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116-650: Trinidad Channel is a channel in Chile that leads to seaward from the northern end of Concepción Channel , is exceedingly useful to pass out to the Pacific Ocean from the Patagonian Channels in case it is desirable to avoid the possible delay occasioned by English Narrows in Messier Channel . Alert Harbor, at its western end, will, afford shelter to a number of large vessels. From Trinidad Channel vessels can gain

232-449: A free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin ,

348-645: A national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic . On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021. On 19 December 2021,

464-578: A parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute . After

580-558: A plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes. The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by

696-628: A National Plebiscite in 1980 to approve the 1980 Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile—a seemingly democratic motive. Pinochet promised to cut back inflation, which was around 30-35% in 1978; he was intent on restructuring both the economic and political institutions of the region. These agendas were part of a broader scheme to garner approval from the state, making it more feasible to prosecute, imprison, and execute civilians suspected of subversion. The military and armed personnel, under Pinochet, were able to operate offensively without restrictions, as

812-614: A campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States. By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation . Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power. A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As

928-436: A cloth that covered the victims' faces and breathing passages, causing individuals to experience a drowning sensation and a near-death experience. Waterboarding caused detainees to asphyxiate, while their heads were submerged into the water several times in a row. Often, prisoners were hung upside-down with ropes, and they were dropped into a tank of water, headfirst. The water was contaminated and filled with debris. Waterboarding

1044-418: A concentration camp within a few days. Many were tortured and gunned down, and several hundred bodies were shuttled into secret mass graves. These were victims of a well-organized program of official, yet clandestine, torture and murder. Many people were last seen in the detention and torture centers established by the intelligence agencies of the military regime. Following Pinochet's arrest in 1998, Chile made

1160-526: A dark, solitary room. She was stripped naked, forced to lie down on an uncomfortable prison cot, and was not permitted to sleep for five days during the interrogation period. The captors constantly threatened to kidnap her nine-year-old daughter from school if she failed to cooperate. According to the Valech Commission, waterboarding was one of the torture methods most commonly recorded by victims of imprisonment and torture. The captors poured water over

1276-469: A large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756,950 square kilometers (292,260 sq mi) of land area. It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire . Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S , and longitudes 66° and 75°W . Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile

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1392-414: A leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric , won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader. On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera. Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women. On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in

1508-572: A letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil , the Galapagos Islands , and the Philippines . There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled. Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to

1624-951: A major role in carrying out its agendas. The Joint Command was responsible for "disappearing" approximately thirty people during the bureaucratic authoritarian era. From 1974 to 1977, DINA (National Intelligence Directorate) and other agencies such as the Joint Command were the main institutions responsible for committing most acts of repression. It was during this period when most of the forced disappearances took place. While these agencies committed barbaric acts of physical and sexual torture, they also caused an immense amount of psychological pain and suffering. Intelligence agencies under Pinochet's regime instituted secret detention and torture sites to conduct political repression. In total, Chile had 17 torture centers. On occasion, prisoners were released after being confined and tortured. However, many detainees were also killed and "disappeared." Cuatro Álamos

1740-540: A period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world. 2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro 's subway fare, the increased cost of living , privatization and inequality prevalent in the country. On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call

1856-527: A period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform , including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At

1972-521: A politicide to describe "a systematic project to destroy an entire way of doing and understanding politics and governance." The worst violence occurred in the first three months of the coup's aftermath, with the number of suspected leftists killed or " disappeared " ( desaparecidos ) soon reaching into the thousands. In the days immediately following the coup, the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs informed Henry Kissinger that

2088-694: A prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins , who challenged Carrera's leadership. Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín , hero of the Argentine War of Independence , led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic . The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved

2204-490: A reformist president, Arturo Alessandri , whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose. A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo , who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what

2320-445: A renewed effort to uncover the atrocities of the past. For the first time in several decades, human rights lawyers and members of the armed forces wanted to investigate where the bodies of the "disappeared" were buried. On January 7, 2000, President Ricardo Lagos made a 15-minute nationwide address, revealing that the armed forces had uncovered information about the fate of approximately 180 people who had disappeared. According to Lagos,

2436-731: A vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing. An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight , plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of

