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101-484: Truevision, Inc. was a maker of digital video processing add-on boards for PC computers. It was founded by 29 former employees of AT&T 's Electronic Photography and Imaging Center (EPICenter). AT&T dissolved later division in 1987. Located in Indianapolis , Indiana , Truevision was later acquired by monitor and graphics card maker RasterOps Corporation of Santa Clara, California , in 1992. RasterOps took on

202-526: A 10 μm process over the next several years. CMOS technology was initially overlooked by the American semiconductor industry in favour of NMOS, which was more powerful at the time. However, CMOS was quickly adopted and further advanced by Japanese semiconductor manufacturers due to its low power consumption, leading to the rise of the Japanese semiconductor industry. Toshiba developed C MOS (Clocked CMOS),

303-485: A constant bitrate (CBR). This CBR video is suitable for real-time, non-buffered, fixed bandwidth video streaming (e.g. in videoconferencing). Since not all frames can be compressed at the same level, because quality is more severely impacted for scenes of high complexity, some algorithms try to constantly adjust the BPP. They keep the BPP high while compressing complex scenes and low for less demanding scenes. This way, it provides

404-460: A CMOS circuit. This example shows a NAND logic device drawn as a physical representation as it would be manufactured. The physical layout perspective is a "bird's eye view" of a stack of layers. The circuit is constructed on a P-type substrate. The polysilicon , diffusion, and n-well are referred to as "base layers" and are actually inserted into trenches of the P-type substrate. (See steps 1 to 6 in

505-482: A CMOS device: P = 0.5 C V 2 f {\displaystyle P=0.5CV^{2}f} . Since most gates do not operate/switch at every clock cycle , they are often accompanied by a factor α {\displaystyle \alpha } , called the activity factor. Now, the dynamic power dissipation may be re-written as P = α C V 2 f {\displaystyle P=\alpha CV^{2}f} . A clock in

606-439: A D2 VCR. This made it a perfect fit for the majority of television facilities at the time. D2 was a successful format in the television broadcast industry throughout the late '80s and the '90s. D2 was also widely used in that era as the master tape format for mastering laserdiscs . D1 & D2 would eventually be replaced by cheaper systems using video compression, most notably Sony's Digital Betacam , that were introduced into

707-736: A Nobel Prize for his work in physics. Following the commercialization of CCD sensors during the late 1970s to early 1980s, the entertainment industry slowly began transitioning to digital imaging and digital video from analog video over the next two decades. The CCD was followed by the CMOS active-pixel sensor ( CMOS sensor ), developed in the 1990s. Major films shot on digital video overtook those shot on film in 2013. Since 2016 over 90% of major films were shot on digital video. As of 2017 , 92% of films are shot on digital. Only 24 major films released in 2018 were shot on 35mm. Today, cameras from companies like Sony , Panasonic , JVC and Canon offer

808-443: A PMOS transistor creates low resistance between its source and drain contacts when a low gate voltage is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high resistance between source and drain when a low gate voltage is applied and low resistance when a high gate voltage is applied. CMOS accomplishes current reduction by complementing every nMOSFET with

909-401: A brief spike in power consumption and becomes a serious issue at high frequencies. The adjacent image shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS transistor (top of diagram) and an NMOS transistor (bottom of diagram). Vdd is some positive voltage connected to a power supply and Vss is ground. A is the input and Q is the output. When the voltage of A is low (i.e. close to Vss),

1010-420: A circuit technology with lower power consumption and faster operating speed than ordinary CMOS, in 1969. Toshiba used its C MOS technology to develop a large-scale integration (LSI) chip for Sharp 's Elsi Mini LED pocket calculator , developed in 1971 and released in 1972. Suwa Seikosha (now Seiko Epson ) began developing a CMOS IC chip for a Seiko quartz watch in 1969, and began mass-production with

1111-456: A close relative of CMOS. He invented complementary flip-flop and inverter circuits, but did no work in a more complex complementary logic. He was the first person able to put p-channel and n-channel TFTs in a circuit on the same substrate. Three years earlier, John T. Wallmark and Sanford M. Marcus published a variety of complex logic functions implemented as integrated circuits using JFETs , including complementary memory circuits. Frank Wanlass

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1212-399: A full frame. The second half contains only the even-numbered lines. These halves are referred to individually as fields . Two consecutive fields compose a full frame. If an interlaced video has a frame rate of 30 frames per second the field rate is 60 fields per second, though both part of interlaced video, frames per second and fields per second are separate numbers. By definition, bit rate

