Tetraplasandra is a no longer recognised genus of plants in the ivy family, Araliaceae . They are small to medium trees , (rarely shrubs or large trees) of mesic to wet forests .
93-617: Some authors have recognized as many as 19 species in Tetraplasandra , while others have recognized as few as six. In 2007, the authors of a scientific paper recommended that the genus be divided into nine species. In 2010, all of these nine species were included in Polyscias subgenus Tetraplasandra , a subgenus of 21 species in the large genus Polyscias , which will comprise about 250 species, when about 90 undescribed species are published . The range of variation in Tetraplasandra
186-446: A neologism ( / n i ˈ ɒ l ə ˌ dʒ ɪ z əm / ; also known as a coinage ) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has achieved popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language. Most definitively, a word can be considered a neologism once it is published in a dictionary. Neologisms are one facet of lexical innovation , i.e., the linguistic process of new terms and meanings entering
279-509: A rare tree of Oʻahu, is considered an oddity, since it is the only species in Araliaceae whose flowers have a completely superior ovary . The genus Tetraplasandra has long been known as a close relative of the obsolete genera Gastonia , Reynoldsia , and Munroidendron . This was confirmed by a pollen study in 1971. In 2010, those four genera, along with Arthrophyllum and Cuphocarpus , were all sunk into Polyscias , raising
372-469: A basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress
465-552: A chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the Linnaean system ). Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with
558-443: A different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined " beta taxonomy " as the classification of ranks higher than species. An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species
651-472: A genus that Friedrich A.W. Miquel had established in 1856. In 1873, Heinrich Wawra von Fernsee named a new species from Kauaʻi as Tetraplasandra waimeae . In 1888, in the first flora of the Hawaiian Islands, Wilhelm B. Hillebrand raised Horace Mann Jr's Pterotropia to generic rank as Pterotropia . He added to it, a new species from Oʻahu, which he named Pterotropia gymnocarpa . This work
744-698: A genus that Joseph Gaertner had named in 1791, in De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum . Mann created a new section in Heptapleurum for the two Hawaiian species. He named the new section "Pterotropia". Heptapleurum is no longer recognized and its type species is now known as Schefflera stellata . Earl Edward Sherff did not consider the two species named by Mann to be truly distinct. He included both in Tetraplasandra kavaiensis , which he divided into eight varieties , including T. kavaiensis var. dipyrena . From 1864 to 1868, Berthold Carl Seemann published
837-730: A language's lexicon . The most precise studies into language change and word formation , in fact, identify the process of a "neological continuum": a nonce word is any single-use term that may or may not grow in popularity; a protologism is such a term used exclusively within a small group; a prelogism is such a term that is gaining usage but still not mainstream; and a neologism has become accepted or recognized by social institutions. Neologisms are often driven by changes in culture and technology. Popular examples of neologisms can be found in science , technology , fiction (notably science fiction ), films and television, commercial branding, literature , jargon , cant , linguistics ,
930-451: A little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy. Later authors have used the term in
1023-583: A misguided romantic quest like that of the title character in Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes ; Scrooge , a pejorative for misers based on the avaricious main character in Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol ; and Pollyanna , referring to people who are unfailingly optimistic like the title character of Eleanor H. Porter's Pollyanna . Neologisms are often introduced in technical writing, so-called Fachtexte or 'technical texts' through
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#17330858566381116-504: A notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics , scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes
1209-424: A person's idiolect , one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Neologisms are usually introduced when it is found that a specific notion is lacking a term, or when the existing vocabulary lacks detail, or when a speaker is unaware of the existing vocabulary. The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms. Another trigger that motivates
1302-442: A quality or attribute of a perceived object, as opposed to its essence. In physics, new terms were introduced sometimes via nonce formation (e.g., Murray Gell-Man 's quark , taken from James Joyce ) or through derivation (e.g. John von Neumann's kiloton , coined by combining the common prefix kilo- 'thousand' with the noun ton ). Neologisms therefore are a vital component of scientific jargon or termini technici . Polari
1395-461: A revision of the Hawaiian species of Tetraplasandra . It included a detailed taxonomic history . Sherff considered Tetraplasandra to consist of three species from Malesia and 19 from Hawaii. In this treatment, he named several new species and included others that had been named by Joseph F.C. Rock , Otto Degener and Carl J.F. Skottsberg . Of all of the species named by Sherff, only T. bisattenuata
1488-600: A series of articles in the Journal of Botany, British and Foreign , all of which were entitled "Revision of the natural order Hederaceae". In 1868, he published a book by the same title. He divided what later became Hawaiian Tetraplasandra into four genera. He maintained Tetraplasandra for T. hawaiensis and created two new genera; Triplasandra , for Asa Gray's Gastonia oahuensis and Dipanax for Mann's Tetraplasandra dipyrena . He placed Mann's Tetraplasandra kavaiensis in Agalma ,