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2552-515: Is Santiago , and the national language is Spanish . Spain conquered and colonized the region in the mid-16th century, replacing Inca rule , but failed to conquer the independent Mapuche people who inhabited what is now south-central Chile. Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818 declaration of independence from Spain . During the 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth, putting an end to Mapuche resistance in

2668-456: Is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Human rights abuses in Chile under Augusto Pinochet According to

2784-403: Is currently accepted that the junta deliberately targeted nonviolent political opponents as well. A court in Chile sentenced, on March 19, 2008, 24 former police officers in cases of kidnapping, torture and murder that happened just after a U.S. -backed coup overthrew President Salvador Allende , a Socialist , on September 11, 1973. The concept of bureaucratic authoritarianism characterizes

2900-430: Is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors , who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia , one of Francisco Pizarro 's lieutenants, who founded

3016-652: Is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater 's lava tube . The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization. They fought against

3132-555: Is still in force. It was recently applied by the Chilean Supreme Court in December 2007." While Pinochet was detained under house arrest on October 30, 2006, over "charges including murder, torture, and kidnapping in the years following his 1973 coup, he was never formally convicted. He died before the investigation process reached a conclusion. Pinochet's Amnesty Law effectively insulated the military regime from retribution for even

3248-601: Is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty , of which Chile is a signatory. It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland. Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands , more than 600 km (370 mi) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are

3364-405: Is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1,250,000 km (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as part of its territory ( Chilean Antarctic Territory ). However, this latter claim

3480-658: Is what they called the submarine. While "disappearing subversives" was the central instrument of state terror administered by the Argentine military regime from the 1960s to the 1980s, it was also extremely widespread and prevalent in Chile. According to the Rettig Report, 1,248 people were "disappeared" by the Pinochet Regime. However, this number still remains a source of contention, as hundreds of bodies have yet to be discovered. Several different approximations have been made for

3596-638: The Desaparecidos , the Caravan of Death , and the institutionalized torture that took place in the Villa Grimaldi complex. — Thor Halvorssen , president of the Human Rights Foundation , National Review The military rule was characterized by systematic suppression of all political dissidence, which led some to speak of a " politicide " (or "political genocide"). Steve J. Stern spoke of

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3712-593: The Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (Rettig Commission) and the National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture (Valech Commission), the number of direct victims of human rights violations in Chile accounts for around 30,000 people: 27,255 tortured and 2,279 executed. In addition, some 200,000 people suffered exile and an unknown number went through clandestine centers and illegal detention. The systematic human rights violations that were committed by

3828-524: The DINA secret police, in the frame of Operation Condor which linked South-American dictatorships together against political opponents. Some 20,000-40,000 Chilean exiles were holders of passports stamped with the letter "L" (which stood for lista nacional ), identifying them as persona non grata and had to seek permission before entering the country. Nevertheless, Chilean Human Rights groups maintain several hundred thousand were forced into exile. According to

3944-445: The Gulf of Penas by Picton , Ladrillero and Fallos Channels , but that route, although having some advantage in avoiding English Narrows, is not considered so safe as the well-known route by Wide and Messier Channels. Chile Chile ( / ˈ tʃ ɪ l i / CHIL -ee or / ˈ tʃ ɪ l eɪ / CHIL -ay , Spanish: [ˈtʃile] ), officially

4060-508: The Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos . A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy , even if

4176-620: The National Stadium was being used to hold 5,000 prisoners, and as late as 1975, the CIA was still reporting that up to 3,811 prisoners were still being held in the Stadium. Amnesty International reported that as many as 7,000 political prisoners in the National Stadium had been counted on 22 September 1973. Nevertheless, it is often quoted in the press, that some 40,000 prisoners were detained in

4292-690: The Pacific Alliance , and joined the OECD in 2010. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile . According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales , the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua Chili by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief ( cacique ) called Tili , who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. Another theory points to

4408-532: The Republic of Chile , is a country in western South America . It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica , stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean . Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi), sharing borders with Peru to

4524-640: The constitutional referendum , which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention . On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum , written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council . A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains , Chile stretches over 4,300 km (2,670 mi) north to south, but only 350 km (217 mi) at its widest point east to west and 64 km (40 mi) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175 km (109 mi). This encompasses

