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149-509: In 1555, the runestone was moved from a barrow to the Tryggevælde estate on Zealand . It came to Copenhagen in 1810. There are several holes on the runestone, but no one knows why. Ragnhild, who raised the runestone, also had Glavendrup stone (DR 209) made after another husband named Alle. That runestone is located at a barrow and a stone ship in Glavendrup on the island of Funen . Both

298-508: A Spartan noblewoman is known to have trained horse-teams for the Olympics and won two races, one of them as driver. In ancient Rome, chariot racing was the most popular of many subsidised public entertainments, and was an essential component in several religious festivals. Roman chariot drivers had very low social status, but were paid a fee simply for taking part. Winners were celebrated and well paid for their victories, regardless of status, and

447-408: A long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials , such as passage graves . A round barrow is a round tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows have a broad range; the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen , a cist ,

596-472: A mortuary enclosure , a mortuary house , or a chamber tomb . Examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe . The word tumulus is Latin for 'mound' or 'small hill', which is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root * teuh 2 - with extended zero grade * tum- , 'to bulge, swell' also found in tomb , tumor , tumescent , thumb , thigh , and thousand . The funeral of Patroclus

745-898: A bird figurine, a lizard figurine, a crocodile figurine), and is situated within the Mali Empire . The word kurgan is of Turkic origin, and derives from Proto-Turkic *Kur- ("to erect (a building), to establish"). In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of Varangian chieftains, such as the Black Grave in Ukrainian Chernihiv (excavated in the 19th century), Oleg 's Grave in Russian Staraya Ladoga , and vast, intricate Rurik's Hill near Russian Novgorod . Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient steppe peoples, notably

894-590: A chariot race is in Homer 's poetic account of the funeral games for Patroclus , in the Iliad , combining practices from the author's own time (c. 8th century) with accounts based on a legendary past. The participants in this race were drawn from leading figures among the Greeks; Diomedes of Argos , the poet Eumelus , the Achaean prince Antilochus , King Menelaus of Sparta , and

1043-633: A citizen was murdered in the church of Hagia Sophia. Long-running factional disorder culminated in the Nika riots of 532 AD, against the backdrop of scheduled chariot races on the Ides of January , and factional "discontent" at political corruption and mismanagement. The Blues and Greens united and attempted but failed to overthrow the emperor; thousands were killed by the Byzantine military in retribution, including many ordinary citizens. The Byzantine historian Procopius saw

1192-586: A copper wire with hooks for interlocking, solid gold bangle with incurved ends, ageta and gold beads, along with a considerable assemblage of pottery. Another type of mound burial is Maidam in Assam , India. The Ahom kingdom in medieval Assam built octagonal -shaped tumuli called Maidams for their kings and high officials. The kings were buried in a hillock at Charaideo in Sibsagar district of Assam, whereas other Maidams are found scattered more widely. The damb

1341-520: A crash on Menelaus . Race winners were celebrated throughout the Greek festival circuit, both on their own account and on behalf of their cities. In the classical era, other great festivals emerged in Asia Minor , Magna Graecia , and the mainland, providing the opportunity for cities to compete for honour and renown, and for their athletes to gain fame and riches. Apart from the Olympics, the most notable were

1490-470: A deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with random earth to form a domical shape. There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1 mound, bearing a 10- mm thick plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry. The offering in Tumulus-1 consisted of one full necklace of steatite stringed in

1639-531: A few towns. The Circus Maximus was still adequately maintained for use, though for what purposes is uncertain. The last known beast-hunt there was in 523. The last recorded race there was in 549 AD, staged by the Ostrogothic king, Totila ; whether this was a display of horsemanship or a chariot-race is not known Most Roman chariot drivers, and many of their supporters, belonged to one of four factions; social and business organisations that raised money to sponsor

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1788-407: A full-sized racing stadium, the chariots could reach high speeds along the straights, then overturn or be crushed along with their horses and driver by the following chariots as they wheeled around the post. Driving into an opponent to make him crash was technically illegal, but most crashes were accidental and often unavoidable. In Homer's account of Patroclus' funeral games, Antilochus inflicts such

1937-445: A high-standing Aboriginal man's burial mound and associated carved trees; these carvings on the trees were made around the mound, facing the burial. "The form of the whole was semi-circular. Three rows of seats occupied one half, the grave and an outer row of seats the other; the seats formed segments of circles of fifty, forty-five, and forty feet each, and were formed by the soil being trenched up from between them. The centre part of

2086-515: A large mound the size of the house, as described by V. Fernandes. Levtzion also acknowledged the cultural similarities between the monarchic tumuli-building traditions and practices (e.g., monumental Senegambian megaliths ) of West Africa, such as Senegambia , Inland Niger Delta , and Mali , and the Nile Valley ; these monarchic tumuli-building practices span the Sudanian savanna as manifestations of

2235-555: A life expectancy of approximately 40 years. Babies were generally buried at and outside the ring-wall. The average number of children per family was 1.6 persons. A tumulus forms the center of the ancient megalithic structure of Rujm el-Hiri in the Golan Heights . Rujm in Arabic can mean tumulus, cairn or stone heap. Near the western city limits of modern Jerusalem , 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958). Though first noticed in

2384-509: A living on stage, arena or racetrack were infames , the best of them could earn popular and elite support that verged on adoration, and near-fabulous wealth if not respectability. Juvenal bewailed that the earnings of the charioteer Lacerta were a hundred times more than a lawyer's fee. Emperors who took the reins as charioteer, or promoted drivers to elite status or freely mixed with arenarii —as did Caligula , Nero and Elagabalus , for example—were also notoriously "bad" rulers. Two jurists of

2533-624: A mask of Ancient Greek design. Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern Sahara , tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BC in the Saharan region of Niger . Fekri Hassan (2002) indicates that the megalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the mastabas and pyramids of ancient Egypt . The prehistoric tradition of monarchic tumuli -building

2682-516: A minority among chariot racing enthusiasts as a whole. In Byzantium as elsewhere, racing fans cheered on their favorite charioteers, and sought out the company of like-minded supporters. Charioteers could change their factional allegiance but their fans did not necessarily follow them. Semi-permanent alliances of Blues ( Βένετοι , Vénetoi ) and Greens ( Πράσινοι , Prásinoi ) overshadowed the Whites ( Λευκοὶ , Leukoí ) and Reds ( Ῥούσιοι , Rhoúsioi ). In

2831-448: A move to suppress paganism and promote Christianity. Gladiator contests were eventually abandoned, but chariot racing and theatrical entertainments remained popular. The Church did not, or perhaps could not, prevent them, although prominent Christian writers attacked them. Justinian I 's reformed legal code specifically prohibits drivers from placing curses on their opponents, and invites their co-operation in bringing offenders before

