117-539: Toy theater , also called paper theater and model theater (also spelt theatre , see spelling differences ), is a form of miniature theater dating back to the early 19th century in Europe. Toy theaters were often printed on paperboard sheets and sold as kits at the concession stand of an opera house , playhouse , or vaudeville theater . Toy theatres were assembled at home and performed for family members and guests, sometimes with live musical accompaniment. Toy theatre saw
234-502: A common law marriage which would ultimately produce a daughter, Lidya Babel. He also collaborated with Sergei Eisenstein on the film Bezhin Meadow , about Pavlik Morozov , a child informant for the Soviet secret police . Babel also worked on the screenplays for several other Stalinist propaganda films. According to Nathalie Babel Brown, "Babel came to Paris in the summer of 1935, as part of
351-686: A consonant followed by an unstressed -re (pronounced /ə(r)/ ). In modern American English, most of these words have the ending -er . The difference is most common for words ending in -bre or -tre : British spellings calibre , centre , fibre , goitre , litre , lustre , manoeuvre , meagre , metre (length) , mitre , nitre , ochre , reconnoitre , sabre , saltpetre , sepulchre , sombre , spectre , theatre (see exceptions ) and titre all have -er in American spelling. In Britain, both -re and -er spellings were common before Johnson's 1755 dictionary
468-428: A daughter, Lydia Babel. According to Pirozhkova, "Before I met Babel, I used to read a great deal, though without any particular direction. I read whatever I could get my hands on. Babel noticed this and told me, 'Reading that way will get you nowhere. You won't have time to read the books that are truly worthwhile. There are about a hundred books that every educated person needs to read. Sometime I'll try to make you
585-468: A distinctive set of Canadian English spellings is viewed by many Canadians as one of the unique aspects of Canadian culture (especially when compared to the United States). In Australia, -or endings enjoyed some use throughout the 19th century and in the early 20th century. Like Canada, though, most major Australian newspapers have switched from " -or " endings to " -our " endings. The " -our " spelling
702-978: A drastic decline in popularity with a shift towards realism on the European stage in the late 19th century, and again with the arrival of television after World War II . Toy theatre has seen a resurgence in recent years among many puppeteers , authors and filmmakers and there are numerous international toy theatre festivals throughout the Americas and Europe. The original toy theatres were mass-produced replicas of popular plays, sold as kits that people assembled at home, including stage, scenery, characters and costumes. They were printed on paperboard, available at English playhouses and commercial libraries for "a penny plain or two pence coloured." Hobbyists often went to great pains to not only hand-colour their stages but to embellish their toy theatre personae with bits of cloth and tinsel; tinsel print characters could be bought pre-tinselled, or
819-490: A emium , and a enigma . In others, it is kept in all varieties: for example, phoenix , and usually subpoena , but Phenix in Virginia . This is especially true of names: Aegean (the sea), Caesar , Oedipus , Phoebe , etc., although "caesarean section" may be spelled as "cesarean section". There is no reduction of Latin -ae plurals (e.g., larv ae ); nor where the digraph <ae>/<oe> does not result from
936-458: A eon , an a emia , an a esthesia , c a ecum , c a esium , c o eliac , diarrh o ea , encyclop a edia , f a eces , f o etal , gyn a ecology , h a emoglobin , h a emophilia , leuk a emia , o esophagus , o estrogen , orthop a edic , pal a eontology , p a ediatric , p a edophile . Oenology is acceptable in American English but is deemed
1053-494: A high forehead, who probably never once in his life held a pistol in his hands." According to Peter Constantine, from the day of his arrest, Isaac Babel "became a nonperson in the Soviet Union . His name was blotted out, removed from literary dictionaries and encyclopedias, and taken off school and university syllabi. He became unmentionable in any public venue. When the film director Mark Donskoi 's famous Gorky trilogy premiered
1170-448: A list of 457 'enemies of the party and the soviet regime' who were in custody, with a recommendation that 346, including Isaac Babel, should be shot. According to Babel's daughter, Nathalie Babel Brown, his trial took place on January 26, 1940, in one of Lavrenti Beria 's private chambers. It lasted about twenty minutes. The sentence had been prepared in advance and without ambiguity: death by firing squad , to be carried out immediately. He
1287-481: A list of them.' And a few days later he brought me a list. There were ancient writers on it, Greek and Roman— Homer , Herodotus , Lucretius , Suetonius —and also all the classics of later European literature, starting with Erasmus , Rabelais , Cervantes , Swift , and Coster , and going on to 19th century writers such as Stendhal , Mérimée , and Flaubert ." In 1920, Babel was assigned to Komandarm (Army Commander) Semyon Budyonny 's 1st Cavalry Army , witnessing
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#17328767226681404-501: A longing of being "a free man," while also expressing fear at no longer being able to make a living solely through writing. On July 27, 1933, Babel wrote a letter to Yuri Annenkov , stating that he had been summoned to Moscow and was leaving immediately. Babel's common-law wife, Antonina Pirozhkova, recalled this era, "Babel remained in France for so long that it was rumored in Moscow that he
1521-456: A matter of fact, Babel had many secrets, lived with many ambiguities and contradictions, and left many unanswered questions behind him." In 1932, after numerous requests, he was permitted to visit his estranged wife Yevgenia in Paris . While visiting his wife and their daughter Nathalie, Babel agonized over whether or not to return to Soviet Russia. In conversations and letters to friends, he expressed
1638-535: A military campaign of the Polish–Soviet War of 1920. He documented the horrors of the war he witnessed in the 1920 Diary ( Конармейский Дневник 1920 года , Konarmeyskiy Dnevnik 1920 Goda ), which he later used to write Red Cavalry ( Конармия , Konarmiya ), a collection of short stories such as "Crossing the River Zbrucz" and "My First Goose". The horrific violence of Red Cavalry seemed to harshly contrast
1755-527: A minor variant of enology , whereas although archeology and ameba exist in American English, the British versions amoeba and archaeology are more common. The chemical haem (named as a shortening of h a emoglobin ) is spelled heme in American English, to avoid confusion with hem . Canadian English mostly follows American English in this respect, although it is split on gynecology (e.g. Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada vs.