4640-411: The "grill" involved the use of a metal bunk bed; the victim would be placed on the bottom bunk while a relative or friend was simultaneously tortured on the top bunk. Most prisoners endured severe beatings, and some had their limbs broken or amputated. At Villa Grimaldi, DINA forced non-compliant prisoners to lie down on the ground. The captors would then run over their legs with a large vehicle, crushing

4756-494: The 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia. In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process of democratization and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization , while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy . During the 1960s and 1970s, the country

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4872-649: The Chilean Government had been restructured to Pinochet's liking. Even the Constitution was drafted to give Pinochet impunity. The military dictatorship utilized its own justice system to adjudicate the regime's enemies. Additionally, the Amnesty Law decreed in 1978 by Pinochet guaranteed impunity to those responsible for the "systematic and widespread human rights violations and was a major obstacle to bringing Pinochet to justice in Chile. Even today, "the Amnesty Law

4988-452: The Chilean population was vulnerable to surveillance. Chile's churches, universities, businesses, and neighborhoods were all under intense scrutiny. The Joint Command operated as a de facto institution from late 1975 until late 1976 and was based primarily in Santiago, Chile . Like DINA, this institution coordinated intelligence activities and political repression, with the air force having

5104-479: The Commission of Truth and Reconciliation ( Rettig Report ) approximate that there were around 30,000 victims of human rights abuses in Chile, with 40,018 tortured and 2,279 executed. He shut down parliament, suffocated political life, banned trade unions, and made Chile his sultanate. His government disappeared 3,200 opponents, arrested 30,000 (torturing thousands of them) ... Pinochet's name will forever be linked to

5220-491: The December 2017 presidential election . On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 M w earthquake , the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami ) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$ 15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product. Chile achieved global recognition for

5336-552: The Earth". Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile . The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro 's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli". Ultimately, Almagro is credited with

5452-626: The Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights ( ILAS ), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured (following the UN definition of torture), or exiled and their immediate relatives. While more radical groups such as the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) were staunch advocates of a Marxist revolution, it

5568-524: The PU. As Pinochet's suspicions grew, the military dictator targeted anyone who was in some way associated with the "leftists," which even included the mothers, wives, and children of the potential subversives. In order to legitimize control of the country, Pinochet created institutions that were seemingly democratic. He organized a plebiscite , held on September 11, 1980, which approved a new Constitution that went into effect on October 21, 1980, and that validated

5684-813: The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government. In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile. The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks. Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate

5800-678: The Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river . In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan ) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what

5916-522: The Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year). After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera , soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to

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6032-477: The Stadium. Some of the most famous cases of "desaparecidos" are Charles Horman , a U.S. citizen who was killed during the coup itself, Chilean songwriter Víctor Jara , and the October 1973 Caravan of Death ( Caravana de la Muerte ) where at least 70 persons were killed. Other operations include Operation Colombo during which hundreds of left-wing activists were murdered and Operation Condor , carried out with

6148-692: The War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere. In 1902 Chile and Argentina received

6264-470: The armed forces bombarded the presidential palace , Allende apparently committed suicide. After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup. In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people". A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet , took control of

6380-449: The authoritarian rule found in less modernized countries." From its inception on September 11, 1973, the Chilean bureaucratic authoritarian regime's ultimate agenda was to repress political dissidents—which some have classified as " politicide " (or "political genocide). General Pinochet's assumption of power through a violent, and bloody military coup d'état foreshadowed the brutal conditions that many innocent people would endure over

6496-621: The banking sector was nationalized . Many enterprises within the copper , coal, iron, nitrate , and steel industries were expropriated , nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests, replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality", nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy, and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR. Started under former President Frei,

6612-467: The bodies of at least 150 of these people were thrown into lakes, rivers, and the Pacific Ocean. The whereabouts of hundreds more bodies remain unknown. The dictatorship under Pinochet erected a complex web of legal instruments that it used to repress anyone deemed "subversive." Pinochet was extremely tactical in his attempts to camouflage the human rights violations committed by the state. He called for

6728-431: The body, particularly sensitive areas like the genitals and open wounds. The Valech Report includes the testimony of a Chilean man who was interrogated by prison captors. They removed his clothes and attached electrodes to his chest and testicles. They also placed something in his mouth to prevent him from biting his tongue while they administered shocks. In another variation of this method, one wire would be attached to

