit people") to

2600-594: The Colorado Gold Rush , European-American settlers moved into lands reserved for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased along the Emigrant Trail along the South Platte River and some emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts were related to the endemic warfare between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of

2704-593: The Colorado War . General warfare broke out and Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte, which Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from August 15 until September 24, 1864. On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment under Chief Black Kettle , although it flew a flag of truce and indicated its allegiance to the US government. The Sand Creek massacre , as it came to be known, resulted in

2808-625: The Mississippi River and Mille Lacs Lake . Their economy was based on the collection of wild rice and hunting, especially of bison , which lived in the prairies 70 to 80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages. According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne were driven by the Assiniboine (Hóheeheo'o) from the Great Lakes region to present-day Minnesota and North Dakota , where they established villages. The most prominent of

2912-695: The Missouri River and into North and South Dakota , where they adopted the horse culture . Having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana and Wyoming, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota people around 1730. The main group of Cheyenne, the Tsêhéstáno, was once composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to

3016-627: The Republican River . The Indian agent at Fort Laramie negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce hostilities, but the Secretary of War ordered the 1st Cavalry Regiment (1855) to carry out a punitive expedition under the command of Colonel Edwin V. Sumner . He went against the Cheyenne in the spring of 1857. Major John Sedgwick led part of the expedition up the Arkansas River , and via Fountain Creek to

3120-535: The South Platte River . Sumner's command went west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the Front Range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne. Under the influence of the medicine man White Bull (also called Ice) and Grey Beard (also called Dark), the Cheyenne went into battle believing that strong spiritual medicine would prevent

3224-545: The -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively. Thus: Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme /-hte/ , which changes to -htse after the ná- pronominal, -stse after ne- and -tse in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether. These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker. Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to

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3328-739: The Black Hills in South Dakota. They fought their historic enemies, the Crow and later (1856–79) the United States Army . In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some bands choosing to remain near the Black Hills, while others chose to remain near the Platte Rivers of central Colorado. With the Arapaho , the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains. In turn, they were pushed west by

3432-814: The Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the Great Plains between the North Platte River and the Arkansas. This territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of the Rockies and north of the Arkansas River; Wyoming and Nebraska , south of the North Platte River; and extreme western Kansas . In April 1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present-day Casper, Wyoming ), resulted in

3536-415: The Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the Kiowa to the south. By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the Black Hills . In 1804, Lewis and Clark visited a surviving Cheyenne village in what is now North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne and did not realize how the different sections were forming

3640-530: The Cheyenne homeland is Tsistano . The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language , known as Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse (common spelling: Tsisinstsistots). Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma. There are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters. The Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group. Formerly,

3744-756: The Cheyenne language: As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare matšėškōme 'raccoon' and mátšėškomeo'o  'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: ma'háhko'e (sg.), ma'háhko'eo'o (pl.) The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, * n and * h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before * k . * k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there

3848-413: The Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs. The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate

3952-710: The Cheyenne, he distributed their annuities to the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but the Army ordered him to Utah because of an outbreak of trouble with the Mormons (this would be known as the Utah War ). The Cheyenne moved below the Arkansas into Kiowa and Comanche country. In the fall, the Northern Cheyenne returned to their country north of the Platte. Starting in 1859 with

4056-658: The Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache ended in 1840 when the tribes allied with each other. The new alliance allowed the Cheyenne to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and northeastern New Mexico to hunt bison and trade. Their expansion in the south and alliance with the Kiowa led to their first raid into Mexico in 1853. The raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from Mexican lancers, resulting in all but three of

4160-571: The Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and US soldiers. The Arapaho were present with the Cheyenne at the Sand Creek Massacre when a peaceful encampment of mostly women, children, and the elderly were attacked and massacred by US soldiers. Both major divisions of the Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne were allies to the Arapaho who like the Cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions. The Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho were assigned to

4264-679: The Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission had successful negotiations with the Otoe , the Pawnee and the Omaha . Increased traffic of emigrants along the related Oregon , Mormon and California trails, beginning in the early 1840s, heightened competition with Native Americans for scarce resources of water and game in arid areas. With resource depletion along the trails, the Cheyenne became increasingly divided into