1313-458: A high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason that CMOS became the most widely used technology to be implemented in VLSI chips. The phrase "metal–oxide–semiconductor" is a reference to the physical structure of MOS field-effect transistors , having a metal gate electrode placed on top of an oxide insulator, which in turn is on top of a semiconductor material . Aluminium

1414-673: A high-performance 250 nanometer CMOS process. Fujitsu commercialized a 700   nm CMOS process in 1987, and then Hitachi, Mitsubishi Electric , NEC and Toshiba commercialized 500   nm CMOS in 1989. In 1993, Sony commercialized a 350   nm CMOS process, while Hitachi and NEC commercialized 250   nm CMOS. Hitachi introduced a 160   nm CMOS process in 1995, then Mitsubishi introduced 150   nm CMOS in 1996, and then Samsung Electronics introduced 140   nm in 1999. In 2000, Gurtej Singh Sandhu and Trung T. Doan at Micron Technology invented atomic layer deposition High-κ dielectric films , leading to

1515-1098: A memory-centric architecture that simplified the task of third-party developers to integrate TARGA boards into their products. Most notable were Japanese companies Sony and Matsushita ( Panasonic ), who used TARGA in the heart of several of their video editing workstations. Digital video Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard-definition component video signal in digital form. In addition to uncompressed formats , popular compressed digital video formats today include MPEG-2 , H.264 and AV1 . Modern interconnect standards used for playback of digital video include HDMI , DisplayPort , Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and serial digital interface (SDI). Digital video can be copied and reproduced with no degradation in quality. In contrast, when analog sources are copied, they experience generation loss . Digital video can be stored on digital media such as Blu-ray Disc , on computer data storage , or streamed over

1616-523: A modified 1-inch type B videotape transport and recorded an early form of CCIR 601 digital video. Ampex's prototype digital video recorder used a modified 2-inch quadruplex videotape VTR (an Ampex AVR-3) fitted with custom digital video electronics and a special octaplex 8-head headwheel (regular analog 2" quad machines only used 4 heads). Like standard 2" quad, the audio on the Ampex prototype digital machine, nicknamed Annie by its developers, still recorded

1717-431: A pMOSFET and connecting both gates and both drains together. A high voltage on the gates will cause the nMOSFET to conduct and the pMOSFET not to conduct, while a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation. However, during the switching time, both pMOS and nMOS MOSFETs conduct briefly as the gate voltage transitions from one state to another. This induces

1818-512: A rectangular piece of silicon of often between 10 and 400 mm . CMOS always uses all enhancement-mode MOSFETs (in other words, a zero gate-to-source voltage turns the transistor off). CMOS circuits are constructed in such a way that all P-type metal–oxide–semiconductor (PMOS) transistors must have either an input from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor. The composition of

1919-401: A series of digital images displayed in rapid succession. In the context of video, these images are called frames . The rate at which frames are displayed is known as the frame rate and is measured in frames per second . Every frame is a digital image and so comprises a formation of pixels . The color of a pixel is represented by a fixed number of bits of that color where the information of

2020-413: A small period of time in which current will find a path directly from V DD to ground, hence creating a short-circuit current , sometimes called a crowbar current. Short-circuit power dissipation increases with the rise and fall time of the transistors. This form of power consumption became significant in the 1990s as wires on chip became narrower and the long wires became more resistive. CMOS gates at

2121-425: A system has an activity factor α=1, since it rises and falls every cycle. Most data has an activity factor of 0.1. If correct load capacitance is estimated on a node together with its activity factor, the dynamic power dissipation at that node can be calculated effectively. Since there is a finite rise/fall time for both pMOS and nMOS, during transition, for example, from off to on, both the transistors will be on for

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2222-443: A trade-off for devices to become slower. To speed up designs, manufacturers have switched to constructions that have lower voltage thresholds but because of this a modern NMOS transistor with a V th of 200 mV has a significant subthreshold leakage current. Designs (e.g. desktop processors) which include vast numbers of circuits which are not actively switching still consume power because of this leakage current. Leakage power

2323-399: A triumvirate shortly after its inception. Joseph Haaf became VP of Sales and Marketing, Carl Calabria was VP of engineering, Cathleen Asch was VP of Administration and Accounting. Each had equal voting power in corporate decisions-making. The company was privately held by employees until purchased by RasterOps in 1992. Beginning as AT&T EPICenter with still-image frame grabber cards like