1872-554: A mistaken etymology. The etymologically correct original spelling fetus reflects the Latin original and is the standard spelling in medical journals worldwide; the Oxford English Dictionary notes that "In Latin manuscripts both fētus and foetus are used". The Ancient Greek diphthongs <αι> and <οι> were transliterated into Latin as <ae> and <oe>. The ligatures æ and œ were introduced when
1989-496: A phenomenon of positive, unproblematic importance and power. ... I should like you to read this remarkable play..." According to Pirozhkova, filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein was also an admirer of Sunset and often compared it to the writings of Émile Zola for, "illuminating capitalist relationships through the experience of a single family." Eisenstein was also quite critical of the Moscow Art Theatre, "for its weak staging of
2106-574: A public statement about this, he privately confided in Antonina, "The bounty of the past is gone—it is due to the famine in Ukraine and the destruction of the village across our land." As Stalin tightened his grip on the Soviet intelligentsia and decreed that all writers and artists must conform to socialist realism , Babel increasingly withdrew from public life. During the campaign against " Formalism ", Babel
2223-599: A reporter for The Dawn of the Orient (Заря Востока) a Russian-language newspaper published in Tbilisi . In one of his articles, he expressed regret that Lenin's controversial New Economic Policy had not been more widely implemented. Babel married Yevgenia Gronfein on August 9, 1919, in Odessa. In 1929, their marriage produced a daughter, Nathalie Babel Brown, who grew up to become a scholar and editor of her father's life and work. By 1925,
2340-597: A result, he was schooled at home by private tutors. In addition to regular school subjects, Babel studied the Talmud and music. According to Cynthia Ozick , "Though he was at home in Yiddish and Hebrew , and was familiar with the traditional texts and their demanding commentaries, he added to these a lifelong fascination with Maupassant and Flaubert . His first stories were composed in fluent literary French . The breadth and scope of his social compass enabled him to see through
2457-420: A single word. Babel asked the secret policeman sitting next to him, 'So I guess you don't get too much sleep, do you?' And he even laughed. As we approached Moscow , I said to Babel, 'I'll be waiting for you, it will be as if you've gone to Odessa ... only there won't be any letters....' He answered, 'I ask you to see that the child not be made miserable.' "But I don't know what my destiny will be." At this point,
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#17328767226682574-660: A suffix for agentive ( reader , user , winner ) and comparative ( louder , nicer ) forms. One outcome is the British distinction of meter for a measuring instrument from metre for the unit of length. However, while " poetic metre " is often spelled as -re , pentameter , hexameter , etc. are always -er . Many other words have -er in British English. These include Germanic words, such as anger , mother , timber and water , and such Romance-derived words as danger , quarter and river . The ending -cre , as in acre , lucre , massacre , and mediocre ,
2691-619: A wealthy industrialist, whom he eventually married. In 1915, Babel graduated and moved to Petrograd , in defiance of laws restricting Jews from living outside the Pale of Settlement . Babel was fluent in French, besides Russian, Ukrainian and Yiddish, and his earliest works were written in French. However, none of his stories in that language have survived. In St. Petersburg, Babel met Maxim Gorky , who published some of Babel's stories in his literary magazine Letopis ( Летопись , "Chronicle"). Gorky advised
2808-406: A wide range of supplies for home tinselling could be bought. Just as the toy-sized stages diminished a play's scale, their corresponding scripts tended to abridge the text, paring it down to key characters and lines for a shorter, less complicated presentation. In the first half of the 19th century, more than 300 of London's most popular plays saw the issue as toy theatres. Publishers sent artists to
2925-613: A young Soviet writer who was not a member of the Communist Party ." In fact, Babel's father was a dealer in farm implements and owned a large warehouse. In his pre-teens, Babel hoped to get into the preparatory class of the Nicholas I Odessa Commercial School. However, he first had to overcome the Jewish quota . Despite the fact that Babel received passing grades, his place was given to another boy, whose parents had bribed school officials. As
3042-432: Is - /s/ for the noun and - /z/ for the verb). For licence / license or practice / practise , British English also keeps the noun–verb distinction graphically (although phonetically the two words in each pair are homophones with - /s/ pronunciation). On the other hand, American English uses license and practice for both nouns and verbs (with - /s/ pronunciation in both cases too). American English has kept
3159-399: Is dropped for other derivations, for example, central , fibrous , spectral . However, the existence of related words without e before the r is not proof for the existence of an -re British spelling: for example, entry and entrance come from enter , which has not been spelled entre for centuries. The difference relates only to root words; -er rather than -re is universal as
3276-666: Is full of adventure." During the Russian Civil War , which led to the Party's monopoly on the printed word, Babel worked for the publishing house of the Odessa Gubkom (regional CPSU Committee), in the food procurement unit (see his story "Ivan-and-Maria"), in the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education), and in a typographic printing office. After the end of the Civil War, Babel worked as
3393-490: Is generally preferred over oe and often over ae , but oe and ae are sometimes found in academic and scientific writing as well as government publications (for example, the fee schedule of the Ontario Health Insurance Plan ) and some words such as palaeontology or aeon . In Australia, it can go either way, depending on the word: for instance, medieval is spelled with the e rather than ae , following