2980-426: A parade ( pompa circensis ) that featured the charioteers, music, costumed dancers, and gilded images of the gods , headed by Victoria , goddess of victory. These images were placed on dining couches, which were arranged on a viewing platform ( pulvinar ) to observe the races, which were nominally held in their honour. The sponsor or editor of the races shared the pulvinar with these divine images. In

3129-467: A part in Rome's foundation myth and local politics. Consuls were obliged to subsidise races at the beginning and end of their annual terms, as a sort of tax on their office and a gift to the people of Rome. Races on January 1 accompanied the renewal of loyalty vows; emperors gave annual games on the anniversary of their succession, and on their own and other imperial birthdays. Chariot races were preceded by

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3278-438: A procession into the hippodrome, while a herald announced the names of the drivers and owners. The tethrippon consisted of twelve laps. The most immediate and challenging aspect of the races for drivers, judges and stewards was ensuring a fair start, and keeping false starts and crushes to a minimum. Then as now, the marshalling of over-excited racehorses could prove a major difficulty. Various mechanical devices were used to reduce

3427-706: A racing chariot was thought a very low class occupation, beneath the dignity of any citizen, but making money from it was truly disgraceful, so investors of high social status usually resorted to negotiations discreetly through agents, rather than risk losing reputation, status and privilege through infamia . No contemporary source describes these factions as official, but unlike many unofficial organisations in Rome, they were evidently tolerated as useful and effective rather than feared as secretive and potentially subversive. Tertullian claims that there were originally just two factions, White and Red, sacred to winter and summer respectively. By his time, there were four factions;

3576-527: A single afternoon, presumably by drastically lowering the number of laps from the standard 7. Twenty four races in a single day became the norm, until the slow collapse of Rome's economy in the West, when costs rose, sponsors were lost and racetracks were abandoned. In the 4th century AD, 24 races were held every day on 66 days each year. By the end of that century, public entertainments in Italy had come to an end in all but

3725-576: A traditional "pagan" practice and advised Christians not to participate. Soon after the end of the Roman Empire in the West, the influential Christian scholar, administrator and historian Cassiodorus describes chariot racing as an instrument of the Devil. Most cities had at least one dedicated chariot racing circuit. The city of Rome had several; its main centre was the Circus Maximus which developed on

3874-673: A trans-Sahelian common culture and heritage. From the 5th millennium BCE to the 14th century CE, earthen and stone tumuli were developed between Senegambia and Chad . Among 10,000 burial mounds in Senegambia, 3,000 megalithic burial mounds in Senegambia were constructed between 200 BCE and 100 CE, and 7,000 earthen burial mounds in Senegal were constructed in the 2nd millennium CE. Between 1st century CE and 15th century CE, megalithic monuments without tumuli were constructed. Megalithic and earthen Senegambian tumuli, which may have been constructed by

4023-427: A treasured "trace" horse. A chariot's "trace" horses partly pulled the chariot and partly guided it, as flankers to the central pair, who were yoked to the chariot and provided both speed and power. A left-side trace horse's steady performance could mean the difference between victory and disaster; mares were thought the steadiest. Left-side trace horses were the closest to the spina , and are most likely to be named in

4172-673: A tumulus. More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two LMLK seal impressions and two other handles with associated concentric circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King Hezekiah or his son Manasseh . Round mound burials are associated with megalithic burials in India. Most megalithic mounds with chambers found today have been disturbed over centuries and their original form

4321-410: A white cloth; all the gates sprang open at the same time, allowing a fair start for all participants. Races were run counter-clockwise; starting positions were allocated by lottery. The spina carried lap-counters, in the form of eggs or dolphins; the eggs were suggestive of Castor and Pollux , the mythic dioscuri , one human and one divine. They were born from an egg, divine patrons of horsemen and

4470-655: Is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids. Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the Silk Road . Tumuli are one of the most prominent types of prehistoric monuments spread throughout northern and southern Albania . Some well-known local tumuli are: More than 50 burial mounds were found in Kupres. Man from Kupres –

4619-594: Is Daisen-ryo Kofun, or more commonly Nintoku-ryo Kofun, with a length of 840 metres. In addition to other shapes, kofun includes a keyhole shape, typically seen in Daisen Kofun. Foreign museums possess some grave goods. The first burial mounds in Korea were dolmens , which contained material from cultures of the 1st millennium AD, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the society elite. The most famous tumuli in Korea, dating around 300 AD, are those left behind by

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4768-463: Is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows , burial mounds or (in Siberia and Central Asia) kurgans , and may be found throughout much of the world. A cairn , which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape. In this respect,

4917-624: Is called "Bin Tepeler" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of Salihli district of Manisa province . The site is very close to the southern shoreline of Lake Marmara (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a Lydian necropolis that dates back to 7th and 6th centuries BC. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia", as a giant specimen among them is 355 metres in diameter, 1115 metres in perimeter and 69 metres high. According to Herodotus , this giant tumulus belongs to

5066-415: Is described in book 23 of Homer 's Iliad . Patroclus is burned on a pyre , and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre. Achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race , boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulf 's body in

5215-507: Is documented in inscriptions and in curse tablets . Charioteers occupied a peculiar position in Roman society. If originally citizens, their chosen career made infames of them, denying them many of the privileges, protections and dignities of full citizenship. Undertakers, prostitutes and pimps, butchers, executioners, and heralds were considered infamous, for various reasons; but although gladiators, actors, charioteers and any others who earned

5364-510: Is proposed to understand nature of burial mounds in this part of Australia. Salweyn in Northern Somalia contains a very large field of cairns , which stretches for a distance of around 8 km. An excavation of one of these tumuli by Georges Révoil in 1881 uncovered a tomb, beside which were artefacts pointing to an ancient, advanced civilization. The interred objects included pottery shards from Samos , some well-crafted enamels , and

5513-532: Is shared by both the West African Sahel and the Middle Nile regions. Ancient Egyptian pyramids of the early dynastic period and Meroitic Kush pyramids are recognized by Faraji (2022) as part of and derived from an earlier architectural " Sudanic - Sahelian " tradition of monarchic tumuli, which are characterized as "earthen pyramids" or "proto-pyramids." Faraji (2022) characterized Nobadia as

5662-908: Is the translation accepted by Rundata. However, the use of warlock is not that the destroyer would gain any magical powers, but be considered to be unnatural and a social outcast. The concept that being a warlock or sorcerer was an evil perversion predated the conversion of Scandinavia to Christianity . This inscription is the first mention of the Old Scandinavian ship type skeið . The lines: raknhiltr Ragnhildr, Ragnhildr, '     sustiʀ systir systiʀ '     ulfs Ulfs, Ulfs, '     sati setti satti '     stain stein sten ¶     þnnsi þenna þænsi '     auk ok ok '     karþi gerði Tumulus A tumulus ( pl. : tumuli )