6844-543: The candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación , received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle , the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle

6960-559: The city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire . Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and

7076-506: The colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake 's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru . The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that

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7192-419: The command of John Williams Wilson , the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843 , while the Antofagasta Region , at the time in dispute with Bolivia , began to fill with people. After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from

7308-408: The country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842 . As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined

7424-582: The country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua , guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba , Eastern Europe and Northern Africa. In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech , and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward

7540-446: The country. The years of the regime were marked by human rights violations . Chile actively participated in Operation Condor . In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death . According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission , at least 2,115 were killed, and at least 27,265 were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old). In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing

7656-427: The country." DINA established interrogation and detention camps, in which former members of Allende's Marxist government and the Leftist movements like the Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria were incarcerated and brutally tortured. Pinochet's goal was to annihilate all forms of opposition. He therefore greatly supported Military Decree 1697, which outlawed the formation of any political party. A large proportion of

7772-520: The destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference. Cut off to

7888-415: The discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under

8004-405: The end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals. In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the " Popular Unity " coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action), achieved a partial majority in

8120-420: The essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church . A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful. Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in

8236-419: The first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación , for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office. Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning

8352-490: The illegal capture of dissidents. Such fake portrayals of "the revolutionary threat" resulted in the legitimization of the Pinochet regime. The junta commissioned the Chilean public to report the actions of any suspected leftists and proceeded to turn them in. Pinochet also authorized DINA to stage the bombing of a Chilean safe house, placing the blame on leftist extremists to demonstrate the danger they posed to society. Essentially,

8468-489: The institutionalization of a state-sponsored system of terror. On June 14, 1974, Junta Decree 521 mandated the creation of the National Intelligence Directorate (DINA) . There were thousands of people working in this agency. DINA was instituted to "produce the intelligence necessary to formulate policies and planning, and to adopt measures to procure the safeguarding of National Security and development of

8584-503: The leaders of the PU by any means necessary. The Caravan of Death, under the leadership of Sergio Arellano Stark , killed 68 people within three days, by stabbing, beating, and shooting them. The establishment of the Caravan of Death served three main purposes: 1) silence dissent through murder, 2) weed out military officials who were not aligned with Pinochet's regime and 3) establish fear within leadership ranks. The Caravan of Death resulted in

8700-483: The legal system he had established by decree. The Constitution proscribed an 8-year election period, permitted reelections and gave the President of the Republic an immense amount of power. Laws were passed to criminalize acts of terror and limit the use of habeas corpus . A crucial aspect of the Pinochet regime was how unified the military was. Another was the disarray of civilian society, which created an atmosphere that

8816-513: The military dictatorship of Chile, under General Augusto Pinochet, included gruesome acts of physical and sexual abuse, as well as psychological damage. From 1973 to 1990, Chilean armed forces, the police and all those aligned with the military junta were involved in institutionalizing fear and terror in Chile. The most prevalent forms of state-sponsored torture that Chilean prisoners endured were electric shocks, waterboarding , beatings, and sexual abuse. Another common mechanism of torture employed

8932-640: The military junta made use of brainwashing propaganda to portray the leftists as the enemies. Psychological torture was used to destroy a prisoner's will, dignity, moral and physical resolve in order to extract pertinent information from the victim. Members of intelligence agencies like DINA and the Joint Command attempted to extract information from victims by threatening their children and loved ones. Many mothers who were incarcerated in illegal detention centers had to choose between saving themselves or their children's lives. On August 21, 1989, military personnel seized Jessica Antonia Liberona Niñoles and detained her in

9048-580: The military regimes that rose to power in South America between the 1960s and 1980s, specifically in the Southern Cone regions of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. These regimes had a technocratic approach to policy-making and were accompanied by substantial repression. Guillermo O'Donnell —a prominent Argentine political scientist— labeled these regimes as "bureaucratic authoritarian" in order to "distinguish them from oligarchical and populist forms of

9164-523: The most brutal and horrific human rights violations. The National Intelligence Directorate (DINA), was the Chilean secret police during the government of Pinochet. DINA was established in November 1973 as a Chilean Army intelligence unit, with General Manuel Contreras as its head and Raúl Iturriaga as its vice-director, who fled from justice in 2007. It became an independent administrative unit in June 1974 under

