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136-495: Remembrance of Earth's Past ( Chinese : 地球往事 ; pinyin : Dìqiú Wǎngshì ; lit. 'Earth's Past') is a science fiction novel series by Chinese writer Liu Cixin . The series is also popularly referred to as Three-Body from part of the title of its first novel, The Three-Body Problem ( Chinese : 三体 ; pinyin : Sān Tǐ ; lit. 'Three-Body'). The series details humanity's discovery of and preparation for an alien invasion force from

272-400: A {\displaystyle a} , and τ p {\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }} decreases with increasing a {\displaystyle a} . Acceleration gives rise to a non-vanishing probability for the transition p → n + e + ν e . This was a matter of concern in

408-464: A nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong , diphthong , or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant , or consonant + glide ; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone . There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where

544-457: A subject–verb–object word order , and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words , another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction , pronoun dropping , and

680-427: A zinc sulfide screen produced at a distance well beyond the distance of alpha-particle range of travel but instead corresponding to the range of travel of hydrogen atoms (protons). After experimentation, Rutherford traced the reaction to the nitrogen in air and found that when alpha particles were introduced into pure nitrogen gas, the effect was larger. In 1919, Rutherford assumed that the alpha particle merely knocked

816-505: A Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian , a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and

952-595: A Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese ; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語 ; 'Taiwanese' ), Hakka , or an Austronesian language . A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong , Cantonese

1088-613: A candidate to be a fundamental or elementary particle , and hence a building block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei. Although protons were originally considered to be elementary particles, in the modern Standard Model of particle physics , protons are known to be composite particles, containing three valence quarks , and together with neutrons are now classified as hadrons . Protons are composed of two up quarks of charge + ⁠ 2 / 3 ⁠ e each, and one down quark of charge − ⁠ 1 / 3 ⁠ e . The rest masses of quarks contribute only about 1% of

1224-462: A central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言 ; fāngyán ; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言 ; 地點方言 ; dìdiǎn fāngyán ; 'local speech'. Because of

1360-597: A compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua , based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of

1496-700: A corresponding increase in the number of homophones . As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese: In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi . As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only

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1632-416: A form-factor related to the two-dimensional parton diameter of the proton. A value from before 2010 is based on scattering electrons from protons followed by complex calculation involving scattering cross section based on Rosenbluth equation for momentum-transfer cross section ), and based on studies of the atomic energy levels of hydrogen and deuterium. In 2010 an international research team published

1768-399: A magnitude of one-half the reduced Planck constant . ( ℏ / 2 {\displaystyle \hbar /2} ). The name refers to examination of protons as they occur in protium (hydrogen-1 atoms) in compounds, and does not imply that free protons exist in the compound being studied. The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Packages (ALSEP) determined that more than 95% of

1904-564: A millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as

2040-484: A neutral hydrogen atom , which is chemically a free radical . Such "free hydrogen atoms" tend to react chemically with many other types of atoms at sufficiently low energies. When free hydrogen atoms react with each other, they form neutral hydrogen molecules (H 2 ), which are the most common molecular component of molecular clouds in interstellar space . Free protons are routinely used for accelerators for proton therapy or various particle physics experiments, with

2176-543: A number of situations in which energies or temperatures are high enough to separate them from electrons, for which they have some affinity. Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons . Free protons of high energy and velocity make up 90% of cosmic rays , which propagate through the interstellar medium . Free protons are emitted directly from atomic nuclei in some rare types of radioactive decay . Protons also result (along with electrons and antineutrinos ) from

2312-655: A player meeting. "Operations Guzheng" allows the Operations Centre to partially defeat the Adventists (who want the Trisolarans to wipe out humanity) and the Redemptionists (who seek to help the Trisolarans find a computational solution to the three-body problem plaguing Trisolaris). It also reveals that the Trisolarans have launched their invasion of Earth in search of a stable place to live. The end of humanity draws near as

2448-461: A proton charge radius measurement via the Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen (an exotic atom made of a proton and a negatively charged muon ). As a muon is 200 times heavier than an electron, resulting in a smaller atomic orbital , it is much more sensitive to the proton's charge radius and thus allows a more precise measurement. Subsequent improved scattering and electron-spectroscopy measurements agree with