5811-468: The Commagene King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene who ruled between 69 and 40 BC. This tumulus is made of broken stone pieces, which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west, and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters in height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from

5960-455: The Equestrian order . Dolphins were thought to be the swiftest of all creatures; they symbolised Neptune , god of the sea, earthquakes and horses. The spina bore water-feature elements, blended with decorative and architectural features. It eventually became very elaborate, with temples, statues and obelisks and other forms of art, though the addition of these multiple adornments obstructed

6109-493: The Inland Niger Delta , 11th century CE and 15th century CE tumuli at El Oualedji and Koï Gourrey contained various bones (e.g., human, horse), human items (e.g., beads, bracelets, rings), and animal items (e.g., bells, harnesses , plaques). Cultural similarities were also found with a Malinke king of Gambia , who along with his senior queen, human subjects within his kingdom, and his weapons, were buried in his home under

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6258-988: The Isthmian Games in Corinth , the Nemean Games , the Pythian Games in Delphi, and the Panathenaic Games in Athens , where the winner of the four-horse chariot race was awarded 140 amphorae of olive oil , a highly valued commodity. Prizes elsewhere included corn in Eleusis , bronze shields in Argos , and silver vessels in Marathon . Winning Greek athletes, no matter their social status, were greatly honoured by their own communities. Chariot racing at

6407-467: The Olympic hippodrome of the second century AD, when Greece was part of the Roman Empire. The perimeter groundplan, southeast of the sanctuary itself, was approximately 780 meters long and 320 meters wide. Competitors raced from the starting-place counter-clockwise around the nearest (western) turning post, then turned at the eastern turning post and headed back west. The number of circuits varied according to

6556-620: The Scythians (e.g., Chortomlyk, Pazyryk ) and early Indo-Europeans (e.g., Ipatovo kurgan ) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into Central Asia , in particular Kazakhstan . It is constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe , kurgans spread into much of Central Asia and Eastern , Southeast , Western and Northern Europe during

6705-531: The Serer people may have created tumuli (before 13th century AD), shell middens (7th century AD – 13th century AD) in the central-west region, and shell middens (200 BC – Present) in the southern region. The funerary tumuli-building tradition of West Africa was widespread and a regular practice amid 1st millennium AD. More than ten thousand large funerary tumuli exist in Senegal. At the Inner Niger Delta , in

6854-622: The Western Roman Empire after the fall of Rome ; the last known race there was staged in the Circus Maximus in 549, by the Ostrogothic king, Totila . In the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire , the traditional Roman chariot-racing factions continued to play a prominent role in mass entertainment, religion and politics for several centuries. Supporters of the Blue teams vied with supporters of

7003-516: The Wolof people ( Serer people ) or Sosse people ( Mande peoples ). Sudanese tumuli (e.g., Kerma , C-Group ), which date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE, share cultural similarities with Senegambian tumuli . Between the 6th century CE and 14th century CE, stone tumuli circles, which at a single site usually encircle a burial site of half-meter that is covered by a burial mound, were constructed in Komaland;

7152-459: The hero Meriones . The race, which was one lap around the stump of a tree, was won by Diomedes, who received a slave woman and a cauldron as his prize. A chariot race also was said to be the event that founded the Olympic Games ; according to one legend, mentioned by Pindar , King Oenomaus challenged suitors for his daughter Hippodamia to a race, but was defeated by Pelops , who founded

7301-647: The "last pharaonic culture of the Nile Valley" and described mound tumuli as being "the first architectural symbol of the sovereign's return and reunification with the primordial mound upon his death." Faraji (2022) indicates that there may have been a cultural expectation of "postmortem resurrection " associated with tumuli in the funerary traditions of the West African Sahel (e.g., northern Ghana , northern Nigeria , Mali ) and Nile Valley (e.g., Ballana , Qustul , Kerma , Kush ). Based on artifacts found in

7450-459: The "law of the place" allowed most to sit together, which for the Augustan poet Ovid presented opportunities for seduction. The circus was one of few places where the populace could assemble in vast numbers, and exercise the freedom of speech associated with theatre factions and claques , voicing support or criticism of their rulers and each other. The charioteers had to keep to their own lanes for

7599-575: The 13th century CE and the 16th century CE, may have connection to tumuli from Ballana and Makuria . Tumuli have also been found at Kissi , in Burkina Faso , and at Daima , in Nigeria . In Niger , there are two monumental tumuli – a cairn burial (5695 BP – 5101 BP) at Adrar Bous , and a tumulus covered with gravel (6229 BP – 4933 BP) at Iwelen, in the Aïr Mountains . Tenerians did not construct

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7748-450: The 177 days of religious festival games scheduled in a late Roman Calendar of 354 . Races were held as part of triumphal processions, foundation anniversary rites and funeral games subsidised by magnates during the Regal and Republican eras, and by the emperors during the imperial era. According to Roman legend , Rome in its earliest days was faced with a lack of marriagable women. Romulus ,

7897-463: The 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by William Foxwell Albright , and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by Gabriel Barkay in 1983. These tumuli are sometimes associated with the Judean kings who ruled Jerusalem, but no such connection has yet been substantiated, nor have any inscriptions naming any specific Judean king been excavated from

8046-720: The 3rd millennium BC. The earliest kurgans date to the 4th millennium BC in the Caucasus, and researchers associate these with the Indo-Europeans . Kurgans were built in the Eneolithic , Bronze, Iron, Antiquity and Middle Ages , with ancient traditions still active in Southern Siberia and Central Asia. On the Anatolian peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout

8195-499: The 5th century, the outstanding Byzantine charioteer Porphyrius raced as a "Blue" or a "Green" at various times; he was celebrated by each faction, and by the reigning Emperor, and was honoured with several imperially subsidised monuments on a grand scale in the Hippodrome. While the racing factions, their supporters and the populace at large were overwhelmingly composed of commoners, as in Rome, Cameron (1976) sees no justification for

8344-503: The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre. During cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widow's lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, and filled with treasure. A band of twelve of the best warriors ride around

8493-518: The Circus races and the Theatres, responsible for the production and performance of the chants, theatrical displays and lavish religious ceremonies that accompanied imperial court rituals and chariot races. The acclamations of emperors and of winning charioteers employed much the same triumphalist language, symbolism, honours and pledges of allegiance. From around the mid-fifth century, the support and approval of

8642-606: The Commagene pantheon where divine figures used to embody the Persian and Roman perceptions together. The Dilmun Burial Mounds comprising necropolis areas on the main island of Bahrain dating back to the Dilmun civilization and the Umm al-Nar culture . Each of the tumuli is composed of a central stone chamber that is enclosed by a low ring-wall and covered by earth and gravel. The size of

