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104-640: The first drug checking service in Europe opened in 1986 in Amsterdam, allowing drug users to analyze the chemical composition of illicit substances that they consume. In the following years, a number of nonprofit organizations present in various other drug scenes in several countries (including in Austria , France , Germany , the Netherlands , Portugal , Spain , and Switzerland ) set up drug checking services. In 2011,

208-649: A Schedule I drug , i.e., having the relatively highest abuse potential and no accepted medical use. Most marijuana at that time came from Mexico, but in 1975 the Mexican government agreed to eradicate the crop by spraying it with the herbicide paraquat, raising fears of toxic side effects. Colombia then became the main supplier. The "zero tolerance" climate of the Reagan and Bush administrations (1981–1993) resulted in passage of strict laws and mandatory sentences for possession of marijuana . The " War on Drugs " thus brought with it

312-493: A database was created for to centralize information from these services and allow for the sharing of alerts (for example on new adulterants in illicit substances or circulation of novel psychoactive substance ) and the monitoring of drug markets across borders. Between 2008 and 2013, organizations member of the TEDI network analyzed more than 45,000 samples of recreational drugs , showing similarities and discrepancies between areas of

416-424: A characteristic euphoria at moderate doses. High dosages taken to induce recreational drug effects may lead to overdoses. Antihistamines are also consumed in combination with alcohol, particularly by youth who find it hard to obtain alcohol. The combination of the two drugs can cause intoxication with lower alcohol doses. Hallucinations and possibly delirium resembling the effects of Datura stramonium can result if

520-603: A co-evolutionary relationship with psychotropic plant substances that is millions of years old." The severity of impact and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user that interact with each drug differently. Alcohol is sometimes considered one of the most dangerous recreational drugs. Alcoholic drinks , tobacco products and other nicotine -based products (e.g., electronic cigarettes ), and cannabis are regarded by various medical professionals as

624-454: A diagnosis of poisoning or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a sudden death. Some drug abuse screening programs rely on hair, saliva, or sweat as specimens. Most commercial amphetamine immunoassay screening tests cross-react significantly with MDMA or its major metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances. The concentrations of MDA in

728-522: A hydrastinine analogue , methylhydrastinine, at the request of fellow lab members, Walther Beckh and Otto Wolfes. MDMA (called methylsafrylamin, safrylmethylamin or N-Methyl-a-Methylhomopiperonylamin in Merck laboratory reports) was an intermediate compound in the synthesis of methylhydrastinine. Merck was not interested in MDMA itself at the time. On 24 December 1912, Merck filed two patent applications that described

832-448: A large role in the exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs and patterns of use. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, some people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms. Plant states: "From

936-470: A life-threatening condition called serotonin syndrome . Severe overdose resulting in death has also been reported in people who took MDMA in combination with certain monoamine oxidase inhibitors , such as phenelzine (Nardil), tranylcypromine (Parnate), or moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix). Serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as citalopram (Celexa), duloxetine (Cymbalta), fluoxetine (Prozac), and paroxetine (Paxil) have been shown to block most of

1040-694: A long worldwide history of use within medicinal and religious traditions. They are used in shamanic forms of ritual healing and divination , in initiation rites , and in the religious rituals of syncretistic movements such as União do Vegetal , Santo Daime , Temple of the True Inner Light , and the Native American Church . When used in religious practice, psychedelic drugs, as well as other substances like tobacco , are referred to as entheogens . Hallucinogen-induced psychosis occurs when psychosis persists despite no longer being intoxicated with

1144-932: A moderate (typically <50 doses used and <100 tablets consumed) lifetime exposure. Nonetheless, moderate MDMA use may still be neurotoxic and what constitutes moderate use is not clearly established. Furthermore, it is not clear yet whether "typical" recreational users of MDMA (1 to 2 pills of 75 to 125 mg MDMA or analogue every 1 to 4 weeks) will develop neurotoxic brain lesions. Long-term exposure to MDMA in humans has been shown to produce marked neurodegeneration in striatal , hippocampal , prefrontal , and occipital serotonergic axon terminals . Neurotoxic damage to serotonergic axon terminals has been shown to persist for more than two years. Elevations in brain temperature from MDMA use are positively correlated with MDMA-induced neurotoxicity. However, most studies on MDMA and serotonergic neurotoxicity in humans focus more on heavy users who consume as much as seven times or more

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1248-616: A number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include potentiation of GABA or opioid activity, and inhibition of adrenergic , histamine or acetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings of euphoria . The most widely used depressant by far is alcohol (i.e. ethanol ). Stimulants or "uppers", such as amphetamines or cocaine , which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants. Depressants, in particular alcohol, can precipitate psychosis . A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that

1352-437: A particular route of administration . Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example, marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine can be "sniffed" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked. Many drugs are taken through various routes. Intravenous route is the most efficient, but also one of the most dangerous. Nasal, rectal, inhalation and smoking are safer. The oral route