2424-448: A variety of choices for shooting high-definition video. At the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. These cameras from Sony , Vision Research , Arri , Blackmagic Design , Panavision , Grass Valley and Red offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited needs of broadcast television . In

2525-402: Is a measurement of the rate of information content from the digital video stream. In the case of uncompressed video, bit rate corresponds directly to the quality of the video because bit rate is proportional to every property that affects the video quality . Bit rate is an important property when transmitting video because the transmission link must be capable of supporting that bit rate. Bit rate

2626-471: Is a significant portion of the total power consumed by such designs. Multi-threshold CMOS (MTCMOS), now available from foundries, is one approach to managing leakage power. With MTCMOS, high V th transistors are used when switching speed is not critical, while low V th transistors are used in speed sensitive paths. Further technology advances that use even thinner gate dielectrics have an additional leakage component because of current tunnelling through

2727-470: Is also carried using UDP - IP over Ethernet . Two approaches exist for this: Other methods of carrying video over IP CMOS Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor ( CMOS , pronounced "sea-moss ", / s iː m ɑː s / , /- ɒ s / ) is a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) fabrication process that uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs for logic functions. CMOS technology

2828-424: Is also important when dealing with the storage of video because, as shown above, the video size is proportional to the bit rate and the duration. Video compression is used to greatly reduce the bit rate while having little effect on quality. Bits per pixel (BPP) is a measure of the efficiency of compression. A true-color video with no compression at all may have a BPP of 24 bits/pixel. Chroma subsampling can reduce

2929-419: Is also widely used for RF circuits all the way to microwave frequencies, in mixed-signal (analog+digital) applications. RF CMOS refers to RF circuits ( radio frequency circuits) which are based on mixed-signal CMOS integrated circuit technology. They are widely used in wireless telecommunication technology. RF CMOS was developed by Asad Abidi while working at UCLA in the late 1980s. This changed

3030-405: Is connected to V SS and an N-type n-well tap is connected to V DD to prevent latchup . CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical ASIC in a modern 90 nanometer process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happens once every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever

3131-457: Is connected together in metal (illustrated in cyan coloring). Connections between metal and polysilicon or diffusion are made through contacts (illustrated as black squares). The physical layout example matches the NAND logic circuit given in the previous example. The N device is manufactured on a P-type substrate while the P device is manufactured in an N-type well (n-well). A P-type substrate "tap"

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3232-438: Is determined by the frame size, color depth and frame rate. Each pixel consumes a number of bits determined by the color depth. The data required to represent a frame of data is determined by multiplying by the number of pixels in the image. The bandwidth is determined by multiplying the storage requirement for a frame by the frame rate. The overall storage requirements for a program can then be determined by multiplying bandwidth by

3333-478: Is increasingly common in schools, with students and teachers taking an interest in learning how to use it in relevant ways. Digital video also has healthcare applications, allowing doctors to track infant heart rates and oxygen levels. In addition, the switch from analog to digital video impacted media in various ways, such as in how businesses use cameras for surveillance. Closed circuit television (CCTV) switched to using digital video recorders (DVR), presenting

3434-465: Is that both low-to-high and high-to-low output transitions are fast since the (PMOS) pull-up transistors have low resistance when switched on, unlike the load resistors in NMOS logic. In addition, the output signal swings the full voltage between the low and high rails. This strong, more nearly symmetric response also makes CMOS more resistant to noise. See Logical effort for a method of calculating delay in

3535-447: Is the duality that exists between its PMOS transistors and NMOS transistors. A CMOS circuit is created to allow a path always to exist from the output to either the power source or ground. To accomplish this, the set of all paths to the voltage source must be the complement of the set of all paths to ground. This can be easily accomplished by defining one in terms of the NOT of the other. Due to

3636-467: Is used due to its reduction of data consumption by factors of 20 to 200. Note that it is not necessary that all frames are equally compressed by the same percentage. Instead, consider the average factor of compression for all the frames taken together. Purpose-built digital video interfaces General-purpose interfaces use to carry digital video The following interface has been designed for carrying MPEG -Transport compressed video: Compressed video

3737-410: Is used for constructing integrated circuit (IC) chips, including microprocessors , microcontrollers , memory chips (including CMOS BIOS ), and other digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for analog circuits such as image sensors ( CMOS sensors ), data converters , RF circuits ( RF CMOS ), and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. The CMOS process