3510-586: Is known as the Pacific Parlour car, not Pacific Parlor . Proper names such as Pearl Harbor or Sydney Harbour are usually spelled according to their native-variety spelling vocabulary. The name of the herb savory is spelled thus everywhere, although the related adjective savo(u)ry , like savo(u)r , has a u in the UK. Honor (the name) and arbor (the tool) have -or in Britain, as mentioned above, as does
3627-593: Is sometimes used. The ratio between -ise and -ize stood at 3:2 in the British National Corpus up to 2002. The spelling -ise is more commonly used in UK mass media and newspapers, including The Times (which switched conventions in 1992), The Daily Telegraph , The Economist and the BBC . The Government of the United Kingdom additionally uses -ise , stating "do not use Americanisms" justifying that
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3744-714: Is standard worldwide and complection is rare. However, the adjective complected (as in "dark-complected"), although sometimes proscribed, is on equal ground in the U.S. with complexioned. It is not used in this way in the UK, although there exists a rare alternative meaning of complicated . In some cases, words with "old-fashioned" spellings are retained widely in the U.S. for historical reasons (cf. connexionalism ). Many words, especially medical words, that are written with ae/æ or oe/œ in British English are written with just an e in American English. The sounds in question are /iː/ or /ɛ/ (or, unstressed, /i/ , /ɪ/ or /ə/ ). Examples (with non-American letter in bold ):
3861-581: Is taught in schools nationwide as part of the Australian curriculum. The most notable countrywide use of the -or ending is for one of the country's major political parties, the Australian Labor Party , which was originally called "the Australian Labour Party" (name adopted in 1908), but was frequently referred to as both "Labour" and "Labor". The "Labor" was adopted from 1912 onward due to
3978-530: Is the usual form of the male given name, as a surname both the spellings Peter and Petre (the latter notably borne by a British lord ) are found. For British accoutre , the American practice varies: the Merriam-Webster Dictionary prefers the -re spelling, but The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language prefers the -er spelling. More recent French loanwords keep
4095-481: Is used in both British and American English to show that the c is pronounced /k/ rather than /s/ . The spellings euchre and ogre are also the same in both British and American English. Fire and its associated adjective fiery are the same in both British and American English, although the noun was spelled fier in Old and Middle English. Theater is the prevailing American spelling used to refer to both
4212-578: The -meter suffix (from Ancient Greek - μέτρον métron , via French -mètre ) normally had the -re spelling from earliest use in English but were superseded by -er . Examples include thermometer and barometer . The e preceding the r is kept in American-inflected forms of nouns and verbs, for example, fibers , reconnoitered , centering , which are fibres , reconnoitred , and centring respectively in British English. According to
4329-560: The -ise form as an alternative. Publications by Oxford University Press (OUP)—such as Henry Watson Fowler 's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage , Hart's Rules , and The Oxford Guide to English Usage —also recommend -ize . However, Robert Allan's Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage considers either spelling to be acceptable anywhere but the U.S. American spelling avoids -ise endings in words like organize , realize and recognize . British spelling mostly uses -ise ( organise , realise , recognise ), though -ize
4446-583: The -ise form is preferred in Australian English at a ratio of about 3:1 according to the Macquarie Dictionary . Isaac Babel Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel (13 July [ O.S. 1 July] 1894 – 27 January 1940) was a Soviet writer, journalist, playwright, and literary translator. He is best known as the author of Red Cavalry and Odessa Stories , and has been acclaimed as "the greatest prose writer of Russian Jewry ". Babel
4563-450: The -re spelling in American English. These are not exceptions when a French-style pronunciation is used ( /rə/ rather than /ə(r)/ ), as with double entendre , genre and oeuvre . However, the unstressed /ə(r)/ pronunciation of an -er ending is used more (or less) often with some words, including cadre , macabre , maître d' , Notre Dame , piastre , and timbre . The -re endings are mostly standard throughout
4680-483: The Canadian Medical Association 's Canadian specialty profile of Obstetrics/gynecology ). Pediatrician is preferred roughly 10 to 1 over paediatrician , while foetal and oestrogen are similarly uncommon. Words that can be spelled either way in American English include a esthetics and arch a eology (which usually prevail over esthetics and archeology ), as well as pal a estra , for which
4797-672: The Maria' s performance was cancelled by the NKVD during rehearsals. Despite its popularity in the West, Maria was not performed in Russia until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Carl Weber , a former disciple of Bertolt Brecht , directed Maria at Stanford University in 2004. According to Weber, "The play is very controversial. [It] shows the stories of both sides clashing with each other during
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4914-538: The Moscow Art Theater when his play Mariya was being given its first reading, and when he returned home he told me that all the actresses had been impatient to find out what the leading female role was like and who would be cast in it. It turned out that there was no leading female character present on the stage in this play. Babel thought that the play had not come off well, but ... he was always critical of his own work." Although intended to be performed in 1935,
5031-534: The OED , centring is a "word ... of 3 syllables (in careful pronunciation)" (i.e., /ˈsɛntərɪŋ/ ), yet there is no vowel in the spelling corresponding to the second syllable ( /ə/ ). The OED third edition (revised entry of June 2016) allows either two or three syllables. On the Oxford Dictionaries Online website, the three-syllable version is listed only as the American pronunciation of centering . The e