2584-418: A proton out of nitrogen, turning it into carbon. After observing Blackett's cloud chamber images in 1925, Rutherford realized that the alpha particle was absorbed. If the alpha particle were not absorbed, then it would knock a proton off of nitrogen creating 3 charged particles (a negatively charged carbon, a proton, and an alpha particle). It can be shown that the 3 charged particles would create three tracks in

2720-697: A proton's mass. The remainder of a proton's mass is due to quantum chromodynamics binding energy , which includes the kinetic energy of the quarks and the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together. The root mean square charge radius of a proton is about 0.84–0.87  fm ( 1 fm = 10  m ). In 2019, two different studies, using different techniques, found this radius to be 0.833 fm, with an uncertainty of ±0.010 fm. Free protons occur occasionally on Earth: thunderstorms can produce protons with energies of up to several tens of MeV . At sufficiently low temperatures and kinetic energies, free protons will bind to electrons . However,

2856-518: A real interstellar war, and it is impossible to see one. Although the solar system does not survive in the book, Cheng Xin and Guan Yifan from the Starship civilization manage to keep the flame of human civilization in the solar system. Sophons are created from eleven-dimensional protons dimensionally unfolded down to two-dimensional protons with Trisolaran particle accelerators . While in the two-dimensional form, they are embedded with circuitry to create

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2992-547: A result, they become so-called Brønsted acids . For example, a proton captured by a water molecule in water becomes hydronium , the aqueous cation H 3 O . In chemistry , the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number , which determines the chemical element to which the atom belongs. For example, the atomic number of chlorine is 17; this means that each chlorine atom has 17 protons and that all atoms with 17 protons are chlorine atoms. The chemical properties of each atom are determined by

3128-497: A scared child. They believe they have discovered the key to survival, but in fact, they are far from qualified for an interstellar fight. On the cosmic battlefield, the attack in the Dark Forest that has threatened the survival of two civilizations is simply a minor episode. As the techniques and weapons of war have far outpaced human imagination and the day of witnessing the battlefield is the day of extermination, no one has ever seen

3264-538: A secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty . As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate

3400-503: A similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin

3536-455: A simplistic interpretation of early values of atomic weights (see Prout's hypothesis ), which was disproved when more accurate values were measured. In 1886, Eugen Goldstein discovered canal rays (also known as anode rays) and showed that they were positively charged particles (ions) produced from gases. However, since particles from different gases had different values of charge-to-mass ratio ( q / m ), they could not be identified with

3672-678: A single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family . Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese , of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min ), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese ), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese ). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with

3808-431: A single particle, unlike the negative electrons discovered by J. J. Thomson . Wilhelm Wien in 1898 identified the hydrogen ion as the particle with the highest charge-to-mass ratio in ionized gases. Following the discovery of the atomic nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the place of each element in the periodic table (its atomic number) is equal to its nuclear charge. This

3944-606: A strategy to fight the invasion of Trisolaris civilization. Luo Ji also confirms the Dark Forest Rule , which states that any civilization that reveals its location will be wiped out. With this discovery, he threatens to reveal the Trisolaris' position coordinates to the whole universe, temporarily delaying the Trisolaran's invasion of the solar system and establishing a precarious strategic balance between Earth and Trisolaris. Using

4080-427: A supercomputer. Once online, the embedded supercomputer could control the proton's dimensional level and could fold itself back into an eleven-dimensional proton. To be seen with the naked eye, the protons could unfold themselves down to a fourth-, fifth-, or sixth-dimensional form, becoming larger with each subsequent lower dimension without changing mass. They can visually record anything and thus their secondary purpose

4216-610: A unified standard. The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c.  1250 BCE , during the Late Shang . The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching . Scholars have attempted to reconstruct

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4352-563: A variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong . In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than

4488-539: A way for the rich to simply skip through the centuries to eras of more advanced technology, peace, and human development. With the advent of the Trisolaran invasion, however, it becomes a near-worthless technology in terms of demand, as people prefer to die naturally in a world still free from Trisolaris rather than skip ahead to doomsday. Because of this, only researchers and certain high-value staff make use of cryogenics to skip through time. The study of theoretical interactions between cosmic civilizations. This area of study

4624-596: Is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River , whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian , the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Proportions of first-language speakers The classification of Li Rong , which

4760-689: Is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China , as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora . Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language . Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of