8791-543: The Games in honour of his victory. The Olympic Games were traditionally founded in 776 BC, by the Eleans , a wealthy, prestigious horse-owning aristocracy. Pindar , the earliest source for the Olympics, includes chariot racing among their five foundation events. Much later, Pausanias claims that chariot races were added only from 680 BC, and that the games were extended from one day to two days to accommodate them. In this tradition,

8940-511: The Glavendrup and Tryggevælde runestones were made by the same runemaster , Sote. The inscription ends with a curse against anyone who would destroy or move the runestone that is similar to the ones found on the Glavendrup stone the Sønder Vinge runestone 2 and the Glemminge stone and the Saleby Runestone in Sweden. There is some disagreement regarding the translation of one of the words in these curses, rita / rata , which has been translated as 'wretch,' 'outcast,' or 'warlock.' Warlock

9089-473: The Greek racing circuits, Victory songs, epigrams and other monuments routinely omit the names of winning drivers. The chariots themselves resembled war chariots, essentially wooden two-wheeled carts with an open back, though by this time chariots were no longer used in battle. Charioteers stood throughout the race. They traditionally wore only a sleeved garment called a xystis , which would have offered at least some protection from crashes and dust. It fell to

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9238-493: The Greens for control of foreign, domestic and religious policies, and imperial subsidies for themselves. Their displays of civil discontent and disobedience culminated in an indiscriminate slaughter of Byzantine citizenry by the military in the Nika riots . Thereafter, rising costs and a failing economy saw the gradual decline of Byzantine chariot racing. Images on pottery show that chariot racing existed in thirteenth century BC Mycenaean Greece . The first literary reference to

9387-452: The Hagia Sophia shows a charioteer named Samonas, performing a victory lap. The graffito, no earlier than 537, includes an engraved cross to seek God's help for the charioteer. Samonas is otherwise unknown. Several earlier Byzantine charioteers are known by name or race records, six of them through short, laudatory verse epigrams ; namely, Anastasius; Julianus of Tyre; Faustinus and his son Constantinus; Uranius; and Porphyrius . Among these,

9536-413: The Korean Baekje , Goguryeo ( Kogyuro / Koguryo ), Silla and Gaya states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day Pyongyang , Ji'an, Jilin , Seoul and Gyeongju . The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at Anak Tomb No. 3 , which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King Gwanggaeto

9685-458: The Mali Lakes Region, there are two monumental tumuli constructed in the time period of the Trans-Saharan trade for the Sahelian kingdoms of West Africa. The El Oualadji monumental tumulus, which dates between 1030 AD and 1220 AD and has two human remains buried with horse remains and various items (e.g., horse harnesses , horse trappings with plaques and bells, bracelets, rings, beads, iron items), may have been, as highlighted by al-Bakri ,

9834-416: The Olympic chariot race, twice as owner and trainer, and at least once as driver. Most charioteers were slaves or hired professionals. Drivers and their horses needed strength, skill, courage, endurance and prolonged, intensive training. Like jockeys, charioteers were ideally slight of build, and therefore often young, but unlike jockeys, they were also tall. The names of very few charioteers are known from

9983-419: The Panathenaic Games included a two-man event, the apobatai , in which one of the team was armoured, and periodically leapt off the moving chariot, ran alongside it, then leapt back on again. The second charioteer took the reins when the apobates jumped out; in the catalogues of winners, the names of both these athletes are given. Images of this contest show warriors, armed with helmets and shields, perched on

10132-479: The Phrygian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. Around 35 tumuli have been excavated so far, ranging in date from the 8th century BC to the 3rd or 2nd century BC. The biggest tumulus at the site is believed to have covered the burial of the famous Phrygian King Midas or that of his father. This mound, called Tumulus MM (for "Midas Mound"), was excavated in 1957 by a team from the University of Pennsylvania Museum, led by Rodney Young and his graduate students . Among

10281-491: The Reds were dedicated to Mars , the Whites to the Zephyrus , the Greens to Mother Earth or spring, and the Blues to the sky and sea or autumn. Each faction could enter up to three chariots in a race. Members of the same faction often collaborated against the other entrants, for example to force them to crash into the spina (a legal and encouraged tactic). The driver's clothing was color-coded in accordance with his faction, which would help distant spectators to keep track of

10430-432: The accompanying rituals was a religious endeavor that emanated from the other elements" that he described, such as "sorcerers, sacred groves, idols, offerings to the dead, and the "tombs of their kings."" Faraji (2022) indicated that the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt, Kerma of Kush , and the Nobadian culture of Ballana were similar to al-Bakrī's descriptions of the Mande tumuli practices of ancient Ghana . In

10579-428: The age of 42, his lifetime winnings reportedly totalled 35,863,120 sesterces (HS), not counting driver's fees. His personal share of this is unknown but Vamplew calculates that even if Diocles' personal winnings were only a tenth part of the declared prize money, this would have yielded him an average annual income of 150,000 HS. Most races and wins were team efforts, results of co-operation between charioteers of

10728-408: The ankles and was fastened high at the waist with a plain belt. Two straps that crossed high at the upper back prevented the xystis from "ballooning" during the race The body of the chariot rested on the axle, so the ride was bumpy. The most exciting parts of the chariot race, at least for the spectators, were the turns at the ends of the hippodrome. These turns were dangerous and sometimes deadly. In

10877-560: The authorities, rather than acting like assassins or vigilantes. This not only reiterates a very longstanding prohibition of witchcraft throughout the Empire but confirms a reputation that charioteers had for living at the very edge of the law, for violent thefts, blackmail and bullying as debt collectors on their masters' behalf, and an easy-going criminality that could extend to the murder of opponents and enemies, disguised as rough but rightful justice. A sixth-seventh century Byzantine graffito in

11026-491: The back of their racing chariots. Some scholars believe that the event preserved traditions of Homeric warfare. The Romans probably borrowed chariot technology and racing track design from the Etruscans , who in turn had borrowed them from the Greeks. Rome's public entertainments were also influenced directly by Greek examples. Chariot racing as a feature of Roman ludi is attested in Rome's foundation myths, and on 66 of

11175-508: The barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also been drawn to the account of Attila 's burial in Jordanes ' Getica . Jordanes tells that as Attila's body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession "halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, and

11324-409: The best could earn more than the wealthiest lawyers and senators. Racing team managers may have competed for the services of particularly skilled drivers and their horses. The drivers could race as individuals, or under team colours: Blue, Green, Red or White. Spectators generally chose to support a single team, and identify themselves with its fortunes. Private betting on the races raised large sums for

11473-545: The burial mound. Many of these mounds today have undergone much change in appearance due to erosion, weathering, wildfires, agriculture, land development and deliberate destruction. Bodies were buried either in a seated-position or in a crouched fetal-position, they were wrapped in layers of pelt-cloaks . Grave goods often included weapons, stone axes, ochre, white clay, stone flakes, bonepoints, necklaces, gridles, headbands and items of ceremonial clothing. An early published account of John Oxley 's excavation describes