5148-667: The October Revolution . According to one of his stories, "The Road" (" Дорога ", " Doroga "), he served on the Romanian front until early December 1917. In his autobiography, Babel says he worked as a translator for the Petrograd Cheka , likely in 1917. In March 1918 he worked in Petrograd as a reporter for Gorky's Menshevik newspaper, Novaya zhizn ( Новая жизнь , " New Life "). Babel continued publishing there until Novaya zhizn
5265-603: The Russian Civil War —the Bolsheviks and the old society members —without making a judgment one way or another. Babel’s opinion on either side is very ambiguous, but he does make the statement that what happened after the Bolshevik Revolution may not have been the best thing for Russia ." In 1930, Babel travelled in Ukraine and witnessed the brutality of forced collectivisation and dekulakisation . Although he never made
5382-542: The Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo-French ) spellings of words proved to be decisive. Later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on today's American spellings and vice versa. For the most part, the spelling systems of most Commonwealth countries and Ireland closely resemble
5499-524: The proscenium , scenery, sets, props and characters. The sheets are pasted onto thin cardboard , cut out, and then assembled for the purposes of the reenacting of a play. Figures are attached to small sticks, wires, or configurations of strings that allow them to move about the set. Some toy theaters and figures are enhanced with moving parts and special effects, and it is common for performances to include live or pre-recorded sound effects and music. British and American spelling differences Despite
5616-531: The theatre spelling. (The word "theater" in American English is a place where both stage performances and screenings of films take place, but in British English a "theatre" is where stage performances take place but not film screenings – these take place in a cinema, or "picture theatre" in Australia.) In the United States, the spelling theatre is sometimes used when referring to the art form of theatre, while
5733-466: The u has since been dropped: ambassadour , emperour , errour , governour , horrour , inferiour , mirrour , perturbatour , superiour , tenour , terrour , tremour . Johnson, unlike Webster, was not an advocate of spelling reform, but chose the spelling best derived, as he saw it, from among the variations in his sources. He preferred French over Latin spellings because, as he put it, "the French generally supplied us". English speakers who moved to
5850-435: The u : In American usage, derivatives and inflected forms are built by simply adding the suffix in all cases (for example, favorite , savory etc.) since the u is absent to begin with. American usage, in most cases, keeps the u in the word glamour , which comes from Scots , not Latin or French. Glamor is sometimes used in imitation of the spelling reform of other -our words to -or . Nevertheless,
5967-649: The ‑our/or group do not have a Latin counterpart that ends in ‑or ; for example, armo(u)r , behavio(u)r , harbo(u)r , neighbo(u)r ; also arbo(u)r , meaning "shelter", though senses "tree" and "tool" are always arbor , a false cognate of the other word. The word arbor would be more accurately spelled arber or arbre in the US and the UK, respectively, the latter of which is the French word for "tree". Some 16th- and early 17th-century British scholars indeed insisted that ‑or be used for words from Latin (e.g., color ) and ‑our for French loans; however, in many cases,
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#17328767226686084-441: The 17th and 18th centuries, whereas there are thousands of examples of their -our counterparts. One notable exception is honor . Honor and honour were equally frequent in Britain until the 17th century; honor only exists in the UK now as the spelling of Honor Oak , a district of London, and of the occasional given name Honor . In derivatives and inflected forms of the -our/or words, British usage depends on
6201-593: The 1970s, but had by then been overtaken by connection in regular usage (for example, in more popular newspapers). Connexion (and its derivatives connexional and connexionalism ) is still in use by the Methodist Church of Great Britain to refer to the whole church as opposed to its constituent districts, circuits and local churches, whereas the US-majority United Methodist Church uses Connection . Complexion (which comes from complex )
6318-414: The 20th century toy theater became a tool for the avant-garde , messed with by futurist founder F.T. Marienetti as well as Pablo Picasso . Film directors like Ingmar Bergman and Orson Welles would use toy theaters as staging grounds for their cinematic masterpieces, and Laurence Olivier even made a toy theater of his film version of Hamlet , mass-produced with a little paper cutout of himself in
6435-704: The American National Theatre was referred to by The New York Times as the "American National Theater ", but the organization uses "re" in the spelling of its name. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. has the more common American spelling theater in its references to the Eisenhower Theater, part of the Kennedy Center. Some cinemas outside New York also use
6552-480: The American and British varieties of English. However, English-language spelling reform has rarely been adopted otherwise. As a result, modern English orthography varies only minimally between countries and is far from phonemic in any country. In the early 18th century, English spelling was inconsistent. These differences became noticeable after the publication of influential dictionaries . Today's British English spellings mostly follow Johnson's A Dictionary of
6669-413: The American usage along with numerous other words such as eon or fetus , while other words such as oestrogen or paediatrician are spelled the British way. The Macquarie Dictionary also notes a growing tendency towards replacing ae and oe with e worldwide and with the exception of manoeuvre, all British or American spellings are acceptable variants. Elsewhere, the British usage prevails, but
6786-581: The Anglo-French spelling for defense and offense , which are defence and offence in British English. Likewise, there are the American pretense and British pretence ; but derivatives such as defensive , offensive , and pretension are always thus spelled in both systems. Australian and Canadian usages generally follow British usage. The spelling connexion is now rare in everyday British usage, its use lessening as knowledge of Latin attenuates, and it has almost never been used in