1456-487: A preparation is 70 to 120 mg with the purity having increased since the 1990s. MDMA is usually consumed by mouth. It is also sometimes snorted . Acute adverse effects are usually the result of high or multiple doses, although single dose toxicity can occur in susceptible individuals. The most serious short-term physical health risks of MDMA are hyperthermia and dehydration . Cases of life-threatening or fatal hyponatremia (excessively low sodium concentration in

1560-416: A psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect . Recreational drugs are commonly divided into three categories: depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calmness), stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness), and hallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such as hallucination ). In popular practice, recreational drug use

1664-533: A sense of belonging to a group, family and attachment issues, history of trauma, failure at school or work, socioeconomic stressors, peer pressure, juvenile delinquency, availability, historical factors, or socio-cultural influences. There has been no consensus on a single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model . Any number of factors may influence an individual's drug use, as they are not mutually exclusive . Regardless of genetics, mental health, or traumatic experiences, social factors play

1768-608: A shift from reliance on imported supplies to domestic cultivation, particularly in Hawaii and California . Beginning in 1982, the Drug Enforcement Administration turned increased attention to marijuana farms in the United States, and there was a shift to the indoor growing of plants specially developed for small size and high yield. After over a decade of decreasing use, marijuana smoking began an upward trend once more in

1872-478: A small number of countries, but is illegal in most jurisdictions. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is evaluating the drug for clinical use as of 2021 . Canada has allowed limited distribution of MDMA upon application to and approval by Health Canada . In Australia, it may be prescribed in the treatment of PTSD by specifically authorised psychiatrists. In general, MDMA users report feeling

1976-803: A wide range of both psychoactive, anti-psychotic, and non-psychoactive drugs. As of 2023, MDMA therapies have only been approved for research purposes, with no widely accepted medical indications , although this varies by jurisdiction. Before it was widely banned, it saw limited use in psychotherapy. In 2017 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted breakthrough therapy designation for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with some preliminary evidence that MDMA may facilitate psychotherapy efficacy for PTSD. Pilot studies indicate that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy may be beneficial in treating social anxiety in autistic adults . In these pilot studies,

2080-512: Is a big part of Scarface: The World Is Yours ). In the Fallout video game franchise, drugs ("chems" in the game) can fill the role of any above mentioned. Drug trafficking , gang rivalries , and their related criminal underworld also play a big part in the Grand Theft Auto video game franchise. The following substances are commonly used recreationally: Drugs are often associated with

2184-486: Is an empathogen–entactogenic drug with stimulant and minor psychedelic properties. In studies, it has been used alongside psychotherapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorder . The purported pharmacological effects that may be prosocial include altered sensations, increased energy, empathy, and pleasure. When taken by mouth, effects begin in 30 to 45 minutes and last three to six hours. MDMA

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2288-419: Is associated with depression and anxiety, even after quitting the drug. Depression is one of the main reasons for cessation of use. At high doses, MDMA induces a neuroimmune response that, through several mechanisms, increases the permeability of the blood–brain barrier , thereby making the brain more susceptible to environmental toxins and pathogens . In addition, MDMA has immunosuppressive effects in

2392-670: Is associated with high motor activity, reduced sense of identity, and poor awareness of surroundings. Use of MDMA individually or in small groups in a quiet environment and when concentrating, is associated with increased lucidity, concentration, sensitivity to aesthetic aspects of the environment, enhanced awareness of emotions, and improved capability of communication. In psychotherapeutic settings, MDMA effects have been characterized by infantile ideas, mood lability, and memories and moods connected with childhood experiences. MDMA has been described as an "empathogenic" drug because of its empathy-producing effects. Results of several studies show

2496-520: Is correlated with lifetime MDMA usage and are partially reversible with abstinence. Several forms of memory are impaired by chronic ecstasy use; however, the effects for memory impairments in ecstasy users are generally small overall. MDMA use is also associated with increased impulsivity and depression. Serotonin depletion following MDMA use can cause depression in subsequent days. In some cases, depressive symptoms persist for longer periods. Some studies indicate repeated recreational use of ecstasy

2600-533: Is defined as the degree to which a psychoactive drug has the potential to cause harm to the user and is measured in several ways, such as by addictiveness and the potential for physical harm. More objectively harmful drugs may be colloquially referred to as "hard drugs", and less harmful drugs as "soft drugs". The term "soft drug" is considered controversial by critics as it may imply the false belief that soft drugs cause lesser or insignificant harm. Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at

2704-518: Is estimated that about 5% of people worldwide aged 15 to 65 (158 million to 351 million) had used controlled drugs at least once. Common recreational drugs include caffeine , commonly found in coffee , tea , soft drinks , and chocolate ; alcohol , commonly found in beer , wine , cocktails , and distilled spirits ; nicotine , commonly found in tobacco , tobacco-based products , and electronic cigarettes ; cannabis and hashish (with legality of possession varying inter/intra-nationally); and