11622-905: The carvings were associated with the culture heroes admired by man in life and were thought to provide a pathway for his spirit to return to the sky world. According to Alfred William Howitt these carved trees served both as transit points to allow cultural heroes to ascend to, and descend from, the firmament as well as a means for the deceased to return to the sky world. Some mounds do not contain burials, these mounds are associated with settlement debris. In Northern Territory and in several regions both forms are known. Recently, several mounds in Queensland were investigated with ground-penetrating radar. These mounds were previously associated with settlement debris. Radar study revealed some mounds contained mortuary remains, while other mounds were built over places where ceremonial fires had taken place. Further research

11771-402: The chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses were incapacitated were called naufragia, (a "shipwreck"). The best charioteers could earn a great deal of prize money, in addition to their contracted subsistence pay. The prize money for up to fourth place was advertised beforehand, with first place winning up to 60,000 sesterces. Detailed records were kept of drivers' performances, and

11920-411: The charioteers themselves performed formal, ritualised mimes, or dances, which won them fame and adulation Preparation for races could involve ritualised public dialogues between charioteers, imperial officials and emperors, a prescribed liturgy of questions, answers, and processional orders of precedence. Each race required the emperor's consent. In the eastern provinces, and Constantinople itself,

12069-606: The city's chariot-racing circuit ( hippodrome ), which had been provided by Septimius Severus . As a Christian emperor, or at least one with Christian leanings, Constantine supported and financed Constantinople's chariot racing infrastructure and overheads in preference to gladiatorial combat, which he considered a vestige of paganism . A possibility of spiritual damage through the witnessing of traditional public spectacles had concerned Christian apologists since at least Tertullian 's time. The Olympic Games were eventually ended by Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) in 393, perhaps in

12218-612: The city's founder, invited the Sabine people to celebrate the Consualia , honouring the grain-god Consus with horse races and chariot races at the Circus Maximus . While the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle, Romulus and his men seized the Sabine women . The women eventually married their captors, and were instrumental in persuading Sabines and Romans to unite as one people. Chariot racing thus played

12367-602: The course of the seventh century, in line with the Empire's dwindling economy and loss of territory. After the Nika riots, the factions had become less antagonistic to imperial authority as their importance and roles in imperial ceremony were increased. The iconoclast emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775) deployed both Green and Blue "rowdies" in his anti-monastic campaigns, staging theatrical shows in which monks and nuns were exposed to public ridicule, abuse and forced marriages. The number of races per race-day declined sharply to eight in

12516-683: The crowd, apparently seeing this offer as both humble and magnanimous, found something like a "popular voice" and shifted their collective posture from opposition to support. Byzantium's theatre claques, which already had a reputation for well-organised violence, were now identified with the racing factions, and were thought to represent the rowdiest, most uncontrollable elements among the Blues and Greens. Blue–Green rivalry increasingly erupted into armed and lethal gang warfare. Justin I (r. 518–527) took severe, but apparently indiscriminate, misdirected and ultimately ineffective measures against urban violence after

12665-427: The description of any Byzantine racing faction, racing sponsor or factional ideology as "populist", nor the conflicts between factions and authorities as expressions of "class conflict" or religious squabling on a grand scale. The urban mass disturbances that characterise much of Byzantium's early history were not associated with racing factions until the 5th century, when the imperial government appointed managers of both

12814-511: The driver of the Greek racing chariot were different persons. In 416 BC, the Athenian general Alcibiades had seven chariots in the race, and came in first, second, and fourth; evidently, he could not have been racing all seven chariots himself. Chariot teams were costly to own and train, and the case of Alcibiades shows that for the wealthy, this was an effective and honourable form of self-publicity; they were not expected to risk their own lives. On

12963-457: The earliest evidence for colour factions is from AD 315, coincident with the extension of imperial authority into local government and public life. The cost of financing the races was split between the factions, the state, the Emperors, and senior officials. The annually appointed consuls were obliged to personally fund their own inaugural games. Members of racing factions (known as demes ), were

13112-539: The entire affair as a failure of the Emperor and his authorities to manage their imperial troops and govern their people, and the almost complete lack of a dedicated police force. Civil law reforms enacted by Justinian I in 541 ensured that only emperors or their representatives could subsidise the races; soon after, the emperor Tiberius II Constantine curbed imperial spending on the factions, which further reduced their power and influence. Chariot racing declined further in

13261-605: The entrance-ways to the track. It was thought to be malevolent, as it terrified horses for no apparent reason when they raced past it, and was a major cause of crashes. Pausanias reports that consequently "the charioteers offer sacrifice, and pray that Taraxippus may show himself propitious". It might simply have marked the most dangerous and difficult section of track, at the semi-circular end. Pausanias describes very similar, identically named places in other Greek hippodromes. Their name may have been an epithet of Poseidon , patron deity of horses and horse-racing. Races began with

13410-482: The event. Spectators could watch from natural embankments to the north, and artificial embankments to the south and east. A place on the western side of the north bank was reserved for the judges. Pausanias does not describe a central dividing barrier at Olympia, but archaeologist Vikatou presumes one. Pausanias offers several theories regarding the origins of an object named Taraxippus ("Horse-disturber"), an ancient round altar, tomb or Heroon embedded within one of

13559-465: The excitement and interest for spectators. Most charioteers were slaves or contracted professionals. While records almost invariably credit victorious owners and their horses for winning, their drivers are often not mentioned at all. In the ancient Olympic Games , and other Panhellenic Games , chariot racing was one of the most important equestrian events, and could be watched by unmarried women. Married women were banned from watching any Olympic events but

13708-482: The fact on his coinage, claiming it as divine confirmation of his legitimacy as Greek overlord. Women could win races through ownership, though there was a ban on the participation of married women as competitors or even spectators at the Olympics, supposedly on pain of death; this was not typical of Greek festivals in general, and there is no consistent record of this ban, or the penalty's enforcement. The Spartan Cynisca , daughter of Archidamus II , entered and won

13857-492: The factions in confirming the legitimacy of emperors became a formal requirement. The factions were represented as loyal commoners, or "the people". Social discontent and disturbances in Constantinople tended to focus on the Hippodrome, which was not only ideal for racing but by far the largest and most conveniently designed space for mass meetings and their containment. The structure of the Hippodrome in Constantinople allowed

14006-516: The famous Lydian King Alyattes who ruled between 619 and 560 BC. There is also another mound belonging to King Gyges . The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber has not been found yet. On this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period that belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed on the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around Eşme district of Uşak province . Certain mounds on these sites had been plundered by raiders in