9280-565: The next 17 years. Pinochet genuinely feared the supporters of the Popular Unity Party (PU) and its leader Salvador Allende , who had been the first Marxist to become President of a Latin American region through open elections. General Pinochet lived in a state of paranoia, and constantly feared being assassinated or losing power. Thus, he set out to destroy those who were not in unity with his policies, particularly those who had once served

9396-652: The north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison , the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch . Buccaneers and pirates menaced

9512-526: The north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández , Isla Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island , and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as the Chilean Antarctic Territory . The capital and largest city of Chile

9628-514: The number of people who were "disappeared" by the military regime. Many of those who "disappeared" were not given the chance to escape or seek asylum elsewhere. Their bodies were deliberately hidden in undisclosed locations. Only seven days after Pinochet seized power, he ordered the military to round up approximately 10,000 students, workers, and political activists and jammed them into Santiago's National Stadium on September 18, 1973. This stadium, which symbolized Chile's greatest pastime, turned into

9744-433: The overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities : the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However,

9860-402: The population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent , 7.9% mestizos , 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé , conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of

9976-455: The positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger. In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain . A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within

10092-475: The presence of their loved ones. However, during the initial period, prisoners were still permitted to interact with each other and share information. Villa Grimaldi , located in Santiago, was DINA's most important torture center, which began operating in 1974. Prisoners endured long periods of interrogation. As more people were incarcerated on a massive scale, new places were reconditioned to hold them. The "tower"

10208-509: The primary targets of these gruesome acts of sexual abuse. According to the Valech Commission, almost every single female prisoner fell victim to repeated rape. Military personnel not only raped women but also employed foreign objects and even animals to inflict additional pain and suffering. Women, and occasionally men, reported incidents where spiders and live rats were implanted on their genitals. One woman testified that she had been "raped and sexually assaulted with trained dogs and live rats" and

10324-428: The prisoner, typically to the victim's genitalia, while another wire could be applied to different parts of the body. This created an electric current passing through the victim's body, with the strength inversely proportional to the distance between the two electrodes. A smaller distance between the electrodes resulted in a stronger current and therefore more intense pain for the prisoner. A particularly brutal version of

10440-789: The prisoners' bones. The assailants also beat prisoners in the ears until they became deaf and unconscious; this torture method was known as the "telephone." Most of these acts of punishment were intended to humiliate the prisoners severely. At the Pisagua Concentration Camp, captors intimidated prisoners by forcing them to crawl on the ground and lick the dirt off the floors. If prisoners complained or even collapsed from exhaustion, they were promptly executed. Prisoners were also immersed in vats of excrement and occasionally forced to ingest it. Pinochet's regime perpetrated numerous gruesome and horrific acts of sexual abuse against its victims. Several detention sites were established solely for

10556-480: The purpose of sexually tormenting and humiliating the prisoners. One such facility was the Discothèque (or Venda Sexy ), which served as one of DINA's primary secret detention centers. Many of those who "disappeared" were initially held in this prison, where prison guards frequently subjected both men and women to sexual assault. This prison also served as the central hub for internal repression operations. Women were

10672-573: The regime. A later report, the Valech Report (published in November 2004), confirmed the figure of 3,200 deaths but dramatically reduced the alleged cases of disappearances. It tells of some 28,000 arrests in which the majority of those detained were incarcerated and in a great many cases tortured . Some 30,000 Chileans were exiled and received abroad, in particular in Argentina , as political refugees; however, they were followed in their exile by

10788-547: The result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown . In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved. In 1904 Chile and Bolivia signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries. The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy . By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect

10904-505: The security services of other Latin American dictatorships. Following Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite , the 1991 Rettig Commission , a multipartisan effort from the Aylwin administration to discover the truth about the human rights violations, listed a number of torture and detention centers (such as Colonia Dignidad , the ship Esmeralda or Víctor Jara Stadium ), and found that at least 3,200 people were killed or disappeared by

11020-647: The similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili . Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls'; from the Mapuche word chilli , which may mean 'where the land ends'" or from the Quechua chiri , 'cold', or tchili , meaning either 'snow' or "the deepest point of