6903-496: The Babels' marriage was souring. Yevgenia Babel, feeling betrayed by her husband's infidelities and motivated by her increasing hatred of communism , emigrated to France . Babel saw her several times during his visits to Paris . During this period, he also entered into a long-term romantic relationship with Tamara Kashirina. Together, they had a son, Emmanuil Babel, who was later adopted by his stepfather Vsevolod Ivanov . Emmanuil's name
7020-440: The British system. In Canada, the spelling system can be said to follow both British and American forms, and Canadians are somewhat more tolerant of foreign spellings when compared with other English-speaking nationalities. Australian English mostly follows British spelling norms but has strayed slightly, with some American spellings incorporated as standard. New Zealand English is almost identical to British spelling, except in
7137-637: The British usage of -our . This coincided with a renewed interest in Canadian English, and the release of the updated Gage Canadian Dictionary in 1997 and the first Canadian Oxford Dictionary in 1998. Historically, most libraries and educational institutions in Canada have supported the use of the Oxford English Dictionary rather than the American Webster's Dictionary . Today, the use of
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#17328767226687254-465: The Commonwealth. The -er spellings are recognized as minor variants in Canada, partly due to United States influence. They are sometimes used in proper names (such as Toronto's controversially named Centerpoint Mall ). For advice / advise and device / devise , American English and British English both keep the noun–verb distinction both graphically and phonetically (where the pronunciation
7371-512: The English Language (1755), while many American English spellings follow Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language ("ADEL", "Webster's Dictionary", 1828). Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In A Companion to the American Revolution (2008), John Algeo notes: "it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He
7488-482: The Greek-style ligature as, for example, in maelstrom or toe ; the same is true for the British form aeroplane (compare other aero- words such as aerosol ) . The now chiefly North American airplane is not a respelling but a recoining, modelled after airship and aircraft . The word airplane dates from 1907, at which time the prefix aero- was trisyllabic, often written aëro- . In Canada, e
7605-515: The US: the more common connection has become the standard worldwide. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the older spelling is more etymologically conservative, since the original Latin word had -xio- . The American usage comes from Webster , who abandoned -xion and preferred -ction . Connexion was still the house style of The Times of London until the 1980s and was still used by Post Office Telecommunications for its telephone services in
7722-491: The United States took these preferences with them. In the early 20th century, H. L. Mencken notes that " honor appears in the 1776 Declaration of Independence , but it seems to have been put there rather by accident than by design". In Jefferson 's original draft it is spelled "honour". In Britain, examples of behavior , color , flavor , harbor , and neighbor rarely appear in Old Bailey court records from
7839-423: The United States use Centre in their names. Examples include the villages of Newton Centre and Rockville Centre , the city of Centreville , Centre County and Centre College . Sometimes, these places were named before spelling changes but more often the spelling serves as an affectation. Proper names are usually spelled according to their native-variety spelling vocabulary; so, for instance, although Peter
7956-476: The United States. A "British standard" began to emerge following the 1755 publication of Samuel Johnson 's A Dictionary of the English Language , and an "American standard" started following the work of Noah Webster and, in particular, his An American Dictionary of the English Language , first published in 1828. Webster's efforts at spelling reform were effective in his native country, resulting in certain well-known patterns of spelling differences between
8073-601: The adjective glamorous often drops the first "u". Saviour is a somewhat common variant of savior in the US. The British spelling is very common for honour (and favour ) in the formal language of wedding invitations in the US. The name of the Space Shuttle Endeavour has a u in it because the spacecraft was named after British Captain James Cook 's ship, HMS Endeavour . The (former) special car on Amtrak 's Coast Starlight train
8190-462: The almost ineffable brutality of certain scenes. One of the stories—"Salt"—enjoys a glory seemingly reserved for poems and rarely attained by prose: many people know it by heart. Back in Odessa, Babel started to write Odessa Stories , a series of short stories set in the Odessan ghetto of Moldavanka . Published individually between 1921 and 1924 and collected into a book in 1931, the stories describe
8307-446: The aspiring writer to gain more life experience; Babel wrote in his autobiography, "I owe everything to that meeting and still pronounce the name of Alexey Maksimovich Gorky with love and admiration." One of his most famous semi-autobiographical short stories, "The Story of My Dovecote" ( История моей голубятни , Istoriya moey golubyatni ), was dedicated to Gorky. There is very little information about Babel's whereabouts during and after
8424-507: The building itself, as noted above, generally is spelled theater . For example, the University of Wisconsin–Madison has a "Department of Theatre and Drama", which offers courses that lead to the "Bachelor of Arts in Theatre ", and whose professed aim is "to prepare our graduate students for successful 21st Century careers in the theatre both as practitioners and scholars". Some placenames in
8541-426: The close historic, economic, and cultural relationship with the United States, -or endings are also sometimes used. Throughout the late 19th and early to mid-20th century, most Canadian newspapers chose to use the American usage of -or endings, originally to save time and money in the era of manual movable type . However, in the 1990s, the majority of Canadian newspapers officially updated their spelling policies to