14155-413: The first two laps. Then they were free to jockey for position, cutting across the paths of their competitors, moving as close to the spina as they could, and whenever possible forcing their opponents to find another, much longer route forwards. Every team included a hortator , who rode horseback and signalled their faction's charioteers to help them navigate the dangers of the track. Roman drivers wrapped

14304-512: The foot race of a stadion (approximately 600 feet) offered the greater prestige. Votive offerings associated with Olympic victories include horses and chariots. The single horse race (the keles ) was a late arrival at the games, dropped early in their history. The major chariot-races of the Olympic and other Panhellenic Games, were four-horse ( tethrippon , τέθριππον ) and two-horse ( synoris , συνωρὶς ) events. Pausanias describes

14453-402: The grave was about five feet high, and about nine long, forming an oblong pointed cone. On removing the soil from one end of the tumulus, and about two feet beneath the solid surface of the ground, we came to three or four layers of wood, lying across the grave, serving as an arch to bear the weight of the earthy cone or tomb above. On removing one end of those layers, sheet after sheet of dry bark

14602-415: The head to the east. It had been very carefully wrapped in a great number of opossum [sic] skins, the head bound round with the net usually worn by the natives, and also the girdle: it appeared after being enclosed in those skins to have been placed in a larger net, and then deposited in the manner before mentioned … to the west and north of the grave were two cypress-trees distant between fifty and sixty feet;

14751-593: The hundreds of tumuli present in Dhar Tichitt, compared to a dozen tumuli present in Dhar Walata, it is likely that Dhar Tichitt was the primary center of religion for the people of Tichitt culture. At Wanar , Senegal, megalithic monolith -circles and tumuli (1300/1100 BC – 1400/1500 AD) were constructed by West Africans who had a complex hierarchical society. In the mid-region of the Senegal River Valley,

14900-513: The imperial era, the pulvinar in the Circus Maximus was directly connected to the imperial palace, on the Palatine Hill. Several deities had permanent temples, shrines or images on the dividing barrier ( spina or euripus ) of the circus. While the entertainment value of chariot races tended to overshadow any sacred purpose, in late antiquity the Church Fathers still saw them as

15049-498: The individuals, smallest mounds being 2 to 3 m in diameter and 2 m in height to largest mounds described as an earthen oblong mound resembling ‘a large hillock some 100 feet long, and 50 in height’. Some special or high-standing individuals mound were semi-circular, while most were round. Traditionally, the preparation of the burial site, the carving of trees facing the mound and internment was done by initiated men. Occasionally, long raised mourning seats were constructed along one side of

15198-685: The late 1960s, and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers were smuggled to the United States, which later returned them to Turkish authorities after negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak. Gordium (Gordion) was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Phrygia . Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of Polatlı , near the Turkish capital Ankara . At this site, approximately 80–90 tumuli date back to

15347-508: The later imperial era, and some modern scholars, argue against the legal status of charioteers as infames , on the grounds that athletic competitions were not mere entertainment but "seemed useful" as honourable displays of Roman strength and virtus . Most Roman charioteers started their careers as slaves, who had neither reputation nor honour to lose. Of more than 200 dedications to named charioteers catalogued by Horsmann  [ de ] , more than half are of unknown social status. Of

15496-428: The likelihood of human error. Portable starting gates ( hyspleges , singular: hysplex ), employed a tight cord in a wooden frame, loosened to drop forwards and start the race. According to Pausanias, the chariot furthest from the start-line began to move, followed by the rest in sequence, so that when the final gate was opened, all the chariots would be in motion at the starting line. A bronze eagle (a sign of Zeus , who

15645-575: The many fine bronze artifacts recovered from the wooden burial chamber were 170 bronze vessels, including numerous "omphalos bowls", and more than 180 bronze "Phrygian fibulae " (ancient safety pins). The wooden furniture found in the tomb is especially noteworthy, as wood seldom survives from archaeological contexts: the collection included nine tables, one of them elaborately carved and inlaid, and two ceremonial serving stands inlaid with religious symbols and geometric patterns. Important bronze and wooden artifacts were also found in other tumulus burials at

15794-581: The most eloborate burial mounds are recorded in New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and Western Australia . Most notable burials in New South Wales and Western Australia were studied and excavated by John Oxley (1820), Atkinson (1853), Pearce (1897), and Davidson (1949) and were termed Aboriginal tumulus. Early records indicate the burial mounds as neat and rounded in form. However, dimensions and precise form could vary widely based on rank of

15943-447: The mounds varies, but the majority of them measure 15 by 30 ft (4.5 by 9 m) in diameter and are 3–6 ft (1–2 m) high. The smaller mounds usually contain only one chamber. The chambers are usually rectangular with one or two alcoves at the northeast end. Occasionally there are additional pairs of alcoves along the middle of the larger chambers. Although the chambers usually contained one burial each, some contain several people and

16092-560: The mourners marched thrice solemnly round the spot." Archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction (see also mound ). Some British types are listed below: There is a contemporary revival in barrow building in the UK. In 2015 the first long barrow in thousands of years, the Long Barrow at All Cannings , inspired by those built in the Neolithic era,

16241-560: The names, breeds and pedigrees of famous horses. Betting on results was widespread, among all classes. Most races involved four-horse chariots ( quadrigae ), or less often, two-horse chariots ( bigae ). Just to display the skill of the driver and his horses, up to ten horses could be yoked to a single chariot. The quadriga races were the most important and frequent. Magnates and emperors courted popularity by staging and subsidising as many races as they could, as often as possible. In Rome, races usually lasted 7 laps, or even 5, rather than

16390-537: The natural slopes and valley (the Vallis Murcia ) between the Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill . It had a vast seating capacity; Boatwright estimates this as 150,000 before its rebuilding under Julius Caesar , and 250,000 under Trajan . According to Humphrey, the higher seating estimate is traditional but excessive, and even at its greatest capacity, the circus probably accommodated no more than about 150,000. It

16539-452: The other hand, they were not necessarily dishonoured when they did. The poet Pindar praised Herodotes for driving his own chariot, "using his own hands rather than another's". Entries were exclusively Greek, or claimed to be so. Philip II of Macedon , pre-eminent through his conquest of most Greek states and self-promotion as a divinity, entered his horse and chariot teams in several major pan-Hellenic events, and won several. He celebrated

16688-716: The other tombs around Starosel , others contained offerings such as the Panagyurishte and Rogozen treasures. Some of the sites are located in the Valley of the Thracian Rulers . The mound of the Tomb of Seuthes III "Golyama Kosmatka" is among the largest mounds in Thrace, with a maximum height of 23 m. and a diameter of 130 m. Chariot race Chariot racing ( Ancient Greek : ἁρματοδρομία , harmatodromía ; Latin : ludi circenses )