2808-626: Is frequently cut in order to increase volume. A scheme for management of acute MDMA toxicity has been published focusing on treatment of hyperthermia, hyponatraemia, serotonin syndrome, and multiple organ failure. A number of drug interactions can occur between MDMA and other drugs, including serotonergic drugs. MDMA also interacts with drugs which inhibit CYP450 enzymes, like ritonavir (Norvir), particularly CYP2D6 inhibitors. Life-threatening reactions and death have occurred in people who took MDMA while on ritonavir. Concurrent use of MDMA high dosages with another serotonergic drug can result in

2912-582: Is generally tolerated as a social behaviour, rather than perceived as the medical condition of self-medication . However, drug use and drug addiction are severely stigmatized everywhere in the world. Many people also use prescribed and controlled depressants such as opioids , opiates , and benzodiazepines . What controlled substances are considered generally unlawful to possess varies by country, but usually includes cannabis , cocaine , opioids , MDMA , amphetamine , methamphetamine , psychedelics , benzodiazepines , and barbiturates . As of 2015, it

3016-446: Is one of the safest and most comfortable, but of little bioavailability . Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind. Colloquially, depressants are known as "downers", and users generally take them to feel more relaxed and less tense. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Depressants are widely used throughout

3120-672: Is sometimes taken in conjunction with other psychoactive drugs such as LSD , psilocybin mushrooms , 2C-B , and ketamine . The combination with LSD is called "candy-flipping". The combination with 2C-B is called "nexus flipping". For this combination, most people take the MDMA first, wait until the peak is over, and then take the 2C-B. MDMA is often co-administered with alcohol , methamphetamine , and prescription drugs such as SSRIs with which MDMA has several drug-drug interactions. Three life-threatening reports of MDMA co-administration with ritonavir have been reported; with ritonavir having severe and dangerous drug-drug interactions with

3224-519: Is synthesized using MDP2P (3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone) as a precursor. MDP2P in turn is generally synthesized from piperonal , safrole or isosafrole . One method is to isomerize safrole to isosafrole in the presence of a strong base, and then oxidize isosafrole to MDP2P. Another method uses the Wacker process to oxidize safrole directly to the MDP2P intermediate with a palladium catalyst. Once

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3328-673: The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for substance dependence . However, there is little evidence for a specific diagnosable MDMA dependence syndrome because MDMA is typically used relatively infrequently. There are currently no medications to treat MDMA addiction. MDMA is a moderately teratogenic drug (i.e., it is toxic to the fetus). In utero exposure to MDMA is associated with a neuro - and cardiotoxicity and impaired motor functioning. Motor delays may be temporary during infancy or long-term. The severity of these developmental delays increases with heavier MDMA use. MDMA has been shown to promote

3432-660: The Imperial College London , who stated that studies showing benefits for "moderate" alcohol consumption in "some middle-aged men" lacked controls for the variable of what the subjects were drinking beforehand. Experts in the United Kingdom have suggested that some psychoactive drugs that may be causing less harm to fewer users (although they are also used less frequently in the first place) are cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms , LSD , and MDMA ; however, these drugs have risks and side effects of their own. Drug harmfulness

3536-651: The United States Army commissioned a study of toxicity and behavioral effects in animals injected with mescaline and several analogues, including MDMA. Conducted at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor , these investigations were declassified in October 1969 and published in 1973. A 1960 Polish paper by Biniecki and Krajewski describing the synthesis of MDMA as an intermediate was the first published scientific paper on

3640-639: The controlled substances listed as controlled drugs in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) of the United Nations (UN). Since the early 2000s, the European Union (EU) has developed several comprehensive and multidisciplinary strategies as part of its drug policy in order to prevent the diffusion of recreational drug use and abuse among

3744-601: The peripheral nervous system and pro-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system . MDMA may increase the risk of cardiac valvulopathy in heavy or long-term users due to activation of serotonin 5-HT 2B receptors . MDMA induces cardiac epigenetic changes in DNA methylation , particularly hypermethylation changes. Approximately 60% of MDMA users experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking MDMA. Some of these symptoms include fatigue, loss of appetite, depression, and trouble concentrating. Tolerance to some of

3848-547: The striatum , the mechanisms by which it induces ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens are analogous to other dopaminergic psychostimulants. Therefore, chronic use of MDMA at high doses can result in altered brain structure and drug addiction that occur as a consequence of ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens. MDMA is less addictive than other stimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine. Compared with amphetamine, MDMA and its metabolite MDA are less reinforcing. One study found approximately 15% of chronic MDMA users met

3952-546: The European continent in terms of purity, formulation, or prices. The project and the network are hosted by the Polish nonprofit TEDI Nightlife Empowerment & Well-being Network (also known as NEW net or SaferNightlife ). As of 2022, the TEDI network was integrated by 20 organizations across 13 countries (Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and