8658-565: The delegation of Soviet writers to the International Congress of Writers for the Defense of Culture and Peace. He probably knew this would have been his last chance to remain in Europe . As he had done numerous times during the last ten years, he asked my mother to return with him to Moscow. Although he knew the general situation was bad, he nevertheless described to her the comfortable life that
8775-469: The door of their Moscow apartment. Although surprised, she agreed to accompany them to Babel's dacha in Peredelkino . Babel was then placed under arrest. According to Pirozhkova: "In the car, one of the men sat in back with Babel and me while the other one sat in front with the driver. 'The worst part of this is that my mother won't be getting my letters', and then he was silent for a long time. I could not say
8892-403: The dramatic arts and buildings where stage performances and screenings of films take place (i.e., " movie theaters "); for example, a national newspaper such as The New York Times would use theater in its entertainment section. However, the spelling theatre appears in the names of many New York City theatres on Broadway (cf. Broadway theatre) and elsewhere in the United States. In 2003,
9009-703: The ending became ‑our to match the later Old French spelling. The ‑our ending was used not only in new English borrowings, but was also applied to the earlier borrowings that had used ‑or . However, ‑or was still sometimes found. The first three folios of Shakespeare 's plays used both spellings before they were standardised to ‑our in the Fourth Folio of 1685. After the Renaissance , new borrowings from Latin were taken up with their original ‑or ending, and many words once ending in ‑our (for example, chancellour and governour ) reverted to ‑or . A few words of
9126-406: The etymology was not clear, and therefore some scholars advocated ‑or only and others ‑our only. Webster's 1828 dictionary had only -or and is given much of the credit for the adoption of this form in the United States. By contrast, Johnson's 1755 (pre-U.S. independence and establishment) dictionary used -our for all words still so spelled in Britain (like colour ), but also for words where
9243-482: The eyes of peasants, soldiers, priests, rabbis, children, artists, actors, women of all classes. He befriended whores, cabdrivers, jockeys; he knew what it was like to be penniless, to live on the edge and off the beaten track." His attempt to enroll at Odessa University was blocked for ethnic reasons. Babel then entered the Kiev Institute of Finance and Business. There he met Yevgenia Borisovna Gronfein, daughter of
9360-429: The family could have there together. It was the last opportunity my mother had to give a negative answer, and she never forgot it. Perhaps it helped her later on to be proven completely right in her fears and her total lack of confidence in the Soviet Union . My mother described to me these last conversations with my father many times." On May 15, 1939, Antonina Pirozhkova was awakened by four NKVD agents pounding upon
9477-537: The following year, Babel, who had worked on the screenplay , had been removed from the credits." According to his file, "Case #419, Babel, I.E.", the writer was held at the Lubyanka and Butyrka Prisons for a total of eight months as a case was built against him for Trotskyism , terrorism, and spying for Austria and France. At his initial interrogations, "Babel began by adamantly denying any wrongdoing, but then after three days he suddenly 'confessed' to what his interrogator
9594-564: The form's limits, adapting the works of Isaac Babel and Italo Calvino , as well as that of unsung storytellers, friends, neighbors, relatives, and themselves. Contemporary toy theater may use any available technology and cover any subject, and numerous international toy theater festivals occur regularly throughout the Americas and Europe, attracting many well-known actors, musicians and authors to their stages. Mass-produced toy theaters are usually sold as printed sheets, either in black and white to be colored as desired, or as full-color images of
9711-442: The format of toy theater. Toward the end of the 19th century, European popular drama had shifted its preference to the trend of realism , marking a dramaturgical swing toward psychological complexity, character motivation and settings using ordinary three-dimensional scenic elements. This trend in stage theater did not make an easy conversion to its toy counterpart, and with the fanciful dramas of fifty years prior being out of fashion,
9828-597: The gentle nature of Babel himself. Babel wrote: "Only by 1923 I have learned how to express my thoughts in a clear and not very lengthy way. Then I returned to writing." Several stories that were later included in Red Cavalry were published in Vladimir Mayakovsky 's LEF ("ЛЕФ") magazine in 1924. Babel's honest description of the brutal realities of war, far from revolutionary propaganda , earned him some powerful enemies. According to recent research, Marshal Budyonny
9945-412: The happy few, a group that included Soviet writers who enjoyed exceptional status and privileges in an otherwise impoverished and despotic country. In the late 1930s, he was given a villa in the writer's colony of Peredelkino , outside Moscow. No secret was ever made of his having a wife and daughter in Paris . At the same time, hardly anyone outside of Moscow knew of two other children he had fathered. As
10062-669: The influence of the American labor movement and King O'Malley . On top of that, some place names in South Australia such as Victor Harbor , Franklin Harbor or Outer Harbor are usually spelled with the -or spellings. Aside from that, -our is now almost universal in Australia but the -or endings remain a minority variant. New Zealand English , while sharing some words and syntax with Australian English , follows British usage. In British English, some words from French, Latin or Greek end with
10179-441: The life of Jewish gangsters, both before and after the October Revolution . Many of them directly feature the fictional mob boss Benya Krik , loosely based on the historical figure Mishka Yaponchik . Benya Krik is one of the great anti-heroes of Russian literature . These stories were used as the basis for the 1927 film Benya Krik , and the stage play Sunset , which centers on Benya Krik's self-appointed mission to right