1581-470: A single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius , Timotheus of Gaza , Demetrios Pepagomenos , and Thomas Aquinas . Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During
1674-652: A sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows: Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics)
1767-473: A taxon involves five main requirements: However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple quantitative or qualitative comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of DNA sequence data. Neologism In linguistics ,
1860-506: A term still below the threshold of a neologism according to Merriam-Webster , is an example of the latter which has specifically spread primarily through Facebook group and Twitter account use. The suspected origin of this way of referring to dogs stems from a Facebook group founded in 2008 and gaining popularity in 2014 in Australia. In Australian English it is common to use diminutives , often ending in –o, which could be where doggo-lingo
1953-524: A truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus 's system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals
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#17330858566382046-606: A type of dairy product ) from James Joyce 's Finnegans Wake . The title of a book may become a neologism, for instance, Catch-22 (from the title of Joseph Heller 's novel). Alternatively, the author's name may give rise to the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as " Orwellian " (from George Orwell , referring to his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four ) and "Kafkaesque" (from Franz Kafka ). Names of famous characters are another source of literary neologisms. Some examples include: Quixotic , referring to
2139-483: Is interdisciplinary . Anyone such as a lexicographer or an etymologist might study neologisms, how their uses span the scope of human expression, and how, due to science and technology, they spread more rapidly than ever before in the present times. The term neologism has a broader meaning which also includes "a word which has gained a new meaning". Sometimes, the latter process is called semantic shifting , or semantic extension . Neologisms are distinct from
2232-413: Is a blend of the words "breakfast" and "lunch", or through abbreviation or acronym , by intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply through playing with sounds. A relatively rare form of neologism is when proper names are used as words (e.g., boycott , from Charles Boycott ), including guy , dick , Chad , and Karen . Neologisms can become popular through memetics , through mass media ,
2325-497: Is a cant used by some actors, circus performers, and the gay subculture to communicate without outsiders understanding. Some Polari terms have crossed over into mainstream slang, in part through their usage in pop song lyrics and other works. Example include: acdc , barney , blag , butch , camp , khazi , cottaging , hoofer , mince , ogle , scarper , slap , strides , tod , [rough] trade ( rough trade ). Verlan ( French pronunciation: [vɛʁlɑ̃] ), ( verlan
2418-497: Is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain , Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus , Species , and Strain . The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing
2511-400: Is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon . This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, anatomical , palynological , biochemical and genetic . A monograph or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for
2604-458: Is a resource for fossils. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology , and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life , the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology . Biological classification
2697-505: Is crucial in various industries and legal systems. Inaccurate translations can lead to 'translation asymmetry' or misunderstandings and miscommunication. Many technical glossaries of English translations exist to combat this issue in the medical, judicial, and technological fields. In psychiatry and neuroscience , the term neologism is used to describe words that have meaning only to the person who uses them, independent of their common meaning. This can be seen in schizophrenia , where
2790-419: Is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy". How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as
2883-526: Is now known to be closer to T. oahuensis than to T. hawaiensis . In 1898, in a monograph on Araliaceae for Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien , Hermann Harms adopted Hillebrand's Pterotropia , but sank Triplasandra back into Tetraplasandra . Harms accepted the six species that Hillebrand had placed in Triplasandra and Tetraplasandra . He also included in Tetraplasandra , the Malesian species that
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2976-428: Is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ), class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics,
3069-513: Is still recognized today. Sherff recognized the uniqueness of T. hawaiensis , a judgement that was corroborated by subsequent evidence . He understood that T. waimeae and T. waialealae are closely related and that these two belong in a group with T. oahuensis , T. lydgatei , and T. bisattenuata . He placed Pterotropia in synonymy under Tetraplasandra , writing that "a monographic study of Tetraplasandra reveals so much interlocking and overlapping of characters between Tetraplasandra and
3162-449: Is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division
3255-400: Is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced
3348-492: Is the predominant language for published research and studies, like-sounding translations (referred to as 'naturalization') are sometimes used. Alternatively, the English word is used along with a brief explanation of meaning. The four translation methods are emphasized in order to translate neologisms: transliteration , transcription , the use of analogues, and loan translation . When translating from English to other languages,