4056-609: The European population and raise public awareness on the adverse effects of drugs among all member states of the European Union , as well as conjoined efforts with European law enforcement agencies, such as Europol and EMCDDA , in order to counter organized crime and illegal drug trade in Europe. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use. Some of the most common theories are: genetics , personality type, psychological problems, self-medication, sex, age, depression, curiosity, boredom, rebelliousness,

4160-709: The FBI reported that between the years 1966 and 1968, the number of arrests for marijuana possession, which had been outlawed throughout the United States under Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 , had increased by 98%. Despite acknowledgement that drug use was greatly growing among America's youth during the late 1960s, surveys have suggested that only as much as 4% of the American population had ever smoked marijuana by 1969. By 1972, however, that number would increase to 12%. That number would then double by 1977. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana along with heroin and LSD as

4264-506: The MDP2P intermediate has been prepared, a reductive amination leads to racemic MDMA (an equal parts mixture of ( R )-MDMA and ( S )-MDMA). Relatively small quantities of essential oil are required to make large amounts of MDMA. The essential oil of Ocotea cymbarum , for example, typically contains between 80 and 94% safrole. This allows 500 mL of the oil to produce between 150 and 340 grams of MDMA. MDMA and MDA may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor for use, confirm

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4368-533: The R-enantiomer. Evidence suggests that the area under the blood plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was two to four times higher for the ( R )-enantiomer than the ( S )-enantiomer after a 40 mg oral dose in human volunteers. Likewise, the plasma half-life of ( R )-MDMA was significantly longer than that of the ( S )-enantiomer (5.8 ± 2.2 hours vs 3.6 ± 0.9 hours). However, because MDMA excretion and metabolism have nonlinear kinetics,

4472-532: The TEDI database, in addition to connecting app users with local harm reduction providers. The app received an award from the Council of Europe in 2021. As part of the project, guidelines and methodological recommendations have been published, such as: Recreational drug use Recreational drug use is the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness , either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime. When

4576-1009: The US as acetaminophen), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates (e.g. aspirin ), and opioid drugs such as hydrocodone , codeine , heroin and oxycodone . Some further examples of the brand name prescription opiates and opioid analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone). The following are examples of tranquilizers ( GABAergics ): Stimulants, also known as "psychostimulants", induce euphoria with improvements in mental and physical function, such as enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion. Stimulants are also occasionally called "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites. Stimulants enhance

4680-554: The United Kingdom). A team of professionals from various fields ( substance use disorder prevention workers, pharmacists , chemists , etc.) across network member organizations constitutes the TEDI project's team. The aims of the Trans-European Drug Information project are to collect, monitor and analyze the evolution of the European recreational drug market trends, and to regularly report the findings. Since 2011,

4784-594: The United States during the late 1980s–early 1990s. In video games , for example, drugs are portrayed in a variety of ways: including power-ups ( cocaine gum replenishes stamina in Red Dead Redemption 2 ), obstacles to be avoided (such as the Fuzzies in Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island that distort the player's view when accidentally consumed), items to be bought and sold for in-game currency (coke dealing

4888-470: The United States in 1970. American chemist and psychopharmacologist Alexander Shulgin reported he synthesized MDMA in 1965 while researching methylenedioxy compounds at Dow Chemical Company , but did not test the psychoactivity of the compound at this time. Around 1970, Shulgin sent instructions for N-methylated MDA (MDMA) synthesis to the founder of a Los Angeles chemical company who had requested them. This individual later provided these instructions to

4992-409: The above reasons, the use of medicinal scopolamine for recreational uses is also observed. Analgesics (also known as "painkillers") are used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia ). The word analgesic derives from Greek "αν-" ( an- , "without") and "άλγος" ( álgos , "pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (also known in

5096-436: The activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems . Common effects may include increased alertness , awareness , wakefulness , endurance , productivity , and motivation , arousal , locomotion , heart rate , and blood pressure , and a diminished desire for food and sleep . Use of stimulants may cause the body to significantly reduce its production of endogenous compounds that fulfill similar functions. Once

5200-513: The ages of 15 and 64 used ecstasy (0.3% of the world population). This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who use cocaine or amphetamines , but lower than for cannabis or opioids . In the United States, as of 2017, about 7% of people have used MDMA at some point in their lives and 0.9% have used it in the last year. The lethal risk from one dose of MDMA is estimated to be from 1 death in 20,000 instances to 1 death in 50,000 instances. Short-term adverse effects include grinding of

5304-482: The amount that most users report taking. The evidence for the presence of serotonergic neurotoxicity in casual users who take lower doses less frequently is not conclusive. However, adverse neuroplastic changes to brain microvasculature and white matter have been observed to occur in humans using low doses of MDMA. Reduced gray matter density in certain brain structures has also been noted in human MDMA users. Global reductions in gray matter volume, thinning of