3838-456: Is very small compared to sub threshold and tunnelling currents, so these may be neglected during power calculations. If the ratios do not match, then there might be different currents of PMOS and NMOS; this may lead to imbalance and thus improper current causes the CMOS to heat up and dissipate power unnecessarily. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that leakage power reduces due to aging effects as

3939-504: The Internet to end users who watch content on a personal computer or mobile device screen or a digital smart TV . Today, digital video content such as TV shows and movies also includes a digital audio soundtrack. The basis for digital video cameras is metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensors . The first practical semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented in 1969 by Willard S. Boyle, who won

4040-498: The RCA 1802 CMOS microprocessor due to low power consumption. Intel introduced a 1.5 μm process for CMOS semiconductor device fabrication in 1983. In the mid-1980s, Bijan Davari of IBM developed high-performance, low-voltage, deep sub-micron CMOS technology, which enabled the development of faster computers as well as portable computers and battery-powered handheld electronics . In 1988, Davari led an IBM team that demonstrated

4141-707: The bandwidth needed for a high-definition video signal (with HDV and AVCHD , as well as several professional formats such as XDCAM , all using less bandwidth than a standard definition analog signal). These savings have increased the number of channels available on cable television and direct broadcast satellite systems, created opportunities for spectrum reallocation of terrestrial television broadcast frequencies, and made tapeless camcorders based on flash memory possible, among other innovations and efficiencies. Culturally, digital video has allowed video and film to become widely available and popular, beneficial to entertainment, education, and research. Digital video

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4242-453: The 1970s, pulse-code modulation (PCM) induced the birth of digital video coding , demanding high bit rates of 45-140 Mbit/s for standard-definition (SD) content. By the 1980s, the discrete cosine transform (DCT) became the standard for digital video compression . The first digital video coding standard was H.120 , created by the (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) or CCITT (now ITU-T) in 1984. H.120

4343-462: The A or B inputs is low, one of the NMOS transistors will not conduct, one of the PMOS transistors will, and a conductive path will be established between the output and V dd (voltage source), bringing the output high. As the only configuration of the two inputs that results in a low output is when both are high, this circuit implements a NAND (NOT AND) logic gate. An advantage of CMOS over NMOS logic

4444-442: The BPP to 16 or 12 bits/pixel. Applying JPEG compression on every frame can reduce the BPP to 8 or even 1 bits/pixel. Applying video compression algorithms like MPEG1 , MPEG2 or MPEG4 allows for fractional BPP values to exist. BPP represents the average bits per pixel. There are compression algorithms that keep the BPP almost constant throughout the entire duration of the video. In this case, we also get video output with

4545-456: The CMOS device. Clamp diodes are included in CMOS circuits to deal with these signals. Manufacturers' data sheets specify the maximum permitted current that may flow through the diodes. Besides digital applications, CMOS technology is also used in analog applications. For example, there are CMOS operational amplifier ICs available in the market. Transmission gates may be used as analog multiplexers instead of signal relays . CMOS technology

4646-508: The ICB (image capture board), Truevision Inc. went on to pioneer the desktop digital video editing industry with the introduction of the TARGA videographics card in 1987. Its engineers developed brand new ASICs that were eventually powerful enough to perform real-time operations on live video microscopy, which culminated in the TARGA 2000 digital video processing board in 1998. These HUB chips operated with

4747-563: The Intel 2147 HMOS chip, while the HM6147 also consumed significantly less power (15   mA ) than the 2147 (110   mA). With comparable performance and much less power consumption, the twin-well CMOS process eventually overtook NMOS as the most common semiconductor manufacturing process for computers in the 1980s. In the 1980s, CMOS microprocessors overtook NMOS microprocessors. NASA 's Galileo spacecraft, sent to orbit Jupiter in 1989, used

4848-451: The MOSFET pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS devices do not produce as much waste heat as other forms of logic, like NMOS logic or transistor–transistor logic (TTL), which normally have some standing current even when not changing state. These characteristics allow CMOS to integrate

4949-450: The NMOS transistor's channel is in a high resistance state, disconnecting Vss from Q. The PMOS transistor's channel is in a low resistance state, connecting Vdd to Q. Q, therefore, registers Vdd. On the other hand, when the voltage of A is high (i.e. close to Vdd), the PMOS transistor is in a high resistance state, disconnecting Vdd from Q. The NMOS transistor is in a low resistance state, connecting Vss to Q. Now, Q registers Vss. In short,