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4368-710: The Eastern Woodland tribes were village bands, which were led by one chief. In the Eastern Woodlands Algonquian-speaking societies, patrilineal clans had names associated with animal totems; these clans comprised the village bands. The Eastern Woodlands Iroquoian-speaking societies had a matrilineal kinship system, with inheritance and property passed through the mother's line. The Iroquoian village-bands were also composed of numerous clans. Individuals would marry outside their clan to form exogamous clans. They considered themselves to be sibling with

4472-458: The Eastern Woodlands were peoples of the Adena and Hopewell cultures, the term for a variety of peoples, speaking different languages, who inhabited the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys between 800 BC and 800 AD, and were connected by trading and communication routes. The cultures had a tradition of building earthwork mounds and, in some cases, large shaped constructions known as effigy mounds. They had

4576-560: The Kiowa, Comanche, Ute , Plains Apache , Osage , Wichita , various Apache tribes, and Navajo . Many of the enemies the Cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally, such as on a long-distance raid or hunt. Some of their enemies, particularly the Eastern Plains tribe such as the Pawnee and Osage would act as Indian Scouts for the US Army, providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding Cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to US soldiers. Some of their enemies such as

4680-731: The Lakota would later in their history become their strong allies, helping the Cheyenne fight against the United States Army during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876 . The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache became allies of the Cheyenne towards the end of the Indian wars on the Southern Plains, fighting together during conflicts such as the Red River War . The Cheyenne and Arapaho formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on

4784-517: The Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring Mandan , Hidatsa (Tsé-heše'émâheónese, "people who have soil houses "), and Arikara people (Ónoneo'o), adopting many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes to move into the Black Hills and Powder River Country . About 1730, they introduced the horse to Lakota bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced

4888-737: The Missouri, they negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including the Arikara , the Cheyenne, the Crow, the Mandan , the Ponca , and several bands of the Lakota and Dakota. At that time, the US had competition on the upper Missouri from British traders, who came south from Canada. The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United States, vowed perpetual friendship between

4992-463: The North Platte and Yellowstone rivers. The groups became the Southern Cheyenne, or Sówoníă (Southerners), and the Northern Cheyenne, or O'mǐ'sǐs (Eaters). The two divisions maintained regular and close contact. In the southern portion of their territory, the Cheyenne and Arapaho warred with the allied Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along

5096-633: The Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on the reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely endangered " in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the UNESCO . In Montana

5200-403: The Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, where they could have adequate territory for sustenance. During the California Gold Rush , emigrants brought in cholera . It spread in mining camps and waterways due to poor sanitation. The disease was generally a major cause of death for emigrants, about one-tenth of whom died during their journeys. Perhaps from traders, the cholera epidemic reached

5304-414: The Plains Indians in 1849, resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of that year. Historians estimate about 2,000 Cheyenne died, one-half to two-thirds of their population. There were significant losses among other tribes as well, which weakened their social structures. Perhaps because of severe loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent's Fort was abandoned and burned. In 1846, Thomas Fitzpatrick

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5408-509: The Plains, the government officials "assigned" territories to each tribe and had them pledge mutual peace. In addition, the government secured permission to build and maintain roads for European-American travelers and traders through Indian country on the Plains, such as the Emigrant Trail and the Santa Fe Trail , and to maintain forts to guard them. The tribes were compensated with annuities of cash and supplies for such encroachment on their territories. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 affirmed

5512-442: The Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people. The Só'taeo'o prophet Tomȯsévėséhe ("Erect Horns") received the Ésevone (aka Is'siwun – " Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle ") at Tȯhóonévose (″Stone Hammer Mountain″) near the Great Lakes in the present state of Minnesota. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)

5616-432: The Smoky Hill and Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where there were plentiful buffalo. Efforts to make a wider peace continued, but in the spring of 1864, John Evans , governor of Colorado Territory, and John Chivington , commander of the Colorado Volunteers, a citizens militia , began a series of attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed any Indian on sight and initiated