10296-481: The man sitting beside Babel said to me, "We have no claims whatsoever against you." We drove to the Lubyanka Prison and through the gates. The car stopped before the massive, closed door where two sentries stood guard. Babel kissed me hard and said, "Someday we'll see each other..." And without looking back, he got out of the car and went through that door." According to Nadezhda Mandelstam , Babel's arrest became
10413-414: The nature of the suffix used. The u is kept before English suffixes that are freely attachable to English words (for example in humourless , neighbourhood , and savoury ) and suffixes of Greek or Latin origin that have been adopted into English (for example in behaviourism , favourite , and honourable ). However, before Latin suffixes that are not freely attachable to English words,
10530-462: The play's attitude toward the bourgeoisie was contradictory and weak. Sunset closed, and was dropped from the repertoire of the Moscow Art Theatre . However, Sunset continued to have admirers. In a 1928 letter to his White emigre father, Boris Pasternak wrote, "Yesterday, I read Sunset , a play by Babel, and almost for the first time in my life I found that Jewry, as an ethnic fact, was
10647-576: The play, particularly for failing to convey to the audience every single word of its unusually terse text." Babel's play Maria candidly depicts both political corruption , prosecution of the innocent, and black marketeering within Soviet society. Noting the play's implicit rejection of socialist realism , Maxim Gorky accused his friend of having a " Baudelairean predilection for rotting meat." Gorky further warned his friend that "political inferences" would be made "that will be personally harmful to you." According to Pirozhkova, "Once Babel went to
10764-447: The playhouses of Georgian and early- Victorian London to record the scenery, costumes and dramatic attitudes of the greatest successes of the day. The theatre management often provided these artists with a free seat, as the toy theatre sheets were excellent free advertising. Stage theater of the early 19th century had been based more on spectacle than on depth of plot or character, and these characteristics lent themselves effectively to
10881-433: The setting for Odessa Stories and the play Sunset . Although Babel's short stories present his family as "destitute and muddle-headed", they were relatively well-off. According to his autobiographical statements, Babel's father, Manus, was an impoverished shopkeeper. Babel's daughter, Nathalie Babel Brown, stated that her father fabricated this and other biographical details in order to "present an appropriate past for
10998-475: The simplified form palestra is described by Merriam-Webster as "chiefly Brit[ish]." This is a reverse of the typical rule, where British spelling uses the ae / oe and American spelling simply uses e . Words that can be spelled either way in British English include cham a eleon , encyclop a edia , hom o eopathy , medi a eval (a minor variant in both AmE and BrE ), f o etid and f o etus . The spellings f o etus and f o etal are Britishisms based on
11115-410: The sounds became monophthongs , and later applied to words not of Greek origin, in both Latin (for example, cœli ) and French (for example, œuvre ). In English, which has adopted words from all three languages, it is now usual to replace Æ/æ with Ae/ae and Œ/œ with Oe/oe . In many words, the digraph has been reduced to a lone e in all varieties of English: for example, o economics , pr
11232-672: The spelling "is often seen as such". The -ize form is known as Oxford spelling and is used in publications of the Oxford University Press, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary , and of other academic publishers such as Nature , the Biochemical Journal and The Times Literary Supplement . It can be identified using the IETF language tag en-GB-oxendict (or, historically, by en-GB-oed ). In Ireland, India, Australia, and New Zealand -ise spellings strongly prevail:
11349-608: The spellings with just e are increasingly used. Manoeuvre is the only spelling in Australia, and the most common one in Canada, where maneuver and manoeuver are also sometimes found. The -ize spelling is often incorrectly seen in Britain as an Americanism. It has been in use since the 15th century, predating the -ise spelling by over a century. The verb-forming suffix -ize comes directly from Ancient Greek -ίζειν ( -ízein ) or Late Latin -izāre , while -ise comes via French -iser . The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) recommends -ize and lists
11466-528: The starring role. But after its second wave boom, toy theater fell into a second recession, replaced in the 1950s, by a different box in people's sitting rooms that needed no live operator and whose sets, characters, stories and musical numbers were beamed in electronically from miles away to be projected on the glass of a cathode ray tube: television. Toy theater has been enjoying a revival in recent decades. Collectors and traditionalists perform restored versions of Victorian plays while experimental puppeteers push
11583-421: The subject of an urban legend within the NKVD . NKVD agents, she explains, were fond of "telling stories about the risks they ran" in arresting "enemies of the people". Babel had, according to NKVD lore, "seriously wounded one of our men" while " resisting arrest ". Mrs. Mandelstam contemptuously declared, "Whenever I hear such tales I think of the tiny hole in the skull of Isaac Babel, a cautious, clever man with
11700-655: The toy theaters that remained in print fell into obsolescence. Despite its fall in popularity, toy theater remained in the realm of influential artists who championed its resurgence. In 1884 British author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote an essay in tribute of toy theater's tiny grandeur entitled "Penny Plain, Twopence Coloured" in which he extolled the virtues of the dramas supplied by Pollock's . Other children's authors like Lewis Carroll and Hans Christian Andersen also dabbled in toy theater, as did Oscar Wilde . The brothers Jack and William Butler Yeats both used toy theaters as mock-ups for their work in art and stagecraft. In