4896-487: Is a lone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The concept of a hydrogen-like particle as a constituent of other atoms was developed over a long period. As early as 1815, William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of hydrogen atoms (which he called "protyles"), based on

5032-420: Is a unique chemical species, being a bare nucleus. As a consequence it has no independent existence in the condensed state and is invariably found bound by a pair of electrons to another atom. In chemistry, the term proton refers to the hydrogen ion, H . Since the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, a hydrogen ion has no electrons and corresponds to a bare nucleus, consisting of a proton (and 0 neutrons for

5168-630: Is an indefinitely postponed Chinese science fiction 3D film , adapted from The Three-Body Problem , directed by Fanfan Zhang, and starring Feng Shaofeng and Zhang Jingchu . A Chinese Minecraft machinima animated series based on the trilogy began releasing on February 27, 2014. Waterdrop , a 2015 Chinese short film based on The Dark Forest . A Chinese animated series based on The Dark Forest aired from December 10, 2022, to March 25, 2023. A Chinese live-action series based on The Three-Body Problem aired from January 15 to February 3, 2023. A live-action, English-language series based on

5304-485: Is called either 华语 ; 華語 ; Huáyǔ or 汉语 ; 漢語 ; Hànyǔ ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example,

5440-413: Is first proposed by the character Ye Wenjie in conversation with future Wallfacer Luo Ji. Ye Wenjie proposes two axioms of cosmic sociology: "First: Survival is the primary need of civilization. Second: Civilization continuously grows and expands, but the total matter in the universe remains constant." After becoming a Wallfacer, Luo Ji uses the axioms provided by Ye Wenjie to invent the dark-forest theory of

5576-443: Is further solvated by water molecules in clusters such as [H 5 O 2 ] and [H 9 O 4 ] . The transfer of H in an acid–base reaction is usually referred to as "proton transfer". The acid is referred to as a proton donor and the base as a proton acceptor. Likewise, biochemical terms such as proton pump and proton channel refer to the movement of hydrated H ions. The ion produced by removing

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5712-595: Is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme , the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free , such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of

5848-445: Is only about an eighth as many as English. All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate

5984-512: Is reversible; neutrons can convert back to protons through beta decay , a common form of radioactive decay . In fact, a free neutron decays this way, with a mean lifetime of about 15 minutes. A proton can also transform into a neutron through beta plus decay (β+ decay). According to quantum field theory , the mean proper lifetime of protons τ p {\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }} becomes finite when they are accelerating with proper acceleration

6120-668: Is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石 ; shí alone, and not 石头 ; 石頭 ; shítou , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏 ; shígāo ; 'plaster', 石灰 ; shíhuī ; 'lime', 石窟 ; shíkū ; 'grotto', 石英 ; 'quartz', and 石油 ; shíyóu ; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 字 ; zì ) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词 ; 詞 ; cí , which more closely resembles

6256-484: Is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary,

6392-461: Is to act as surveillance devices, beaming the information they gather back to another sophon instantaneously via quantum entanglement . Their primary purpose for their Trisolaran manufacturers is to disrupt Earth's particle accelerators, capable of straying into the paths of fired particles and scrambling the results of experiments before re-assembling, effectively blocking advancement of the science. Since they can move through three-dimensional space at

6528-424: Is to simply smash through objects . Simplified in a demonstration as a piece of soap attached to a paper boat on water, with the soap reducing the water tension at its end, and the water tension disparity propelling the boat. Traveling through previous paths slows the boat down due to decreased surface tension. Curvature Propulsion is a method of acceleration to lightspeed that utilizes the same concept, via reducing

6664-496: Is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau . The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because

6800-497: Is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for

6936-540: Is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan , Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan , and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong . Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话 ; pǔtōnghuà ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it

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7072-428: Is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia : as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while

7208-735: The Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese , borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system

7344-525: The Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in

7480-680: The May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin ) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with

7616-583: The Morris water maze . Electrical charging of a spacecraft due to interplanetary proton bombardment has also been proposed for study. There are many more studies that pertain to space travel, including galactic cosmic rays and their possible health effects , and solar proton event exposure. The American Biostack and Soviet Biorack space travel experiments have demonstrated the severity of molecular damage induced by heavy ions on microorganisms including Artemia cysts. CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on