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5408-411: The blood or urine of a person who has taken only MDMA are, in general, less than 10% those of the parent drug. MDMA was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch . At the time, Merck was interested in developing substances that stopped abnormal bleeding. Merck wanted to avoid an existing patent held by Bayer for one such compound: hydrastinine . Köllisch developed a preparation of

5512-417: The blood) have developed in MDMA users attempting to prevent dehydration by consuming excessive amounts of water without replenishing electrolytes . The immediate adverse effects of MDMA use can include: Other adverse effects that may occur or persist for up to a week following cessation of moderate MDMA use include: Administration of MDMA to mice causes DNA damage in their brain, especially when

5616-450: The body to allergens , such as the pollen released by grasses and trees. An allergic reaction causes release of histamine by the body. Other uses of antihistamines are to help with normal symptoms of insect stings even if there is no allergic reaction. Their recreational appeal exists mainly due to their anticholinergic properties, that induce anxiolysis and, in some cases such as diphenhydramine , chlorpheniramine , and orphenadrine ,

5720-466: The consequences of irresponsible drug use to users. Another issue is that the illegality of drugs causes social and economic consequences for users—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution could reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use. In efforts to curtail recreational drug use, governments worldwide introduced several laws prohibiting

5824-639: The consumption of club drugs is highly associated with the presence of criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence . The prevalence of recreational drugs in human societies is widely reflected in fiction, entertainment, and the arts, subject to prevailing laws and social conventions. For instance, in the music industry , the musical genres hip hop , hardcore rap , and trap , alongside their derivative subgenres and subcultures , are most notorious for having continuously celebrated and promoted drug trafficking , gangster lifestyle , and consumption of alcohol and other drugs since their inception in

5928-404: The corresponding benzoic acid derivatives conjugated with glycine . The metabolism may be primarily by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 and COMT. Complex, nonlinear pharmacokinetics arise via autoinhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2D8, resulting in zeroth order kinetics at higher doses. It is thought that this can result in sustained and higher concentrations of MDMA if

6032-518: The database has facilitated the centralization and comparison of information collected at the local level. The TEDI database also feeds into the early warning system of the European Union Drugs Agency (EUDA, formerly EMCDDA). EUDA and the TEDI network also collaborate on the organization of conferences and trainings. In 2019, the mobile application TripApp was launched by a consortium or organizations, sharing in real-time alerts from

6136-432: The desired and adverse effects of MDMA is expected to occur with consistent MDMA use. A 2007 delphic analysis of a panel of experts in pharmacology, psychiatry, law, policing and others estimated MDMA to have a psychological dependence and physical dependence potential roughly three-fourths to four-fifths that of cannabis. MDMA has been shown to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens . Because MDMA releases dopamine in

6240-439: The drug and increase profits (notably lactose) and binding agents. Tablets sold as ecstasy sometimes contain 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), other amphetamine derivatives, caffeine, opiates, or painkillers. Some tablets contain little or no MDMA. The proportion of seized ecstasy tablets with MDMA-like impurities has varied annually and by country. The average content of MDMA in

6344-419: The drug in 1952, most likely while researching new stimulants or circulatory medications. After pharmacological studies, research on MDMA was not continued. In 1959, Wolfgang Fruhstorfer synthesized MDMA for pharmacological testing while researching stimulants. It is unclear if Fruhstorfer investigated the effects of MDMA in humans. Outside of Merck, other researchers began to investigate MDMA. In 1953 and 1954,

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6448-414: The drug is taken in much higher than therapeutic doses. Antihistamines are widely available over the counter at drug stores (without a prescription), in the form of allergy medication and some cough medicines . They are sometimes used in combination with other substances such as alcohol. The most common unsupervised use of antihistamines in terms of volume and percentage of the total is perhaps in parallel to

6552-627: The drug. It is estimated that 26% of people with hallucinogen-induced psychosis will transition to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This percentage is less than the psychosis transition rate for cannabis (34%) but higher than that of amphetamines (22%). Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating depression , post-traumatic stress disorder , obsessive–compulsive disorder , alcoholism , and opioid addiction . Yet

6656-581: The early 1990s, especially among teenagers, but by the end of the decade this upswing had leveled off well below former peaks of use. Many movements and organizations are advocating for or against the liberalization of the use of recreational drugs , most notably regarding the legalization of marijuana and cannabinoids for medical and/or recreational use. Subcultures have emerged among users of recreational drugs, as well as alternative lifestyles and social movements among those who abstain from them, such as teetotalism and " straight edge ". Since

6760-493: The early 2000s, medical professionals have acknowledged and addressed the problem of the increasing consumption of alcoholic drinks and club drugs (such as MDMA , cocaine , rohypnol , GHB , ketamine , PCP , LSD , and methamphetamine ) associated with rave culture among adolescents and young adults in the Western world . Studies have shown that adolescents are more likely than young adults to use multiple drugs , and