11136-419: The small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix . These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean. The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates . The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area

11252-473: The stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870. On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena

11368-523: The successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 meters (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over

11484-451: The testimony of a man who experienced waterboarding in September 1973: They put cotton on both eyes, then taped them and tightened a hood around my neck. They tied my hands and legs, submerged me in a 250-liter tank that had ammonia, urine, excrement, and seawater. They submerged me until I could not breathe anymore. They repeated it over and over, while beating me and asking me questions. That

11600-448: The total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018. At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below). A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of

11716-455: The triple minister Diego Portales . Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859 . Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía . The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made

11832-575: The universalization of the name Chile , after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile". Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what

11948-507: Was "disappearing" those who were deemed to be potentially subversive because they adhered to leftist political doctrines. The tactic of "disappearing" the enemies of the Pinochet regime was systematically carried out during the first four years of military rule. The "disappeared" were held in secret, subjected to torture and were often never seen again. Both the National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture ( Valech Report ) and

12064-519: Was a de facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America). By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule

12180-517: Was a detention center to which no one outside the DINA had access, except personnel from other intelligence agencies. It was established in 1973, during the earliest phase of the regime. Life in Cuatro Álamos was relatively easier than in other detention sites. It consisted of twelve small cells, one large cell, and staff offices. There were very few instances of torture within the walls of the prison. Londres 38

12296-481: Was a secret detention center located in downtown Santiago, where DINA members operated from 1973 until the end of 1974. This was one of the many sites previously owned by leftist organizations. Prisoners at Londres No. 38 endured lengthy interrogation periods and continual humiliating treatment. Captors preferred to torture detainees by electrocuting them. Not only were the suspects incarcerated, but their relatives were also arrested. Family members underwent sexual abuse in

12412-512: Was conducive to repressing all those who supposedly supported the PU, other leftist organizations, and even Centrist institutions like the Christian Democratic Party . From the moment Pinochet assumed power, he wanted to instill a sense of fear in the Chilean population. These fears manifested with his authorization of the " Caravan of Death ". Following the coup on September 11, Pinochet ordered this Chilean Army death squad to target

12528-476: Was designated as a holding center for political prisoners. On the top floor of the building, there was a water tank that included ten tight spaces where prisoners were held. These spaces were so small that victims had to enter them by crawling on their knees. The tower also housed a torture chamber, where prisoners were kept in isolation. Many of them were never seen again. Food was scarce, and the conditions were extremely unsanitary. One commonly used torture method

12644-470: Was employed to cause both physical and psychological pain; however, victims found that the mental suffering they endured was far worse than the physical pain. They attested that even thirty years after being "waterboarded," they still suffered from the devastating effects of psychological torture. Many victims reported suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, humiliation, worthlessness, shame, anxiety, and hopelessness. The Valech Commission Report describes

12760-699: Was forced to engage in sexual acts with her father and brother, who were also detained. In the words of Alejandra Matus , detained women endured a double punishment: first for being labeled as "leftists" and second for not conforming to the military's ideal of women, often being derogatorily referred to as perra ("bitch"). The military junta often framed leftist individuals and groups in order to justify its agenda to target and torture political dissidents. The junta fostered fear of leftists by staging arsenal captures and portraying leftist extremists in an extremely negative light. The regime falsely accused leftists of stealing dangerous weapons from weapons stores to justify

12876-422: Was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende 's democratically elected left-wing government . This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet , which resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances . The regime ended in 1990, following a referendum in 1988 , and

12992-627: Was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term. The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated

13108-550: Was succeeded by a center-left coalition , which ruled until 2010. Chile is a developing country with a high-income economy and is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America. Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development. Chile is a founding member of the United Nations , the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and

13224-647: Was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos , who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile . In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria , of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera , of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years. In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as

13340-455: Was the "grill" or " La Parrilla ." In this method, electricity was supplied from a standard wall outlet through a control box into two wires, each terminating in electrodes . The control box allowed the torturers to adjust the voltage administered to the prisoner. The naked prisoner would be stretched out, strapped onto a metal bedframe or a set of bedsprings, and securely fastened. They were then subjected to electrical shocks on various parts of

13456-474: Was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile. The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established

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