3441-481: Is the reverse of the expression "l'envers") is a type of argot in the French language , featuring inversion of syllables in a word, and is common in slang and youth language. It rests on a long French tradition of transposing syllables of individual words to create slang words. Some verlan words, such as meuf ("femme", which means "woman" roughly backwards), have become so commonplace that they have been included in
3534-431: Is unusual for a word to gain popularity if it does not clearly resemble other words. The term neologism is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from French néologisme (1734). The French word derives from Greek νέο- néo (="new") and λόγος / lógos , meaning "speech, utterance". In an academic sense, there is no professional neologist, because the study of such things (cultural or ethnic vernacular, for example)
3627-621: Is unusually large for a genus in Araliaceae Most of the species were originally described in other genera which were later merged with Tetraplasandra . The type species for the genus is T. hawaiensis . As defined by William R. Philipson [ es ] in 1970, Tetraplasandra is endemic to Hawaii and occurs on six of the eight main islands . Niʻihau and Kahoʻolawe are low-lying and dry ; consequently, they do not support Tetraplasandra . T. oahuensis , T. kavaiensis , and T. hawaiensis are found on six, five, and four of
3720-486: The Petit Larousse . Like any slang, the purpose of verlan is to create a somewhat secret language that only its speakers can understand. Words becoming mainstream is counterproductive. As a result, such newly common words are re-verlanised: reversed a second time. The common meuf became feumeu . Neologism development may be spurred, or at least spread, by popular culture. Examples of pop-culture neologisms include
3813-518: The Aristotelian system , with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi , due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in
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3906-453: The Internet , and word of mouth , including academic discourse in many fields renowned for their use of distinctive jargon , and often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. It
3999-575: The Neomura , the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya , would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinomycetota . His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota ( acellular and without nucleic acid ) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to
4092-503: The Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment , categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology
4185-508: The botany of the U.S. Exploring Expedition (1838-1842). The name is derived from Greek , tetraplasios , "fourfold", and andros , "male, stamen". Asa Gray named only one species, T. hawaiensis , in Tetraplasandra . The tree that was later known as Tetraplasandra oahuensis (now Polyscias oahuensis ), he named Gastonia oahuensis , but with considerable doubt about its placement . In 1867, Horace Mann Jr. named two new species, H. kavaiensis and H. dipyrenum in Heptapleurum ,
4278-994: The native Hawaiian members of Polyscias . The former genus Reynoldsia turned out to be diphyletic , with its single Hawaiian species not forming a clade with the four species from Samoa, Tahiti, and the Marquesas. Basal relationships in Polyscias subgenus Tetraplasandra remain obscure because of insufficient taxon sampling in phylogenetic studies. Gregory M. Plunkett, Jun Wen, Porter P. Lowry II, Murray J. Henwood, Pedro Fiaschi, and Anthony D. Mitchell. accepted, undated. Araliaceae, pages ??. In: Klaus Kubitzki (editor); ?? (volume editor). The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants volume ??. Springer-Verlag: Berlin; Heidelberg, Germany. ISBN ?? Taxonomic authority In biology , taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) 'arrangement' and -νομία ( -nomia ) ' method ')
4371-439: The species problem . The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher taxonomic ranks subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of phylogenetic nomenclature . While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations,
4464-461: The vertebrates ), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans , are commonly used. His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum . Several plant genera can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus , Crocus , and Narcissus . Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on
4557-618: The visual arts , and popular culture. Examples of words that were 20th-century neologisms include laser (1960), an acronym of light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation ; robot (1921) from Czech writer Karel Čapek 's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) ; and agitprop (1930; a portmanteau of Russian "agitatsiya" (agitation) and "propaganda"). Neologisms are often formed by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective ) or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes . Neologisms can also be formed by blending words, for example, "brunch"
4650-488: The 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade . Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic . The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree , with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic , while groups representing more than one branch from
4743-746: The American alt-Right (2010s), the Canadian portmanteau " Snowmageddon " (2009), the Russian parody " Monstration " ( c. 2004 ), Santorum ( c. 2003 ). Neologisms spread mainly through their exposure in mass media . The genericizing of brand names , such as "coke" for Coca-Cola , "kleenex" for Kleenex facial tissue, and "xerox" for Xerox photocopying , all spread through their popular use being enhanced by mass media. However, in some limited cases, words break out of their original communities and spread through social media . " DoggoLingo ",
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#17330858566384836-530: The Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as
4929-487: The Origin of Species (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of cladistic methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of monophyly , supported by the presence of synapomorphies . Since then,