6864-1022: The effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and dysphoric. This is colloquially termed a "crash" and may promote reuse of the stimulant. Amphetamines are a significant cause of drug-induced psychosis. Importantly, a 2019 meta-analysis found that 22% of people with amphetamine-induced psychosis transition to a later diagnosis of schizophrenia. Examples of stimulants include: Hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics , dissociatives , and deliriants . They can cause subjective changes in perception , thought , emotion and consciousness . Unlike other psychoactive drugs such as stimulants and opioids , hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind but also induce experiences that differ from those of ordinary consciousness, often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance , meditation , conversion experiences, and dreams . Psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants have

6968-410: The effects of increased empathy with others. When testing MDMA for medium and high doses, it showed increased hedonic and arousal continuum. The effect of MDMA increasing sociability is consistent, while its effects on empathy have been more mixed. MDMA is often considered the drug of choice within the rave culture and is also used at clubs, festivals, and house parties . In the rave environment,

7072-459: The function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates, conferring an evolutionary advantage. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasized the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs , which had themselves evolved to imitate neurotransmitters. Chemical–ecological adaptations and the genetics of hepatic enzymes , particularly cytochrome P450 , have led researchers to propose that "humans have shared

7176-560: The global supply shortage of sassafras oil —a problem largely assuaged by use of improved or alternative modern methods of synthesis—the purity of substances sold as molly have been found to vary widely. Some of these substances contain methylone , ethylone , MDPV , mephedrone , or any other of the group of compounds commonly known as bath salts , in addition to, or in place of, MDMA. Powdered MDMA ranges from pure MDMA to crushed tablets with 30–40% purity. MDMA tablets typically have low purity due to bulking agents that are added to dilute

7280-732: The half-lives would be higher at more typical doses (100 mg is sometimes considered a typical dose). MDMA is in the substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine and substituted amphetamine classes of chemicals . As a free base , MDMA is a colorless oil insoluble in water. The most common salt of MDMA is the hydrochloride salt; pure MDMA hydrochloride is water-soluble and appears as a white or off-white powder or crystal. There are numerous methods available to synthesize MDMA via different intermediates. The original MDMA synthesis described in Merck's patent involves brominating safrole to 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-bromopropane and then reacting this adduct with methylamine. Most illicit MDMA

7384-996: The harmful effects of the solvents or gases, or due to other chemicals used in the products inhaled. As with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence. Computer cleaning dusters are dangerous to inhale, because the gases expand and cool rapidly upon being sprayed. In many cases, users have died from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest, or aspiration of vomit. Examples include: Plants: Substances (also not necessarily psychoactive plants smoked within them): Minimally psychoactive plants which contain mainly caffeine and theobromine : Most known psychoactive plants: Solanaceae plants—contain atropine , hyoscyamine , and scopolamine : Cacti with mescaline : Other plants: Fungi: MDMA 3,4-Methyl ​enedioxy ​methamphetamine ( MDMA ), commonly known as ecstasy (tablet form), and molly (crystal form),

7488-424: The latter. The methylenedioxy- substitution provides the serotonergic activity, as most other substituted amphetamines show negligible affinity for the serotonin transporter. Neurotransmitter release induced by monoamine-releasing agents differs significantly from the regular, action potential -evoked neurotransmitter release. Inside the neuron, MDMA inhibits VMAT2 and activates TAAR1 . TAAR1 agonism results in

7592-999: The lungs. While some "inhalant" drugs are used for medical purposes , as in the case of nitrous oxide , a dental anesthetic, inhalants are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect. Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled, including organic solvents (found in cleaning products, fast-drying glues, and nail polish removers), fuels ( gasoline (petrol) and kerosene ), and propellant gases such as Freon and compressed hydrofluorocarbons that are used in aerosol cans such as hairspray, whipped cream, and non-stick cooking spray. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly, such as anesthetics ( ether and nitrous oxide) and volatile anti- angina drugs ( alkyl nitrites , more commonly known as "poppers"). The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "[...] live on

7696-423: The medicinal use of some antihistamines to extend and intensify the effects of opioids and depressants. The most commonly used are hydroxyzine , mainly to extend a supply of other drugs, as in medical use, and the above-mentioned ethanolamine and alkylamine-class first-generation antihistamines, which are – once again as in the 1950s – the subject of medical research into their anti-depressant properties. For all of

7800-647: The mice are sleep deprived. Even at the very low doses that are comparable to those self-administered by humans, MDMA causes oxidative stress and both single and double-strand breaks in the DNA of the hippocampus region of the mouse brain. As of 2015 , the long-term effects of MDMA on human brain structure and function have not been fully determined. However, there is consistent evidence of structural and functional deficits in MDMA users with high lifetime exposure. These structural or functional changes appear to be dose dependent and may be less prominent in MDMA users with only

7904-430: The mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed Cannabis sativa as a prescription drug for various medical conditions. In the 1960s, the counterculture movement introduced the use of psychoactive drugs, including cannabis. Young adults and college students reported the recreational prevalence of cannabis, among other drugs, at 20-25% while the cultural mindset of using was open and curious. In 1969,