5720-468: The Só'taeo'o (Só'taétaneo'o) or Suhtai (Sutaio) bands of Southern and Northern Cheyenne spoke Só'taéka'ėškóne or Só'taenėstsestȯtse , a language so close to Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse (Cheyenne language), that it is sometimes termed a Cheyenne dialect. The earliest written record of the Cheyenne was in the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the French Fort Crevecoeur , near present-day Peoria, Illinois . The Cheyenne at this time lived between

5824-441: The Só'taeo'o called He'emo. The Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas prophet Motsé'eóeve (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called Sweet Medicine) received the Maahótse ( (Sacred) Arrows Bundle ) at Nóávóse (″medicine(sacred)-hill″, name for Bear Butte , northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota, which they carried when they waged tribal-level war and were kept in the maahéome (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized

5928-446: The Tsétsêhéstâhese and merged with them after 1832. The Suhtai had slightly different speech and customs from the Tsétsêhéstâhese. The name "Cheyenne" derives from the Lakota Sioux exonym Šahíyena meaning "little Šahíya ". The identity of the Šahíya is not known, but many Great Plains tribes assume that it means Cree or another people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree and Cheyenne. The Cheyenne name for Ojibwe

6032-408: The US and the tribes, and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade, the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return stolen horses or other goods or compensate the owner. The commission's efforts to contact the Blackfoot and the Assiniboine were unsuccessful. During their return to Fort Atkinson at

6136-434: The Washita River in 1836 with the Kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 Cheyenne warriors of the Bowstring society. In summer 1838, many Cheyenne and Arapaho attacked a camp of Kiowa and Comanche along Wolf Creek in Oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides. Among the losses were White Thunder (keeper of the Medicine Arrows and Owl Woman's father), Flat-War-Club (Cheyenne), and Sleeping Wolf (Kiowa). Conflict with

6240-437: The addition of an affix to the basic verb stem. There are also several instrumental , locative and adverbial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction. This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right. All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure. The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm: Cheyenne represents

6344-426: The already established Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming with their former enemies the Shoshone . In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the Upper Missouri River by a US treaty commission consisting of General Henry Atkinson and Indian agent Benjamin O'Fallon , accompanied by a military escort of 476 men. General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner left Fort Atkinson on May 16, 1825. Ascending

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6448-453: The ancient Cheyenne villages is Biesterfeldt Village , in eastern North Dakota along the Sheyenne River . They first reached the Missouri River in 1676. A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the Ojibwe defeated the Dakota with firearms — pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766. On

6552-430: The animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself. Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object. All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI). Following are

6656-402: The band was hostile or friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the band, was not part of the war party but the peace party within the Cheyenne nation. But, he did not command absolute authority over members of his band and the European Americans did not understand this. When younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European Americans blamed the entire band for

6760-455: The compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide. In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5–10-year-olds, while

6864-404: The death of between 150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers. There warriors smoked the war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho. In January 1865, they planned and carried out a retaliatory attack with about 1000 warriors on Camp Rankin,

6968-412: The enforcement of laws within the nation. Each of the six distinct warrior societies of the Cheyenne took turns leadering the nation. The four original military societies of the Cheyenne were the Swift Fox Society, Elk Horn Scrapper or Crooked Lance Society, Shield Society, and the Bowstring Men Society. The fifth society is split between the Crazy Dog Society and the famous Dog Soldiers . The sixth society

7072-642: The first person plural pronoun. Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm. Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality. The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011) and Mithun (1999). This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of evidentiality . This order governs

7176-454: The government's orders, some of its members had been linked to raiding into Kansas by bands operating out of the Indian Territory . Custer claimed 103 Cheyenne "warriors" and an unspecified number of women and children killed whereas different Cheyenne informants named between 11 and 18 men (mostly 10 Cheyenne, 2 Arapaho, 1 Mexican trader) and between 17 and 25 women and children killed in the village. There are conflicting claims as to whether

7280-479: The historic Ojibwe , grew wild rice and relied on it as one of their major food sources. The type of animals these tribes hunted depended on the geographic location of the tribe. For example, the tribes located close to the coast hunted seals, porpoises, and whales, while the more inland tribes hunted deer, moose, and caribou. The meat was either cooked to be eaten immediately or was smoke-dried, to preserve it for later consumption. The largest political unit among