7752-579: The National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话 ; 普通話 ; pǔtōnghuà ; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. In Hong Kong and Macau , Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and

7888-473: The Netflix television adaptation for addressing the source material's perceived sexism by recharacterizing Ye Wenji as an antihero and replacing the main character Wang Miao with two new female characters. University of Liverpool Chinese senior lecturer Aiqing Wang has argued that Liu Cixin's trilogy does not promote sexism and chauvinism . She cited the first novel Three Body Problem 's depiction of

8024-512: The Remembrance of Earth's Past such as: messaging extraterrestrial civilisations ; gravitational wave transmitter; dark forest hypothesis ; space elevator ; artificial hibernation ; fusion drive ; and circumsolar particle accelerator. Chinese language Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 汉语 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ ; lit. ' Han language' or 中文 ; Zhōngwén ; 'Chinese writing')

8160-591: The constituent quark model, which were popular in the 1980s, and the SVZ sum rules , which allow for rough approximate mass calculations. These methods do not have the same accuracy as the more brute-force lattice QCD methods, at least not yet. The CODATA recommended value of a proton's charge radius is 8.4075(64) × 10  m . The radius of the proton is defined by a formula that can be calculated by quantum electrodynamics and be derived from either atomic spectroscopy or by electron–proton scattering. The formula involves

8296-462: The electron cloud in a normal atom. However, in such an association with an electron, the character of the bound proton is not changed, and it remains a proton. The attraction of low-energy free protons to any electrons present in normal matter (such as the electrons in normal atoms) causes free protons to stop and to form a new chemical bond with an atom. Such a bond happens at any sufficiently "cold" temperature (that is, comparable to temperatures at

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8432-686: The mean lifetime of a proton for various assumed decay products. Experiments at the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan gave lower limits for proton mean lifetime of 6.6 × 10  years for decay to an antimuon and a neutral pion , and 8.2 × 10  years for decay to a positron and a neutral pion. Another experiment at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada searched for gamma rays resulting from residual nuclei resulting from

8568-405: The nucleus of every atom . They provide the attractive electrostatic central force which binds the atomic electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number (represented by the symbol Z ). Since each element is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus, each element has its own atomic number, which determines

8704-473: The oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c.  1250 BCE . The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period , Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded

8840-591: The phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at

8976-480: The radioactive decay of free neutrons , which are unstable. The spontaneous decay of free protons has never been observed, and protons are therefore considered stable particles according to the Standard Model. However, some grand unified theories (GUTs) of particle physics predict that proton decay should take place with lifetimes between 10 and 10 years. Experimental searches have established lower bounds on

9112-490: The speed of light , a single sophon is capable of disrupting all of Earth's particle accelerators. Trisolaran space probes are covered in a strong interaction force material. Due to this material, they are stronger than any material in the solar system and thus are impervious to any physical attack. Their propulsion system is capable of moving in any direction in 3D space. Seemingly unaffected by inertia, they can make sudden impossible turns, and their primary method of attack

9248-651: The 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian , records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai , a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Proton One or more protons are present in

9384-555: The Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet . English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 ( tê ), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 ( dim2 sam1 ), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 ( gam1 gwat1 ). The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum , in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though

9520-518: The Moon is inside the Earth's geomagnetic tail, and typically no solar wind particles were detectable. For the remainder of each lunar orbit, the Moon is in a transitional region known as the magnetosheath , where the Earth's magnetic field affects the solar wind, but does not completely exclude it. In this region, the particle flux is reduced, with typical proton velocities of 250 to 450 kilometers per second. During

9656-407: The character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, until it is captured by the electron cloud of an atom. The result is a diatomic or polyatomic ion containing hydrogen. In a vacuum, when free electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming

9792-399: The cloud chamber, but instead only 2 tracks in the cloud chamber were observed. The alpha particle is absorbed by the nitrogen atom. After capture of the alpha particle, a hydrogen nucleus is ejected, creating a net result of 2 charged particles (a proton and a positively charged oxygen) which make 2 tracks in the cloud chamber. Heavy oxygen ( O), not carbon or fluorine, is the product. This was

9928-480: The coaccelerated frame there is a thermal bath due to Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect , an intrinsic effect of quantum field theory. In this thermal bath, experienced by the proton, there are electrons and antineutrinos with which the proton may interact according to the processes: Adding the contributions of each of these processes, one should obtain τ p {\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }} . In quantum chromodynamics ,