5050-416: The PMOS transistors (top half) will conduct, and a conductive path will be established between the output and V ss (ground), bringing the output low. If both of the A and B inputs are low, then neither of the NMOS transistors will conduct, while both of the PMOS transistors will conduct, establishing a conductive path between the output and V dd (voltage source), bringing the output high. If either of

5151-582: The Truevision name and retained the Indianapolis engineering team, which continued producing increasingly more advanced products, until 1999 when the company was finally acquired by its biggest competitor, Pinnacle Systems . Pinnacle Systems was later acquired by Avid Technology , who initially used the AT-Vista when they were a two-person startup company . The administrative hierarchy of Truevision developed into

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5252-526: The audio in analog as linear tracks on the tape. None of these machines from these manufacturers were ever marketed commercially. Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard definition component video signal in digital form. Component video connections required 3 cables, but most television facilities were wired for composite NTSC or PAL video using one cable. Due to this incompatibility

5353-460: The availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers . It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video , requiring around 200   Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1   Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV). Digital video comprises

5454-414: The best performance per watt each year have been CMOS static logic since 1976. As of 2019, planar CMOS technology is still the most common form of semiconductor device fabrication, but is gradually being replaced by non-planar FinFET technology, which is capable of manufacturing semiconductor nodes smaller than 20   nm . "CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design and

5555-562: The best quality at the smallest average bit rate (and the smallest file size, accordingly). This method produces a variable bitrate because it tracks the variations of the BPP. Standard film stocks typically record at 24 frames per second. For video, there are two frame rate standards: NTSC , at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second (about 59.94 fields per second), and PAL , 25 frames per second (50 fields per second). Digital video cameras come in two different image capture formats: interlaced and progressive scan . Interlaced cameras record

5656-403: The color is stored within the image. For example, 8-bit captures 256 levels per channel, and 10-bit captures 1,024 levels per channel. The more bits, the more subtle variations of colors can be reproduced. This is called the color depth , or bit depth, of the video. In interlaced video each frame is composed of two halves of an image. The first half contains only the odd-numbered lines of

5757-430: The corresponding supply voltage, modelling an AND. When a path consists of two transistors in parallel, either one or both of the transistors must have low resistance to connect the supply voltage to the output, modelling an OR. Shown on the right is a circuit diagram of a NAND gate in CMOS logic. If both of the A and B inputs are high, then both the NMOS transistors (bottom half of the diagram) will conduct, neither of

5858-625: The cost of the recorder, D1 was used primarily by large television networks and other component-video capable video studios. In 1988, Sony and Ampex co-developed and released the D2 digital videocassette format, which recorded video digitally without compression in ITU-601 format, much like D1. In comparison, D2 had the major difference of encoding the video in composite form to the NTSC standard, thereby only requiring single-cable composite video connections to and from

5959-433: The development of a cost-effective 90 nm CMOS process. Toshiba and Sony developed a 65 nm CMOS process in 2002, and then TSMC initiated the development of 45 nm CMOS logic in 2004. The development of pitch double patterning by Gurtej Singh Sandhu at Micron Technology led to the development of 30   nm class CMOS in the 2000s. CMOS is used in most modern LSI and VLSI devices. As of 2010, CPUs with

6060-406: The device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D'Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device. There were originally two types of MOSFET logic, PMOS ( p-type MOS) and NMOS ( n-type MOS). Both types were demonstrated by Atalla and Kahng in 1960 at Bell Labs. A new type of MOSFET logic combining both the PMOS and NMOS processes

6161-436: The duration of the program. These calculations are accurate for uncompressed video, but due to the relatively high bit rate of uncompressed video, video compression is extensively used. In the case of compressed video, each frame requires only a small percentage of the original bits. This reduces the data or bandwidth consumption by a factor of 5 to 12 times when using lossless compression , but more commonly, lossy compression

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6262-541: The early microprocessor industry. By the late 1970s, NMOS microprocessors had overtaken PMOS processors. CMOS microprocessors were introduced in 1975, with the Intersil 6100 , and RCA CDP 1801 . However, CMOS processors did not become dominant until the 1980s. CMOS was initially slower than NMOS logic , thus NMOS was more widely used for computers in the 1970s. The Intel 5101 (1   kb SRAM ) CMOS memory chip (1974) had an access time of 800   ns , whereas

6363-414: The early 1980s, video production equipment that was digital in its internal workings was introduced. These included time base correctors (TBC) and digital video effects (DVE) units. They operated by taking a standard analog composite video input and digitizing it internally. This made it easier to either correct or enhance the video signal, as in the case of a TBC, or to manipulate and add effects to