8008-409: The mild psychedelic hallucinations induced by high doses of MDMA in humans. The MDMA concentration in the blood stream starts to rise after about 30 minutes, and reaches its maximal concentration in the blood stream between 1.5 and 3 hours after ingestion . It is then slowly metabolized and excreted , with levels of MDMA and its metabolites decreasing to half their peak concentration over

8112-772: The most common and widespread gateway drugs . In the United States , Australia , and New Zealand , the general onset of drinking alcohol , tobacco smoking , cannabis smoking , and consumption of multiple drugs most frequently occurs during adolescence and in middle school and secondary school settings. Some scientific studies in the early 21st century found that a low to moderate level of alcohol consumption, particularly of red wine , might have substantial health benefits such as decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases , stroke , and cognitive decline . This claim has been disputed, specifically by British researcher David Nutt , professor of neuropsychopharmacology at

8216-534: The most commonly used method for drug use education; however, the success rates of these intervention programs are highly dependent on the commitment of participants and are limited in general. Alcohol is the most widely used recreational drug in Australia . 86.2% of Australians aged 12 years and over have consumed alcohol at least once in their lifetime, compared to 34.8% of Australians aged 12 years and over who have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. From

8320-531: The most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for direct religious experience , enhanced creativity , personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the 1960s counterculture , where it became associated with various social movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations. Inhalants are gases , aerosols , or solvents that are breathed in and absorbed through

8424-615: The next several hours. The duration of action of MDMA is usually four to six hours, after which serotonin levels in the brain are depleted. Serotonin levels typically return to normal within 24–48 hours. Metabolites of MDMA that have been identified in humans include 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA) (also called alpha-methyldopamine (α-Me-DA)), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone (MDP2P), and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-hydroxyamphetamine (MDOH). The contributions of these metabolites to

8528-442: The onset of subjective effects within 30 to 60 minutes of oral consumption and reaching peak effect at 75 to 120 minutes, which then plateaus for about 3.5 hours. The desired short-term psychoactive effects of MDMA have been reported to include: The experience elicited by MDMA depends on the dose, setting, and user. The variability of the induced altered state is lower compared to other psychedelics. For example, MDMA used at parties

8632-462: The parietal and orbitofrontal cortices, and decreased hippocampal activity have been observed in long term users. The effects established so far for recreational use of ecstasy lie in the range of moderate to severe effects for serotonin transporter reduction. Impairments in multiple aspects of cognition, including attention, learning, memory, visual processing , and sleep, have been found in regular MDMA users. The magnitude of these impairments

8736-405: The phosphorylation of monoamine transporters by PKA and PKC , which either internalizes the transporter, or reverses its flux direction. VMAT2 inhibition prevents the packaging of the cytosolic monoamines into the synaptic vesicles , which allows them to instead be pumped out of the neuron by the phosphorylated transporters. The result is that the neuron constantly "leaks" neurotransmitters into

8840-460: The possession of almost all varieties of recreational drugs during the 20th century. The " War on Drugs " promoted by the United States, however, is now facing increasing criticism. Evidence is insufficient to tell if behavioral interventions help prevent recreational drug use in children. One in four adolescents has used an illegal drug, and one in ten of those adolescents who need addiction treatment get some type of care. School-based programs are

8944-514: The presence of possible adulterants or diluents. The UK term "mandy" and the US term "molly" colloquially refer to MDMA in a crystalline powder form that is thought to be free of adulterants. MDMA is also sold in the form of the hydrochloride salt, either as loose crystals or in gelcaps . MDMA tablets can sometimes be found in a shaped form that may depict characters from popular culture , likely for deceptive reasons. These are sometimes collectively referred to as "fun tablets". Partly due to

9048-432: The psychoactive and toxic effects of MDMA are an area of active research. 80% of MDMA is metabolised in the liver, and about 20% is excreted unchanged in the urine . MDMA is known to be metabolized by two main metabolic pathways : (1) O -demethylenation followed by catechol- O -methyltransferase (COMT)-catalyzed methylation and/or glucuronide/sulfate conjugation; and (2) N -dealkylation, deamination, and oxidation to

9152-504: The rate of transition from opioid, alcohol and sedative induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 12%, 10% and 9% respectively. Antihistamines (or "histamine antagonists") inhibit the release or action of histamine . "Antihistamine" can be used to describe any histamine antagonist, but the term is usually reserved for the classical antihistamines that act upon the H 1 histamine receptor . Antihistamines are used as treatment for allergies . Allergies are caused by an excessive response of

9256-415: The release of the neurotransmitters serotonin , dopamine , and norepinephrine in parts of the brain. It belongs to the substituted amphetamine classes of drugs . MDMA is structurally similar to mescaline (a psychedelic), methamphetamine (a stimulant), as well as endogenous monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. MDMA has limited approved medical uses in

9360-399: The same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, through cartoons explaining responsible drug use and