7384-428: The incidents and casualties. Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands The Eastern Woodlands is a cultural area of the Indigenous people of North America . The Eastern Woodlands extended roughly from the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern Great Plains , and from the Great Lakes region to the Gulf of Mexico , which is now part of the Eastern United States and Canada . The Plains Indians culture area

7488-503: The keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat. The pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of Poteau, Oklahoma who in 1911 gave

7592-620: The language and culture to ensure authenticity. In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $ 50,000 language preservation planning grant . The department wanted to use this money to assess the degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use

7696-415: The more numerous Lakota . The Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésėhese, meaning "Northern Eaters" (or simply as Ohmésėhese meaning "Eaters"), live in southeastern Montana on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation . Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately 10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation. Approximately 91% of

7800-532: The most common object agreement markers for each verb class. Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix -sâa- immediately after the pronominal affix. This morpheme changes to sáa- in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions. Nouns are classified according to animacy. They change according to grammatical number (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to gender or definiteness . When two third persons are referred to by

7904-537: The name Tsitsistas (Tsétsėhéstȧhese), which the Cheyenne call themselves, is uncertain. According to the Cheyenne dictionary offered online by Chief Dull Knife College , there is no consensus and various origins and translation of the word have been proposed. Grinnell's record is typical and states, "They call themselves Tsistsistas [sic, Tsitsistas is the correct pronunciation], which the books commonly give as meaning "people". It most likely means related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people, or us. The term for

8008-437: The new generation and counter language and culture loss. Cheyenne has three basic vowel qualities /e a o/ . The phoneme called /e/ here is usually pronounced as a phonetic [ɪ] , and sometimes varies to [ɛ] . These vowel qualities take four tones : high tone as in á [á] ); low tone as in a [à] ; mid tone as in ā [ā] ; and rising tone as in ô [ǒ] . Tones are often not represented in

8112-541: The north and west of Cheyenne territory. By the help of the Medicine Arrows (the Mahuts), the Cheyenne tribe massacred a Crow camp in 1820 . To the east of Cheyenne Territory they fought with the Lakota , Dakota , Pawnee , Ponca , Kaw , Iowa , Ho-Chunk , and Omaha (Onéhao'o). The Pawnee captured the Cheyenne's Sacred Arrows during an attack on a hunting camp around 1830. South of Cheyenne territory they fought with

8216-461: The number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there were approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there were fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language. The 2017 film Hostiles features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in

8320-440: The orthography. Vowels can also be voiceless (e.g. ė [e̥] ). The high and low tones are phonemic , while voiceless vowels' occurrence is determined by the phonetic context , making them allophones of the voiced vowels. The Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation orthography ". In other words, it

8424-430: The other indicating delayed action. The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language, to the point that even adjectives and even some nouns are largely substantive in nature. Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as modality , person and transitivity , as well as the animacy of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by

8528-627: The other individuals within the exogamous clan. Cheyenne language The Cheyenne language ( Tsėhesenėstsestȯtse , [tse̥hésene̥stsesto̥tse] , informal spelling Tsisinstsistots ) is the Native American language spoken by the Cheyenne people , predominantly in present-day Montana and Oklahoma , in the United States . It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all other Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative polysynthetic morphology . This language

8632-475: The participants of an expression not as separate pronoun words but as affixes on the verb . There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne: These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix ná- can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive. Tense in Cheyenne

8736-683: The pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negotiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf. After being pushed south and westward by the Lakota, the Cheyenne began to establish new territory. Around 1811, the Cheyenne formally allied with the Arapaho people (Hetanevo'eo'o), which would remain strong throughout their history and into

8840-570: The plains and the Utes of the mountains. US negotiations with Black Kettle and other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the Treaty of Fort Wise : it established a small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to live and hunt on their traditional grounds in

8944-524: The plains. Like the Cheyenne, the Arapaho language is an Algonquian language , although the two languages are not mutually intelligible. The Arapaho remained strong allies with the Cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the Lakota and Dakota during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876, also known commonly as the Black Hills War. On the Southern Plains, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allied with