6464-444: The end of those resistive wires see slow input transitions. Careful design which avoids weakly driven long skinny wires reduces this effect, but crowbar power can be a substantial part of dynamic CMOS power. Parasitic transistors that are inherent in the CMOS structure may be turned on by input signals outside the normal operating range, e.g. electrostatic discharges or line reflections . The resulting latch-up may damage or destroy

6565-569: The expensive and time-consuming chemical processing required by film. Network transfer of digital video makes physical deliveries of tapes and film reels unnecessary. Digital television (including higher quality HDTV ) was introduced in most developed countries in early 2000s. Today, digital video is used in modern mobile phones and video conferencing systems. Digital video is used for Internet distribution of media, including streaming video and peer-to-peer movie distribution. Many types of video compression exist for serving digital video over

6666-585: The extremely thin gate dielectric. Using high-κ dielectrics instead of silicon dioxide that is the conventional gate dielectric allows similar device performance, but with a thicker gate insulator, thus avoiding this current. Leakage power reduction using new material and system designs is critical to sustaining scaling of CMOS. CMOS circuits dissipate power by charging the various load capacitances (mostly gate and wire capacitance, but also drain and some source capacitances) whenever they are switched. In one complete cycle of CMOS logic, current flows from V DD to

6767-411: The family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips). CMOS circuitry dissipates less power than logic families with resistive loads. Since this advantage has increased and grown more important, CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes. CMOS logic consumes around one seventh

6868-411: The fastest NMOS chip at the time, the Intel 2147 (4   kb SRAM) HMOS memory chip (1976), had an access time of 55/70   ns. In 1978, a Hitachi research team led by Toshiaki Masuhara introduced the twin-well Hi-CMOS process, with its HM6147 (4   kb SRAM) memory chip, manufactured with a 3 μm process . The Hitachi HM6147 chip was able to match the performance (55/70   ns access) of

6969-425: The image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on. One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a field , and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a frame . Progressive scan cameras record all lines in each frame as a single unit. Thus, interlaced video captures

7070-522: The input. The transistors' resistances are never exactly equal to zero or infinity, so Q will never exactly equal Vss or Vdd, but Q will always be closer to Vss than A was to Vdd (or vice versa if A were close to Vss). Without this amplification, there would be a very low limit to the number of logic gates that could be chained together in series, and CMOS logic with billions of transistors would be impossible. The power supply pins for CMOS are called V DD and V SS , or V CC and Ground(GND) depending on

7171-694: The internet and on optical disks. The file sizes of digital video used for professional editing are generally not practical for these purposes, and the video requires further compression with codecs to be used for recreational purposes. As of 2017 , the highest image resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 132.7 megapixels (15360 x 8640 pixels). The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high-speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording. Live digital video consumes bandwidth. Recorded digital video consumes data storage. The amount of bandwidth or storage required

7272-495: The introduction of the DV tape format allowing recordings in the format to be transferred directly to digital video files using a FireWire port on an editing computer. This simplified the process, allowing non-linear editing systems (NLE) to be deployed cheaply and widely on desktop computers with no external playback or recording equipment needed. The widespread adoption of digital video and accompanying compression formats has reduced

7373-509: The issue of how to store recordings for evidence collection. Today, digital video is able to be compressed in order to save storage space. Digital television (DTV) is the production and transmission of digital video from networks to consumers. This technique uses digital encoding instead of analog signals used prior to the 1950s. As compared to analog methods, DTV is faster and provides more capabilities and options for data to be transmitted and shared. Digital television's roots are tied to

7474-525: The launch of the Seiko Analog Quartz 38SQW watch in 1971. The first mass-produced CMOS consumer electronic product was the Hamilton Pulsar "Wrist Computer" digital watch, released in 1970. Due to low power consumption, CMOS logic has been widely used for calculators and watches since the 1970s. The earliest microprocessors in the early 1970s were PMOS processors, which initially dominated

7575-425: The load capacitance to charge it and then flows from the charged load capacitance (C L ) to ground during discharge. Therefore, in one complete charge/discharge cycle, a total of Q=C L V DD is thus transferred from V DD to ground. Multiply by the switching frequency on the load capacitances to get the current used, and multiply by the average voltage again to get the characteristic switching power dissipated by