9464-462: The sensory effects of music and lighting are often highly synergistic with the drug. The psychedelic amphetamine quality of MDMA offers multiple appealing aspects to users in the rave setting. Some users enjoy the feeling of mass communion from the inhibition-reducing effects of the drug, while others use it as party fuel because of the drug's stimulatory effects. MDMA is used less often than other stimulants, typically less than once per week. MDMA

9568-401: The streets completely without family ties". Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations , depending on the substance and the dosage. Some inhalant users are injured due to

9672-576: The subjective effects of MDMA. Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as reboxetine (Edronax) have been found to reduce emotional excitation and feelings of stimulation with MDMA but do not appear to influence its entactogenic or mood-elevating effects. MDMA is a substituted amphetamine structurally, and a monoamine-releasing agent mechanistically. Like other monoamine-releasing agents, MDMA enters monoaminergic neurons through monoamine transporters . MDMA has high affinity for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters, with some preference for

9776-487: The substance. MDMA may have been in non-medical use in the western United States in 1968. An August 1970 report at a meeting of crime laboratory chemists indicates MDMA was being used recreationally in the Chicago area by 1970. MDMA likely emerged as a substitute for its analog 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), a drug at the time popular among users of psychedelics which was made a Schedule 1 controlled substance in

9880-584: The survival of fetal dopaminergic neurons in culture. MDMA overdose symptoms vary widely due to the involvement of multiple organ systems. Some of the more overt overdose symptoms are listed in the table below. The number of instances of fatal MDMA intoxication is low relative to its usage rates. In most fatalities, MDMA was not the only drug involved. Acute toxicity is mainly caused by serotonin syndrome and sympathomimetic effects. Sympathomimetic side effects can be managed with carvedilol . MDMA's toxicity in overdose may be exacerbated by caffeine, with which it

9984-472: The synapse, regardless of any signal received. MDMA has two enantiomers , (S) -MDMA and (R) -MDMA. Recreationally used MDMA is the equimolar mixture of both . (S) -MDMA causes the entactogenic effects of the racemate, because it releases serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine much more efficiently via monoamine transporters. It also has higher affinity towards 5-HT 2C R. (R) -MDMA has notable agonism towards 5-HT 2A R, which supposedly contributes to

10088-558: The synthesis and some chemical properties of MDMA and its subsequent conversion to methylhydrastinine. Merck records indicate its researchers returned to the compound sporadically. A 1920 Merck patent describes a chemical modification to MDMA. In 1927, Max Oberlin studied the pharmacology of MDMA while searching for substances with effects similar to adrenaline or ephedrine , the latter being structurally similar to MDMA. Compared to ephedrine, Oberlin observed that it had similar effects on vascular smooth muscle tissue, stronger effects at

10192-459: The teeth , blurred vision , sweating , and a rapid heartbeat , and extended use can also lead to addiction, memory problems , paranoia , and difficulty sleeping . Deaths have been reported due to increased body temperature and dehydration. Following use, people often feel depressed and tired, although this effect does not appear in clinical use, suggesting that it is not a direct result of MDMA administration. MDMA acts primarily by increasing

10296-506: The user takes consecutive doses of the drug. MDMA and metabolites are primarily excreted as conjugates, such as sulfates and glucuronides. MDMA is a chiral compound and has been almost exclusively administered as a racemate . However, the two enantiomers have been shown to exhibit different kinetics. The disposition of MDMA may also be stereoselective, with the S-enantiomer having a shorter elimination half-life and greater excretion than

10400-506: The user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience". Anthropological research has suggested that humans "may have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins ". The ability to use botanical chemicals to serve

10504-463: The uterus, and no "local effect at the eye". MDMA was also found to have effects on blood sugar levels comparable to high doses of ephedrine. Oberlin concluded that the effects of MDMA were not limited to the sympathetic nervous system . Research was stopped "particularly due to a strong price increase of safrylmethylamine", which was still used as an intermediate in methylhydrastinine synthesis. Albert van Schoor performed simple toxicological tests with

10608-447: The vast majority of participants reported increased feelings of empathy that persisted after the therapy sessions. Small doses of MDMA are used by some religious practitioners as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation. MDMA has been used as an adjunct to New Age spiritual practices. MDMA has become widely known as ecstasy (shortened "E", "X", or "XTC"), usually referring to its tablet form, although this term may also include

10712-411: The world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances . When these are used, effects may include anxiolysis (reduction of anxiety), analgesia (pain relief), sedation , somnolence , cognitive/memory impairment, dissociation , muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure / heart rate , respiratory depression , anesthesia , and anticonvulsant effects. Depressants exert their effects through

10816-431: Was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch . It was used to enhance psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a street drug in the 1980s. MDMA is commonly associated with dance parties , raves , and electronic dance music . Tablets sold as ecstasy may be mixed with other substances such as ephedrine , amphetamine , and methamphetamine . In 2016, about 21 million people between

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