9048-478: The population are Native Americans (full or part race), with 72.8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne. Slightly more than one-quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne , known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People", together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes , in western Oklahoma. Their combined population

9152-554: The presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns. These forms could be likened to a kind of passive voice , although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed. This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms. Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by

9256-480: The present. The alliance helped the Cheyenne expand their territory that stretched from southern Montana, through most of Wyoming, the eastern half of Colorado, far western Nebraska, and far western Kansas. By 1820, American traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at present-day Denver, Colorado , and on the Arkansas River. The Cheyenne likely hunted and traded in Denver much earlier. They may have migrated to

9360-469: The same reservation in Oklahoma Indian Territory and remained together as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes after the reservation was opened to American settlement and into modern times. The Northern Arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the Cheyenne; however, the US federal government failed to provide them with either and placed them on

9464-439: The same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person." It is essentially an "out of focus" third person. As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun. If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically -o or -óho . For example: Verbs register

9568-471: The second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country. He left the large camp and returned with 80 lodges of his tribesmen to the Arkansas River, where he intended to seek peace with the US. Four years later, on November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer and his troops attacked Black Kettle's band at the Battle of Washita River . Although his band was camped on a defined reservation, complying with

9672-718: The second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed a law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana , at Southwestern Oklahoma State University , and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma . There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by

9776-483: The soldiers' guns from firing. They were told that if they dipped their hands in a nearby spring, they had only to raise their hands to repel army bullets. Hands raised, the Cheyenne surrounded the advancing troops as they advanced near the Solomon River . Sumner ordered a cavalry charge and the troops charged with drawn sabers; the Cheyenne fled. With tired horses after long marches, the cavalry could not engage more than

9880-470: The south for winter. The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far south as the Cimarron River Valley. In response to the construction of Bent's Fort by Charles Bent , a non-Native trader and ally, a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area. The other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of

9984-526: The specific coups required to become a war chief. Specific warrior societies evolved. Each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society. Often, societies would have minor rivalries; however, they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy. Military societies played an important role in Cheyenne government. Society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and

10088-459: The structure of Cheyenne society, their military or war societies led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the Council of Forty-four peace chiefs. The latter was formed from four véhoo'o (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal manaho ( bands ) and an additional four ″Old Man″ meetings to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the Sun Dance . Sweet Medicine

10192-456: The upper Missouri River into what is now Wyoming , Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e ("Sacred Buffalo Hat") is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The Tséá'enōvȧhtse (″Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper″ or ″Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat″) must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with

10296-438: The value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules. Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. [x]

10400-648: The verb stem. Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample. This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part. Thus: énėše'xahtse ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'. Following is a sample of medial suffixes: Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in: ka'énė-hôtame [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog' Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon

10504-467: The war party being killed. To the north, the Cheyenne allied with the Lakota, which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the Black Hills. By heading into the Rocky Mountains, they managed to escape the 1837–39 smallpox epidemics that swept across the plains from white settlements but were greatly affected by the 1849 cholera epidemic. Contact with Euro-Americans

10608-464: The wounding of a Cheyenne warrior. He returned to the Cheyenne on the plains. During the summer of 1856, Indians attacked travelers along the Emigrant Trail near Fort Kearny. In retaliation, the US Cavalry attacked a Cheyenne camp on Grand Island in Nebraska . They killed ten Cheyenne warriors and wounded eight or more. Cheyenne parties attacked at least three emigrant settler parties before returning to

10712-466: Was appointed US Indian agent for the upper Arkansas and Platte River . His efforts to negotiate with the Northern Cheyenne, the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at Fort Laramie in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and David Dawson Mitchell, US Superintendent of Indian Affairs , with the Indians of the northern plains . To reduce intertribal warfare on

10816-553: Was mostly light, with most contact involving mountain men, traders, explorers, treaty makers, and painters. Like many other Plains Indian nations, the Cheyenne were a horse and warrior people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors. A warrior in Cheyenne society is not a fighter but also a protector, provider, and leader. Warriors gained rank in Cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as counting coups . The title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of

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