10064-438: The decay of a proton from oxygen-16. This experiment was designed to detect decay to any product, and established a lower limit to a proton lifetime of 2.1 × 10  years . However, protons are known to transform into neutrons through the process of electron capture (also called inverse beta decay ). For free protons, this process does not occur spontaneously but only when energy is supplied. The equation is: The process

10200-399: The different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which

10336-484: The difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect , lect , vernacular , regional , and variety . Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of

10472-446: The electron from a deuterium atom is known as a deuteron , not a proton. Likewise, removing an electron from a tritium atom produces a triton . Also in chemistry, the term proton NMR refers to the observation of hydrogen-1 nuclei in (mostly organic ) molecules by nuclear magnetic resonance . This method uses the quantized spin magnetic moment of the proton, which is due to its angular momentum (or spin ), which in turn has

10608-566: The end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection , and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles . Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui , Tang , and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by

10744-397: The equal participation of both genders in science and its acknowledgement of the disparate mindsets of males and females. Wang also cited the allusion to "feminised masculinity " in the third novel Death's End. However, she conceded that the trilogy contained depictions of gender stereotypes, with female characters often being characterised as "delicate and soft." The Three-Body Problem

10880-542: The fatal flaw in the Trisolarans' logic to create the "Wallfacer Plan". Astronomer Luo Ji is unexpectedly selected as one of the four "wallfacers" to launch a secret counteroffensive against the Trisolarans. The Trisolarians respond by deploying "wallbreakers" chosen by Earth's betrayers to make up for the Trisolarians' inability to see through human tactics. In the fight for survival, Luo eventually recognises his responsibilities from escaping and hedonism at first and devises

11016-409: The fates of both worlds. When anomalies begin to disrupt the ability of earth's scientists to conduct fundamental research, nanomaterials researcher Wang Miao plays the mysterious online game "Three-Body Problem" and starts to explore the nature of the game's world. Wang Miao meets the secretive Earth-Trisolaris Organization (ETO), created to support the impending arrival of Trisolarans, while attending

11152-413: The first one, 十 , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable

11288-441: The first reported nuclear reaction , N + α → O + p . Rutherford at first thought of our modern "p" in this equation as a hydrogen ion, H . Depending on one's perspective, either 1919 (when it was seen experimentally as derived from another source than hydrogen) or 1920 (when it was recognized and proposed as an elementary particle) may be regarded as the moment when the proton was 'discovered'. Rutherford knew hydrogen to be

11424-491: The form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections —it possesses no tenses , no voices , no grammatical number , and only a few articles . They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood . In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了 ; le ; ' PFV ', 还 ; 還 ; hái ; 'still', and 已经 ; 已經 ; yǐjīng ; 'already'. Chinese has

11560-418: The gluons, and transitory pairs of sea quarks . Protons have a positive charge distribution, which decays approximately exponentially, with a root mean square charge radius of about 0.8 fm. Protons and neutrons are both nucleons , which may be bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei . The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom (with the chemical symbol "H")

11696-599: The government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas . Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . Although

11832-486: The huge Trisolaran fleet approaches Earth after using their superior technology to shut down Earth's advances in fundamental science. Following the Trisolarans' use of technology to lock down Earth science and launch a huge space fleet straight into the solar system, human beings also create a huge space fleet to react to the unprecedented Earth civilization crisis, while the Planetary Defence Council (PDC) uses

11968-581: The language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations . Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into

12104-516: The late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji , and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses

12240-429: The later 1990s because τ p {\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {p} }} is a scalar that can be measured by the inertial and coaccelerated observers . In the inertial frame , the accelerating proton should decay according to the formula above. However, according to the coaccelerated observer the proton is at rest and hence should not decay. This puzzle is solved by realizing that in

12376-410: The life of human Cheng Xin on Earth as its main line, this book continues human history after the establishment of deterrence in the second work, Dark Forest, and further reveals the truth of the Dark Forest predicament in the cosmos. Humanity's first glimpse of the truth of the dark universe came from the fight with the Trisolaran civilization, which made Earth's civilization shiver in the dark night like