5022-522: The animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea
5115-419: The authors recommended that it be reinstated. Tetraplasandra oahuensis is heterogeneous and probably polyspecific , but the authors recommended that further studies be conducted before any attempt to divide it. In 2010, a molecular phylogenetic study was published for the seven genera which at that time constituted the pinnate Araliaceae. It was found that the six smaller genera are all embedded in
5208-655: The coining of a neologism is to disambiguate a term which may be unclear due to having many meanings. Neologisms may come from a word used in the narrative of fiction such as novels and short stories. Examples include " grok " (to intuitively understand) from the science fiction novel about a Martian entitled Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein ; " McJob " (precarious, poorly-paid employment) from Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture by Douglas Coupland ; " cyberspace " (widespread, interconnected digital technology) from Neuromancer by William Gibson and " quark " (Slavic slang for "rubbish"; German for
5301-542: The definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology , the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks ( superfamily to subspecies ), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN Code ). In the fields of phycology , mycology , and botany , the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ( ICN ). The initial description of
5394-399: The entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or
5487-489: The evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from molecular genetics that for the most part complements traditional morphology . Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC , indicating that
5580-516: The exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar ). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as DNA sequencing , bioinformatics , databases , and imaging . A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of
5673-486: The first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis , Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in
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#17330858566385766-682: The formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode , which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as
5859-511: The former genera Tetraplasandra , Munroidendron , and Reynoldsia , as well as the two Malesian species that were in Gastonia , and four of the six species that Philipson had placed in Polyscias section Eupteron. Polyscias acuminata might also belong to Polyscias subgenus Tetraplasandra. It was placed incertae sedis, but has characters resembling those of subgenus Tetraplasandra. In other ways, however, it resembles Polyscias nodosa ,
5952-412: The former genus Tetraplasandra was resolved as monophyletic and consisting of three clades . T. hawaiensis was found to be sister to the rest of Tetraplasandra . T. kavaiensis , T. flynnii , and T. gymnocarpa formed a strongly supported clade. The remaining clade consisted of T. bisattenuata , T. oahuensis , T. waimeae , and T. waialealae . T. bisattenuata was found to be distinct and
6045-431: The information in the species list is from Lowry and Plunkett (2010). Synonyms are names of species accepted by Sherff (1955) or by Frodin and Govaerts (2003), except for Tetraplasandra lydgatei and Tetraplasandra bisattenuata , which were resurrected after 2003. For complete synonymy and distribution within the Hawaiian Islands, see Lowry (1990). The genus name was erected by Asa Gray in 1854, in his account of
6138-789: The island of Kauaʻi, Tetraplasandra flynnii , was described in Novon . At that time, it was known from only three individuals. Tetraplasandra lydgatei was resurrected in 2005 in a paper in Pacific Science . At that time, it was known from only six individuals on the island of Oʻahu. In 2007, a molecular phylogenetic study compared by cladistic methods, the DNA sequences of two regions of nuclear DNA for eight species of Tetraplasandra and their close relatives. The two DNA regions, known as Internal transcribed spacer and non-transcribed spacer are adjacent to genes for Ribosomal RNA . In this study,
6231-490: The islands, respectively. The other species are single-island endemics. T. oahuensis and T.kavaiensis have done well in cultivation in Southern California . They are sensitive to heat, but very tolerant of shade, and they need some wind protection. In horticulture , T. kavaiensis has often been misidentified as T. meiandra . True T. meiandra is now treated as a synonym of T. oahuensis . T. gymnocarpa ,
6324-793: The large genus Polyscias . In a companion paper, published simultaneously, the six smaller genera ( Arthrophyllum , Cuphocarpus , Gastonia , Reynoldsia , Munroidendron , and Tetraplasandra ) were placed in synonymy under Polyscias , thereby raising the number of species in that genus from about 100 to 159. About 80 species from Madagascar and ten from New Caledonia are known from recently collected specimens . They will be named and described in forthcoming papers. Many of these were photographed during field work . Polyscias has been divided into 11 subgenera , with seven species placed incertae sedis , that is, without decision on which part of Polyscias they should belong to. Polyscias subgenus Tetraplasandra comprises 21 species, consisting of
6417-466: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since
6510-401: The merger of previous subtaxa. Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny ) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: The term " alpha taxonomy " is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa , particularly species. In earlier literature,
6603-494: The naturalization method is most often used. The most common way that professional translators translate neologisms is through the Think aloud protocol (TAP), wherein translators find the most appropriate and natural sounding word through speech. As such, translators can use potential translations in sentences and test them with different structures and syntax. Correct translations from English for specific purposes into other languages