7676-444: The logic based on De Morgan's laws , the PMOS transistors in parallel have corresponding NMOS transistors in series while the PMOS transistors in series have corresponding NMOS transistors in parallel. More complex logic functions such as those involving AND and OR gates require manipulating the paths between gates to represent the logic. When a path consists of two transistors in series, both transistors must have low resistance to

7777-416: The majority of patents belonging to Samsung Electronics , GE , NTT and JVC Kenwood . It is currently being challenged by the aiming-to-be-freely-licensed AV1 format. As of 2019 , AVC is by far the most commonly used format for the recording, compression and distribution of video content, used by 91% of video developers, followed by HEVC which is used by 43% of developers. Starting in the late 1970s to

7878-408: The manufacturer. V DD and V SS are carryovers from conventional MOS circuits and stand for the drain and source supplies. These do not apply directly to CMOS, since both supplies are really source supplies. V CC and Ground are carryovers from TTL logic and that nomenclature has been retained with the introduction of the 54C/74C line of CMOS. An important characteristic of a CMOS circuit

7979-436: The network's television studios . Other examples of digital video formats utilizing compression were Ampex's DCT (the first to employ such when introduced in 1992), the industry-standard DV and MiniDV and its professional variations, Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO , and Betacam SX , a lower-cost variant of Digital Betacam using MPEG-2 compression. One of the first digital video products to run on personal computers

8080-401: The outputs of the PMOS and NMOS transistors are complementary such that when the input is low, the output is high, and when the input is high, the output is low. No matter what the input is, the output is never left floating (charge is never stored due to wire capacitance and lack of electrical drain/ground). Because of this behavior of input and output, the CMOS circuit's output is the inverse of

8181-583: The power consumption per unit area of the chip has risen tremendously. Broadly classifying, power dissipation in CMOS circuits occurs because of two components, static and dynamic: Both NMOS and PMOS transistors have a gate–source threshold voltage (V th ), below which the current (called sub threshold current) through the device will drop exponentially. Historically, CMOS circuits operated at supply voltages much larger than their threshold voltages (V dd might have been 5 V, and V th for both NMOS and PMOS might have been 700 mV). A special type of

8282-479: The power of NMOS logic , and about 10 million times less power than bipolar transistor-transistor logic (TTL). CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. Although CMOS logic can be implemented with discrete devices for demonstrations, commercial CMOS products are integrated circuits composed of up to billions of transistors of both types, on

8383-512: The process diagram below right) The contacts penetrate an insulating layer between the base layers and the first layer of metal (metal1) making a connection. The inputs to the NAND (illustrated in green color) are in polysilicon. The transistors (devices) are formed by the intersection of the polysilicon and diffusion; N diffusion for the N device & P diffusion for the P device (illustrated in salmon and yellow coloring respectively). The output ("out")

8484-410: The scene motion twice as often as progressive video does for the same frame rate. Progressive scan generally produces a slightly sharper image, however, motion may not be as smooth as interlaced video. Digital video can be copied with no generation loss; which degrades quality in analog systems. However, a change in parameters like frame size, or a change of the digital format can decrease the quality of

8585-422: The source contact. CMOS was commercialised by RCA in the late 1960s. RCA adopted CMOS for the design of integrated circuits (ICs), developing CMOS circuits for an Air Force computer in 1965 and then a 288- bit CMOS SRAM memory chip in 1968. RCA also used CMOS for its 4000-series integrated circuits in 1968, starting with a 20   μm semiconductor manufacturing process before gradually scaling to

8686-632: The standard name for the technology by the early 1970s. CMOS overtook NMOS logic as the dominant MOSFET fabrication process for very large-scale integration (VLSI) chips in the 1980s, also replacing earlier transistor–transistor logic (TTL) technology. CMOS has since remained the standard fabrication process for MOSFET semiconductor devices in VLSI chips. As of 2011 , 99% of IC chips, including most digital , analog and mixed-signal ICs, were fabricated using CMOS technology. Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static power consumption . Since one transistor of

8787-434: The transistor is on, because there is a current path from V dd to V ss through the load resistor and the n-type network. Static CMOS gates are very power efficient because they dissipate nearly zero power when idle. Earlier, the power consumption of CMOS devices was not the major concern while designing chips. Factors like speed and area dominated the design parameters. As the CMOS technology moved below sub-micron levels