16837-446: The people to voice their religious and political opinion in the presence of the emperor, thus empowering the charioteers who were presented as political mediators between the people and the emperor. In 498, the crowd showed its dissatisfaction with the emperor Anastasius by launching a hail of stones at the kathisma ; during a near-revolutionary riot of 512 at the Hippodrome, the same emperor feared for his life, and offered to abdicate;

16986-525: The precursors for this 3rd millennium BCE tumuli style of Komaland, Ghana and Senegambia are regarded by Faraji (2022) to be Kerma Kush and the A-Group culture of ancient Nubia . While the stele-circled burial mounds of C-Group culture of Nubia are regarded as precursors for the megalithic burial mounds of Senegambia, Kerma tumuli are regarded as precursors for the stone tumuli circles of Komaland. The tumuli of Durbi Takusheyi , which have been dated between

17135-567: The price of their eventual manumission . While most freed slave-charioteers would have become clients of their former master , some would have earned more than enough to buy their freedom outright, assuming they survived that long. Scorpus won over 2,000 races before being killed in a collision at the meta when he was about 27 years old. The charioteer Florus' tomb inscription describes him as infans (not adult). Gaius Appuleius Diocles won 1,462 out of 4,257 races for various teams during his exceptionally long and lucky career. When he retired at

17284-488: The procurement of spells. One charioteer was beheaded for having his young son trained in witchcraft to help him win his races; and another burnt at the stake for practising witchcraft. The horses, too, could become celebrities; they were purpose-bred and were trained relatively late, from 5 years old. The Romans favoured particular native breeds from Hispania and north Africa. One of Diocles' horses, named Cotynus, raced with him in various teams 445 times, alongside Abigeius,

17433-515: The race record. Another key performer in a standard quadriga race was the right-hand yoke-horse. Celebrity horses named in Diocles' extraordinary record of 445 races and more than 100 wins in a year include Pompeianus, Lucidus and Galata. Constantine I (r. 306–337) refounded the eastern Greek city of Byzantium as a "New Rome", to serve as the administrative center of the eastern half of the Empire, and renamed it Constantinople. He replaced or restored

17582-528: The race's progress. The emperor Domitian created two new factions, the Purples and Golds, but they vanished from the record very soon after his death. The Blues and the Greens gradually became the most prestigious factions, supported by emperors and the populace alike. Blue versus Green clashes sometimes broke out during the races. The Reds and Whites are seldom mentioned in the literature, but their continued activity

17731-512: The races. The factions offered security to their members in return for their loyalty and contributions, and were headed by a patron or patrons. Each faction employed a large staff to serve and support their charioteers. Every circus seems to have independently followed the same model of organisation, including the four-colour naming system: Red, White, Blue, and Green. Senior managers ( domini factionum ) were usually of equestrian class. Investors were often wealthy, but of lower social status; driving

17880-486: The reins round their waist, and steered using their body weight; with the reins looped around their torsos, they could lean from one side to the other to direct the horses' movement while keeping the hands free "for the whip and such". A driver who became entangled in a crash risked being trampled or dragged along the track by his own horses; charioteers carried a curved knife ( falx ) to cut their reins, and wore helmets and other protective gear. Spectacular crashes in which

18029-422: The remainder, 66 are slaves, 14 are freedmen, 13 either slaves or freedmen and only one a freeborn citizen. All race competitors, regardless of their social status or whether they completed the race, were paid a driver's fee. Slave-charioteers could not lawfully own property, including money, but their masters could pay them regardless, or retain all or some accumulated driving fees and winnings on their behalf, as

18178-462: The royal burial site of a king from the Ghana Empire . The Koï Gourrey monumental tumulus, which may date prior to 1326 AD and has over twenty human remains that were buried with various items (e.g., iron accessories, an abundant amount of copper bracelets, anklets and beads, an abundant amount of broken, but whole pottery, another set of distinct, intact, glazed pottery, a wooden-beaded bone necklace,

18327-586: The royal tomb." The "Classical Sudanese" monarchic tumuli-building tradition, which lasted in Sudan (e.g., Kerma, Makuria , Meroe , Napata , Nobadia ) until the early period of the 6th century CE as well as in West Africa and Central Africa until the 14th century CE, notably preceded the spread of Islam into the West African and Sahelian regions of Africa. According to al-Bakrī , "the construction of tumuli and

18476-570: The same faction, but victories won in single races were the most highly esteemed by drivers and their public. Charioteers followed a ferociously competitive, charismatic profession, routinely risked violent death, and aroused a compulsive, even morbid reverence among their followers. A supporter of the Red faction is said to have thrown himself on the funeral pyre of his favourite charioteer. More usually, some charioteers and supporters tried to enlist supernatural help by covertly burying curse tablets at or near

18625-482: The same horse team that he had defeated earlier, virtually eliminating mere chance or better horses as the deciding factors in both victories. In Byzantine chariot racing, the expected standards of professional athleticsm were very high. Competitors were sometimes assigned to age categories, though very loosely; youths under approximately 17 (described as "beardless"), young men (17–20), and adult men over 20; but skill counted more than age, or stamina. In some circumstances,

18774-407: The secondary chambers often contain none. The deceased were generally laid with their heads in the alcove end of the chamber and lying on their right sides. The bodies were accompanied by few items. There were a few pieces of pottery and occasionally shell or stone stamp seals, baskets sealed with asphalt, ivory objects, stone jars, and copper weapons. The skeletons are representative of both sexes with

18923-421: The sides towards the tomb were barked, and curious characters deeply cut upon them, in a manner which, considering the tools they possess, must have been a work of great labour and time." Traditionally, a sheet of bark was removed from trees and the bare surface was carved to face the burial mound. In some cases, up to five trees were carved around the mound for high standing individuals. It has been suggested that

19072-486: The single epigram to Anastasius offers very little personal information, but Porphyrius is the subject of thirty-four. He is described as the best charioteer of his time; and as the only charioteer known to have won the diversium twice in one day. The diversium was unique to Byzantine chariot racing, a formal rematch between the winner and a loser, in which the competing charioteers drove each other's team and chariot. A winning charioteer could thus win twice over, driving

19221-434: The site. Mount Nemrut is 86 km in the east of Adıyaman province of Turkey . It is very close to Kahta district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 metres of height above sea level. A tumulus that dates to the 1st century BC is at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 metres in diameter and a height of 50 metres, which was originally 55 metres. It belongs to

19370-670: The skeleton found in one of the tumuli is believed to be more than 3000 years old and it is kept in Gorica museum in Livno. Glasinac has many tumuli. During the Bronze and Iron Age it was a place of strong Glasinac culture , who buried their dead in tumulus. On the territory of Bulgaria there are over 60,000 ancient Thracian mounds, of which only about 1,000 have been studied. There are also Roman and Thraco-Roman burial tombs. Those tumuli over ancient tombs, temples and sanctuaries are found throughout