12512-447: The lunar night, the spectrometer was shielded from the solar wind by the Moon and no solar wind particles were measured. Protons also have extrasolar origin from galactic cosmic rays , where they make up about 90% of the total particle flux. These protons often have higher energy than solar wind protons, and their intensity is far more uniform and less variable than protons coming from the Sun,

12648-402: The mass of a quark by itself, while constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark. These masses typically have very different values. The kinetic energy of the quarks that is a consequence of confinement is a contribution (see Mass in special relativity ). Using lattice QCD calculations, the contributions to

12784-2129: The mass of the proton are the quark condensate (~9%, comprising the up and down quarks and a sea of virtual strange quarks), the quark kinetic energy (~32%), the gluon kinetic energy (~37%), and the anomalous gluonic contribution (~23%, comprising contributions from condensates of all quark flavors). The constituent quark model wavefunction for the proton is | p ↑ ⟩ = 1 18 ( 2 | u ↑ d ↓ u ↑ ⟩ + 2 | u ↑ u ↑ d ↓ ⟩ + 2 | d ↓ u ↑ u ↑ ⟩ − | u ↑ u ↓ d ↑ ⟩ − | u ↑ d ↑ u ↓ ⟩ − | u ↓ d ↑ u ↑ ⟩ − | d ↑ u ↓ u ↑ ⟩ − | d ↑ u ↑ u ↓ ⟩ − | u ↓ u ↑ d ↑ ⟩ ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {|p_{\uparrow }\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {18}}}\left(2|u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle +2|u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\downarrow }\rangle +2|d_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle -|u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }\rangle -|d_{\uparrow }u_{\uparrow }u_{\downarrow }\rangle -|u_{\downarrow }u_{\uparrow }d_{\uparrow }\rangle \right)} .} The internal dynamics of protons are complicated, because they are determined by

12920-477: The modern theory of the nuclear force, most of the mass of protons and neutrons is explained by special relativity . The mass of a proton is about 80–100 times greater than the sum of the rest masses of its three valence quarks , while the gluons have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a proton, as compared to the rest energy of the quarks alone in the QCD vacuum , accounts for almost 99% of

13056-455: The more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words , especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion : sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including

13192-435: The most abundant isotope protium 1 H ). The proton is a "bare charge" with only about 1/64,000 of the radius of a hydrogen atom, and so is extremely reactive chemically. The free proton, thus, has an extremely short lifetime in chemical systems such as liquids and it reacts immediately with the electron cloud of any available molecule. In aqueous solution, it forms the hydronium ion , H 3 O , which in turn

13328-475: The most powerful example being the Large Hadron Collider . Protons are spin- ⁠ 1 / 2 ⁠ fermions and are composed of three valence quarks, making them baryons (a sub-type of hadrons ). The two up quarks and one down quark of a proton are held together by the strong force , mediated by gluons . A modern perspective has a proton composed of the valence quarks (up, up, down),

13464-425: The mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with

13600-583: The nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/ , /n/ , /ŋ/ , the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ , and voiceless stops /p/ , /t/ , /k/ , or /ʔ/ . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/ , /ŋ/ , and /ɻ/ . The number of sounds in

13736-438: The neutral hydrogen atom. He initially suggested both proton and prouton (after Prout). Rutherford later reported that the meeting had accepted his suggestion that the hydrogen nucleus be named the "proton", following Prout's word "protyle". The first use of the word "proton" in the scientific literature appeared in 1920. One or more bound protons are present in the nucleus of every atom. Free protons are found naturally in

13872-403: The new small radius. Work continues to refine and check this new value. Since the proton is composed of quarks confined by gluons, an equivalent pressure that acts on the quarks can be defined. The size of that pressure and other details about it are controversial. In 2018 this pressure was reported to be on the order 10  Pa, which is greater than the pressure inside a neutron star . It

14008-416: The nucleon structure is still missing because ... long-distance behavior requires a nonperturbative and/or numerical treatment ..." More conceptual approaches to the structure of protons are: the topological soliton approach originally due to Tony Skyrme and the more accurate AdS/QCD approach that extends it to include a string theory of gluons, various QCD-inspired models like the bag model and