8888-659: The transistor used in some CMOS circuits is the native transistor , with near zero threshold voltage . SiO 2 is a good insulator, but at very small thickness levels electrons can tunnel across the very thin insulation; the probability drops off exponentially with oxide thickness. Tunnelling current becomes very important for transistors below 130 nm technology with gate oxides of 20 Å or thinner. Small reverse leakage currents are formed due to formation of reverse bias between diffusion regions and wells (for e.g., p-type diffusion vs. n-well), wells and substrate (for e.g., n-well vs. p-substrate). In modern process diode leakage

8989-436: The video due to image scaling and transcoding losses. Digital video can be manipulated and edited on non-linear editing systems. Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film. In comparison to the high cost of film stock , the digital media used for digital video recording, such as flash memory or hard disk drive is very inexpensive. Digital video also allows footage to be viewed on location without

9090-406: The video, in the case of a DVE unit. The digitized and processed video information was then converted back to standard analog video for output. Later on in the 1970s, manufacturers of professional video broadcast equipment, such as Bosch (through their Fernseh division) and Ampex developed prototype digital videotape recorders (VTR) in their research and development labs. Bosch's machine used

9191-413: The wafer. J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides and fabricated a high quality Si/ SiO 2 stack in 1960. Following this research, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng proposed a silicon MOS transistor in 1959 and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated

9292-417: The way in which RF circuits were designed, leading to the replacement of discrete bipolar transistors with CMOS integrated circuits in radio transceivers . It enabled sophisticated, low-cost and portable end-user terminals, and gave rise to small, low-cost, low-power and portable units for a wide range of wireless communication systems. This enabled "anytime, anywhere" communication and helped bring about

9393-537: Was PACo: The PICS Animation Compiler from The Company of Science & Art in Providence, RI. It was developed starting in 1990 and first shipped in May 1991. PACo could stream unlimited-length video with synchronized sound from a single file (with the .CAV file extension ) on CD-ROM. Creation required a Mac, and playback was possible on Macs, PCs, and Sun SPARCstations . QuickTime , Apple Computer 's multimedia framework,

9494-487: Was demonstrated by Fairchild Semiconductor 's Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference in 1963. Wanlass later filed US patent 3,356,858 for CMOS circuitry and it was granted in 1967. RCA commercialized the technology with the trademark "COS-MOS" in the late 1960s, forcing other manufacturers to find another name, leading to "CMOS" becoming

9595-529: Was developed based on DCT compression, becoming first practical video coding standard. Since H.261, DCT compression has been adopted by all the major video coding standards that followed. MPEG-1 , developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG), followed in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS -quality video. It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2 / H.262 , which became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television . It

9696-415: Was developed, called complementary MOS (CMOS), by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild. In February 1963, they published the invention in a research paper . In both the research paper and the patent filed by Wanlass, the fabrication of CMOS devices was outlined, on the basis of thermal oxidation of a silicon substrate to yield a layer of silicon dioxide located between the drain contact and

9797-577: Was familiar with work done by Weimer at RCA. In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion layer, which forms the basis of CMOS technology. In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects. By 1957 Frosch and Derrick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide transistors and showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into

9898-418: Was followed by MPEG-4 in 1999, and then in 2003 it was followed by H.264/MPEG-4 AVC , which has become the most widely used video coding standard. The current-generation video coding format is HEVC (H.265), introduced in 2013. While AVC uses the integer DCT with 4x4 and 8x8 block sizes, HEVC uses integer DCT and DST transforms with varied block sizes between 4x4 and 32x32. HEVC is heavily patented, with

9999-481: Was not practical due to weak performance. H.120 was based on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM), a compression algorithm that was inefficient for video coding. During the late 1980s, a number of companies began experimenting with DCT, a much more efficient form of compression for video coding. The CCITT received 14 proposals for DCT-based video compression formats, in contrast to a single proposal based on vector quantization (VQ) compression. The H.261 standard

10100-489: Was once used but now the material is polysilicon . Other metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-κ dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45 nanometer node and smaller sizes. The principle of complementary symmetry was first introduced by George Sziklai in 1953 who then discussed several complementary bipolar circuits. Paul Weimer , also at RCA , invented in 1962 thin-film transistor (TFT) complementary circuits,

10201-492: Was released in June 1991. Audio Video Interleave from Microsoft followed in 1992. Initial consumer-level content creation tools were crude, requiring an analog video source to be digitized to a computer-readable format. While low-quality at first, consumer digital video increased rapidly in quality, first with the introduction of playback standards such as MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 (adopted for use in television transmission and DVD media), and

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