19519-662: The stupa with early megalithic mounds are noted with structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-Mauryan era cairns and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represents a "proto-stupa" . In Dholavira , an archeological site associated with Indus Valley Civilization , there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" mounds with brick masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of

19668-491: The teams, drivers and wealthy backers. Generous imperial subsidies of " bread and circuses " kept the Roman masses fed, entertained and distracted. Organised violence between rival racing factions was not uncommon, but it was generally contained. Roman and later Byzantine emperors , mistrustful of private organisations as potentially subversive, took control of the teams, especially the Blues and Greens, and appointed officials to manage them. Chariot racing faded in importance in

19817-401: The track to begin the race, each enclosed within a cell known as a carcere ("prison") behind a spring-loaded gate. These were functionally equivalent to the Greek hysplex but were further staggered to accommodate a median barrier, known originally as a euripus (canal) but much later as the spina (spine). When the chariots were ready the editor , usually a high-status magistrate, dropped

19966-516: The track, appealing to spirits and deities of the underworld for the success of their favourites or disaster for their opponents; a common practise among Romans of all classes though like all magic, strictly illegal, and punishable by death. Some of the most talented and successful charioteers were suspected of winning through the illicit agency of dark forces. Ammianus Marcellinus , writing during Valentinian 's reign (AD 364–375), describes various cases of chariot drivers prosecuted for witchcraft or

20115-402: The tumuli from West Africa and Nubia , there may have been "a highly developed corporate ritual in which the family members of the deceased brought various items as offerings and tribute to the ancestors" buried in the tumuli and the tumuli may have "served as immense shrines of spiritual power for the populace to ritualize and remember their connection to the ancestral lineage as consecrated in

20264-547: The two monumental tumuli at Adrar Bous and Iwelen. Rather, Tenerians constructed cattle tumuli at a time before the two monumental tumuli were constructed. The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BC to 200 BC. Within the settled areas of Tichitt Culture (e.g., Dhar Tichitt , Dhar Tagant , Dhar Walata ), with stone walls , which vary in scale from (e.g., 2 hectares , 80 hectares), there were walled agricultural land used for livestock or gardening as well as land with granaries and tumuli. Based on

20413-427: The typical 12 laps of the Greek race. Some emperors were spendthrift enthusiasts; Caligula sponsored 10–12 races a day, Nero sponsored 20–24 a day. Commodus once held and subsidised 30 races in just 2 hours of a single afternoon; Dio Cassius predicted that such extravagance could only lead to government bankruptcy. In a previous century, the emperor Domitian had managed to squeeze an extraordinary 100 races into

20562-407: The view of spectators on the trackside's lower seats, which were close to the action. At each end of the spina was a meta , or turning point, consisting of three large gilded columns. Seats in the Circus were free for the poor, and either free or subsidised for the mass of citizens ( plebs ), whose lack of involvement in late Republican and Imperial politics was compensated, as far as Juvenal

20711-436: The wealthiest aristocrats, whose reputations and status benefitted from offering such extravagant, exciting displays. Their successes could be further broadcast and celebrated through commissioned odes and other poetry. In standard Greek racing practise, each chariot held a single driver and was pulled by four horses, or sometimes two. Drivers and horses risked serious injury or death through collisions and crashes; this added to

20860-753: The whole territory of Bulgaria. Some of the world's most significant and famous being the Kazanlak and Sveshtari tombs, UNESCO World Heritage sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of Seuthopolis (of the Odrysian kingdom ) and Daosdava or Helis (of the Getae ), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other notable tumuli are the Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo, Thracian tomb Golyama Arsenalka , Thracian tomb Shushmanets, Thracian tomb Griffins , Thracian tomb Helvetia , Thracian tomb Ostrusha , Tomb of Seuthes III and

21009-625: The world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepe (and other Lydian mounds of the Aegean inland), Phrygian mounds in Gordium (Central Anatolia), and the famous Commagene tumulus on Mount Nemrut (Southeastern Anatolia). This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the Aegean inland of Turkey. The site

21158-399: Was Rome's earliest and greatest circus. Its basic form and footprint were thought more or less coeval with the city's foundation, or with Rome's earliest Etruscan kings. Julius Caesar rebuilt it around 50 BC to a length of about 650 metres (2,130 ft) and width of 125 metres (410 ft). It had a semi-circular end, and a semi-open, slightly angled end where the chariots lined up across

21307-653: Was a type of mound, or small stone structure, found in Balochistan , including the coastal areas of Makran . The Chinese pyramids house the remains of some of China's former emperors . Before the expansion of Shang and Zhou culture through the region, many hundreds of tumuli were also constructed by the " Baiyue " peoples of the Yangtze Valley and southeastern China. In Japan , powerful leaders built tumuli, known as kofun . The Kofun period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest

21456-432: Was badly disturbed. Examination of other lesser disturbed monuments shows that the chamber was surrounded by a packing of earth, chipped rubble blocks and covered on the outside with inclined stone slabs whose top ends rested on the periphery of the capstone creating a mound. These pre-historic megalithic mound burials with chambers likely influenced later devolvement of mound burials called " Stupa " mounds, Similarities of

21605-620: Was built on land just outside the village of All Cannings . The barrow was designed to have a large number of private niches within the stone and earth structure to receive cremation urns. This was followed by new barrows at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silbury_Hill Plans have also been announced for a barrow in Milton Keynes and in Powys. Burial mounds are one of several funerary forms practiced by Indigenous Australians . Burial mounds were once practiced by some Aboriginals across Australia,

21754-449: Was concerned, by an endless supply of handouts and entertainments, or panem et circenses (" bread and circuses "). The seating nearest the track was reserved for senators, the rows behind them for equites and the remainder for everyone else. The better-off could pay for shaded seats with a better view. The Vestal virgins occupied their own privileged seating, close to the track. Men and women were supposed to occupy segregated seating but

21903-400: Was one of the most popular ancient Greek , Roman , and Byzantine sports. In Greece, chariot racing played an essential role in aristocratic funeral games from a very early time. With the institution of formal races and permanent racetracks, chariot racing was adopted by many Greek states and their religious festivals. Horses and chariots were very costly. Their ownership was a preserve of

22052-410: Was patron of the Olympic games) was raised to start the race, and at each lap, a bronze dolphin (a sign of Poseidon) was lowered. The central pair of horses did most of the heavy pulling, via the yoke. The flanking pair pulled and guided, using their traces. Horse teams were highly trained, and tractable. Greek aficionadoes thought mares the best horses for chariot racing. In most cases, the owner and

22201-430: Was taken out, then dry grass and leaves in a perfect state of preservation, the wet or damp having apparently never penetrated even to the first covering of wood … the body deposited about four feet deep in an oval grave, four feet long and from eighteen inches to two feet wide. The feet were bent quite up to the head, the arms having been placed between the thighs. The face was downwards, the body being placed east and west,

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