14144-579: The nucleus the proton , after the neuter singular of the Greek word for "first", πρῶτον . However, Rutherford also had in mind the word protyle as used by Prout. Rutherford spoke at the British Association for the Advancement of Science at its Cardiff meeting beginning 24 August 1920. At the meeting, he was asked by Oliver Lodge for a new name for the positive hydrogen nucleus to avoid confusion with

14280-681: The number of (negatively charged) electrons , which for neutral atoms is equal to the number of (positive) protons so that the total charge is zero. For example, a neutral chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons, whereas a Cl anion has 17 protons and 18 electrons for a total charge of −1. All atoms of a given element are not necessarily identical, however. The number of neutrons may vary to form different isotopes , and energy levels may differ, resulting in different nuclear isomers . For example, there are two stable isotopes of chlorine : 17 Cl with 35 − 17 = 18 neutrons and 17 Cl with 37 − 17 = 20 neutrons. The proton

14416-418: The number of atomic electrons and consequently the chemical characteristics of the element. The word proton is Greek for "first", and the name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Ernest Rutherford in 1920. In previous years, Rutherford had discovered that the hydrogen nucleus (known to be the lightest nucleus) could be extracted from the nuclei of nitrogen by atomic collisions. Protons were therefore

14552-538: The other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan . All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic . The earliest attested written Chinese consists of

14688-701: The particles in the solar wind are electrons and protons, in approximately equal numbers. Because the Solar Wind Spectrometer made continuous measurements, it was possible to measure how the Earth's magnetic field affects arriving solar wind particles. For about two-thirds of each orbit, the Moon is outside of the Earth's magnetic field. At these times, a typical proton density was 10 to 20 per cubic centimeter, with most protons having velocities between 400 and 650 kilometers per second. For about five days of each month,

14824-406: The planet Trisolaris, located four light years distant and dominated by the chaotic orbits of its three suns, experiences ever-recurring destruction and rebirth, thus forcing the planet's inhabitants to flee their home planet. As they prepare their exodus, Ye Wenjie, despairing of humanity's ability to save itself from itself, exposes the coordinates of the Earth to the Trisolarans, completely changing

14960-482: The planet Trisolaris. The books in the Remembrance of Earth's Past trilogy are: Astronomer Ye Wenjie is brought to the military's top-secret Red Coast Project after suffering an attack during the Cultural Revolution. She achieves a significant advancement in the search for extraterrestrial civilization when she uses the Sun as an amplifier to send the first sounds of Earth's civilization into space. Meanwhile,

15096-671: The pressure profile shape by selection of the model. The radius of the hydrated proton appears in the Born equation for calculating the hydration enthalpy of hydronium . Although protons have affinity for oppositely charged electrons, this is a relatively low-energy interaction and so free protons must lose sufficient velocity (and kinetic energy ) in order to become closely associated and bound to electrons. High energy protons, in traversing ordinary matter, lose energy by collisions with atomic nuclei , and by ionization of atoms (removing electrons) until they are slowed sufficiently to be captured by

15232-662: The production of which is heavily affected by solar proton events such as coronal mass ejections . Research has been performed on the dose-rate effects of protons, as typically found in space travel , on human health. To be more specific, there are hopes to identify what specific chromosomes are damaged, and to define the damage, during cancer development from proton exposure. Another study looks into determining "the effects of exposure to proton irradiation on neurochemical and behavioral endpoints, including dopaminergic functioning, amphetamine -induced conditioned taste aversion learning, and spatial learning and memory as measured by

15368-400: The proton's mass. The rest mass of a proton is, thus, the invariant mass of the system of moving quarks and gluons that make up the particle, and, in such systems, even the energy of massless particles confined to a system is still measured as part of the rest mass of the system. Two terms are used in referring to the mass of the quarks that make up protons: current quark mass refers to

15504-513: The quarks' exchanging gluons, and interacting with various vacuum condensates. Lattice QCD provides a way of calculating the mass of a proton directly from the theory to any accuracy, in principle. The most recent calculations claim that the mass is determined to better than 4% accuracy, even to 1% accuracy (see Figure S5 in Dürr et al. ). These claims are still controversial, because the calculations cannot yet be done with quarks as light as they are in

15640-404: The rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain . Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese ,

15776-444: The real world. This means that the predictions are found by a process of extrapolation , which can introduce systematic errors. It is hard to tell whether these errors are controlled properly, because the quantities that are compared to experiment are the masses of the hadrons , which are known in advance. These recent calculations are performed by massive supercomputers, and, as noted by Boffi and Pasquini: "a detailed description of