6696-538: The number of species in that genus from about 100 to 159. Four Hawaiian names are applied to groups of Tetraplasandra species. T. hawaiensis is known as ʻohe. T. kavaiensis and T. gymnocarpa are called ʻoheʻohe. T. waimeae is called ʻohe kikoʻola. T. oahuensis and T. lydgatei are called ʻohe mauka. The related name, ʻohe makai, is applied to Polyscias sandwicensis , formerly known as Reynoldsia sandwicensis . These names closely correspond to clades currently recognized within Tetraplasandra . Most of
6789-434: The possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide
6882-521: The process of lexical innovation . Technical subjects such as philosophy, sociology, physics, etc. are especially rich in neologisms. In philosophy, as an example, many terms became introduced into languages through processes of translation, e.g., from Ancient Greek to Latin , or from Latin to German or English , and so on. So Plato introduced the Greek term ποιότης ( poiotēs ), which Cicero rendered with Latin qualitas , which subsequently became our notion of ' quality ' in relation to epistemology, e.g.,
6975-774: The rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the Encyclopedia of Life , the Global Biodiversity Information Facility , the NCBI taxonomy database , the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera , the Open Tree of Life , and the Catalogue of Life . The Paleobiology Database
7068-407: The same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle , in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique . John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use
7161-431: The sole member of Polyscias subgenus Eupteron. The former genus Tetraplasandra is a monophyletic group and is sister to a clade consisting of only two species: Polyscias racemosa and Polyscias sandwicensis . The former had constituted the monospecific genus Munroidendron and the latter is the type species for the previously accepted genus Reynoldsia . This "Hawaiian clade" of 11 species consists of all of
7254-412: The species assigned to Pterotropia as to remove all warrant for their segregation". In 1990, Tetraplasandra was covered in a flora of Hawaii. Only six species were recognized, pending further study. These were T. gymnocarpa, T. hawaiensis, T. kavaiensis, T. oahuensis, T. waialealae, and T. waimeae . A detailed description and full synonymy were given for each species. In 2000, a new species from
7347-472: The term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate
7440-482: The terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy , is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review
7533-505: The three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria , previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera ), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus . A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. Thomas Cavalier-Smith , who published extensively on the classification of protists , in 2002 proposed that
7626-427: The top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese 's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of
7719-436: The traditional three domains. Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to
7812-514: The tree of life are called polyphyletic . Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of synapomorphies , shared derived character states. Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of Zoological and Botanical nomenclature , to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates
7905-638: The uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. Organisms were first classified by Aristotle ( Greece , 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos . He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes , such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals . Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates ) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly
7998-486: Was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae , included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it
8091-551: Was entitled " Systema Naturae " ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre- evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On
8184-400: Was first used. The term has grown so that Merriam-Webster has acknowledged its use but notes the term needs to be found in published, edited work for a longer period of time before it can be deemed a new word, making it the perfect example of a neologism. Because neologisms originate in one language, translations between languages can be difficult. In the scientific community, where English
8277-457: Was later called Gastonia serratifolia and then Polyscias serratifolia . In 1913, Joseph F.C. Rock described a new species from Kauaʻi, and named it Tetraplasandra waialealae . In 1917, Charles Noyes Forbes named another species from Kauaʻi as Tetraplasandra racemosa . Both of these are still recognized as distinct species, but in 1952, Earl Edward Sherff erected the new genus Munroidendron for T. racemosa . In 1955, Sherff wrote
8370-597: Was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent . Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of
8463-568: Was published posthumously by his son, William Francis Hillebrand to whom the name Pterotropia is often incorrectly attributed . The name Pterotropia is now considered illegitimate because, while Pterotropia is an older name, Dipanax is older at generic rank and therefore has priority . Wilhelm B. Hillebrand put two species in Tetraplasandra : T. hawaiensis and T. waimeae . He placed four species in Triplasandra : Tri. oahuensis , Tri. meiandra , Tri. lydgatei , and Tri. kaalae . Three of these were newly named. Tetraplasandra waimeae
8556-532: Was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae . In the 17th century John Ray ( England , 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment
8649-429: Was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735, Species Plantarum in 1753, and Systema Naturae 10th Edition , he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to
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