15912-552: The related subject dropping . Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for

16048-509: The relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic . Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without

16184-581: The relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. For example, the charges of a proton and antiproton must sum to exactly zero. This equality has been tested to one part in 10 . The equality of their masses has also been tested to better than one part in 10 . By holding antiprotons in a Penning trap , the equality of the charge-to-mass ratio of protons and antiprotons has been tested to one part in 6 × 10 . The magnetic moment of antiprotons has been measured with an error of 8 × 10 nuclear Bohr magnetons , and

16320-443: The simplest and lightest element and was influenced by Prout's hypothesis that hydrogen was the building block of all elements. Discovery that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei as an elementary particle led Rutherford to give the hydrogen nucleus H a special name as a particle, since he suspected that hydrogen, the lightest element, contained only one of these particles. He named this new fundamental building block of

16456-505: The six official languages of the United Nations . Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters , largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by

16592-557: The slightly later Menggu Ziyun , this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties , known as 官话 ; 官話 ; Guānhuà ; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language

16728-403: The speed of light it is possible to drag a ship through space at light speed, while its wake is a reduced light-speed region of space. Humanity by the time of Dark Forest has developed cryogenic technology, capable of preserving a human life, unaging, for hundreds of years barring certain genetic disorders. Initially, it is viewed as a sign of inequality before it is fully developed, viewed as

16864-482: The surface of the Sun) and with any type of atom. Thus, in interaction with any type of normal (non-plasma) matter, low-velocity free protons do not remain free but are attracted to electrons in any atom or molecule with which they come into contact, causing the proton and molecule to combine. Such molecules are then said to be " protonated ", and chemically they are simply compounds of hydrogen, often positively charged. Often, as

17000-609: The tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds . In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿 ; kūlong from 孔 ; kǒng ; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to

17136-547: The traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包 ; 漢堡包 ; hànbǎobāo ; 'hamburger', 守门员 ; 守門員 ; shǒuményuán ; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件 ; 電子郵件 ; diànzǐyóujiàn ; 'e-mail'. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages : they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in

17272-582: The trilogy premiered on Netflix on March 21, 2024, with David Benioff , D. B. Weiss , and Alexander Woo as showrunners. A 3-part documentary series entitled Rendezvous with the Future which explores the science behind Liu Cixin's science fiction was produced by BBC Studios and released by Bilibili in China in November 2022. The series includes an extensive interview with Liu Cixin and covers many ideas featured in

17408-425: The universe and the idea of dark-forest deterrence to stop the Trisolaran invasion. Polish science fiction critic Wojciech Orliński argued that the trilogy represents Liu Cixin's endorsement of concepts of world government , consequentialism as well as tacit approval of "China's surveillance and control society ". American journalist and writer Evan Lambert was critical of Liu Cixin's perceived sexism, which

17544-512: The use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma . The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be " checked tones " and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Chinese

17680-452: The words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters , but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until

17816-508: The written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese . Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period . Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with

17952-453: Was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language ( 国语 ; 國語 ; Guóyǔ ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation,

18088-525: Was confirmed experimentally by Henry Moseley in 1913 using X-ray spectra (More details in Atomic number under Moseley's 1913 experiment). In 1917, Rutherford performed experiments (reported in 1919 and 1925) which proved that the hydrogen nucleus is present in other nuclei, a result usually described as the discovery of protons. These experiments began after Rutherford observed that when alpha particles would strike air, Rutherford could detect scintillation on

18224-433: Was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half

18360-407: Was predicated in the author's view that "women need the logic of men to balance them and temper their irrationality." He cited the author's characterization of Ye Wenjie as a "quasi-villain" due to her curiosity with alien species and her depiction as untrustworthy, incompetent and irrational. Lambert was also critical of the novels for what he regarded as its "thinly-drawn" characters. Lambert praised

18496-436: Was said to be maximum at the centre, positive (repulsive) to a radial distance of about 0.6 fm, negative (attractive) at greater distances, and very weak beyond about 2 fm. These numbers were derived by a combination of a theoretical model and experimental Compton scattering of high-energy electrons. However, these results have been challenged as also being consistent with zero pressure and as effectively providing

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