11817-600: The various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography , the two most notable variations being British and American spelling. Many of the differences between American and British or Commonwealth English date back to a time before spelling standards were developed. For instance, some spellings seen as "American" today were once commonly used in Britain, and some spellings seen as "British" were once commonly used in
11934-412: The vowel is unreduced in pronunciation (e.g., devour , contour , flour , hour , paramour , tour , troubadour , and velour ), the spelling is uniform everywhere. Most words of this kind came from Latin, where the ending was spelled ‑or . They were first adopted into English from early Old French , and the ending was spelled ‑our , ‑or or ‑ur . After the Norman conquest of England ,
12051-624: The word fiord (instead of fjord ) . There is an increasing use of macrons in words that originated in Māori and an unambiguous preference for -ise endings (see below). Most words ending in an unstressed ‑our in British English (e.g., behaviour , colour , favour , flavour , harbour , honour , humour , labour , neighbour , rumour , splendour ) end in ‑or in American English ( behavior , color , favor , flavor , harbor , honor , humor , labor , neighbor , rumor , splendor ). Wherever
12168-428: The word pallor . As a general noun, rigour / ˈ r ɪ ɡ ər / has a u in the UK; the medical term rigor (sometimes / ˈ r aɪ ɡ ər / ) does not, such as in rigor mortis , which is Latin. Derivations of rigour / rigor such as rigorous , however, are typically spelled without a u , even in the UK. Words with the ending -irior , -erior or similar are spelled thus everywhere. The word armour
12285-628: The wrongs of Moldavanka. First on his list is to rein in his alcoholic, womanizing father, Mendel. According to Nathalie Babel Brown, " Sunset premiered at the Baku Worker's Theatre on October 23, 1927, and played in Odessa , Kiev , and the celebrated Moscow Art Theatre . The reviews, however, were mixed. Some critics praised the play's 'powerful anti- bourgeois stance and its interesting 'fathers and sons' theme. But in Moscow , particularly, critics felt that
12402-588: Was arrested by the NKVD on 15 May 1939 on fabricated charges of terrorism and espionage, and executed on 27 January 1940. Isaac Babel was born in the Moldavanka section of Odessa in the Russian Empire , to Jewish parents, Manus and Feyga Babel. Soon after his birth, the Babel family moved to the port city of Nikolaev . They later returned to live in a more fashionable part of Odessa in 1906. Babel used Moldavanka as
12519-534: Was becoming "the master of a new literary genre, the genre of silence." American Max Eastman describes Babel's increasing reticence as an artist in a chapter called "The Silence of Isaac Babyel" in his 1934 book Artists in Uniform . However, according to Nathalie Babel Brown, his life was tolerable: "The young writer burst upon the literary scene and instantly became the rage in Moscow . The tradition in Russia being to worship poets and writers, Babel soon became one of
12636-443: Was changed to Mikhail Ivanov, and he later became a noted artist. After the final break with Tamara, Babel briefly attempted to reconcile with Yevgenia and they had their daughter Natalie in 1929. In 1932, Babel met a Siberian -born Gentile named Antonina Pirozhkova (1909–2010). In 1934, after Babel failed to convince his wife to return to Moscow, he and Antonina began living together. In 1939, their common law marriage produced
12753-527: Was denied access to his unpublished manuscripts. In October 1939, Babel was again summoned for interrogation and denied all his previous testimony. A statement was recorded, "I ask the inquiry to take into account that, though in prison, I committed a crime. I slandered several people." This led to further delays as the NKVD frantically attempted to salvage their cases against Mikhoels, Ehrenburg, and Eisenstein. On 16 January 1940, Lavrentiy Beria presented Stalin with
12870-608: Was forcibly closed on Lenin's orders in July 1918. Babel later recalled, "My journalistic work gave me a lot, especially in the sense of material. I managed to amass an incredible number of facts, which proved to be an invaluable creative tool. I struck up friendships with morgue attendants, criminal investigators, and government clerks. Later, when I began writing fiction, I found myself always returning to these 'subjects', which were so close to me, in order to put character types, situations, and everyday life into perspective. Journalistic work
12987-465: Was infuriated by Babel's unvarnished descriptions of marauding Red Cossacks and demanded Babel's execution without success. However, Gorky's influence not only protected Babel but also helped to guarantee publication. In 1929 Red Cavalry was translated into English by J. Harland and later was translated into a number of other languages. Argentine author and essayist Jorge Luis Borges once wrote of Red Cavalry , The music of its style contrasts with
13104-455: Was never returning. When I wrote to him about this, he wrote back saying, 'What can people, who do not know anything, possibly say to you, who knows everything?' Babel wrote from France almost daily. I accumulated many letters from him during his 11-month absence. When Babel was arrested in 1939, all of these letters were confiscated and never returned to me." After his return to the Soviet Union, Babel decided to move in with Pirozhkova, beginning
13221-428: Was once somewhat common in American usage but has disappeared except in some brand names such as Under Armour . The agent suffix -or ( separator , elevator , translator , animator , etc.) is spelled thus both in American and British English. Commonwealth countries normally follow British usage. Canadian English most commonly uses the -our ending and -our- in derivatives and inflected forms. However, owing to
13338-495: Was publicly denounced for low productivity. At the time, many other Soviet writers were terrified and frantically rewrote their past work to conform to Stalin's wishes. However, Babel was unimpressed and confided in his protégé, the writer Ilya Ehrenburg , "In six months time, they'll leave the formalists in peace and start some other campaign." At the first congress of the Union of Soviet Writers (1934), Babel noted ironically, that he
13455-929: Was published. Following this, -re became the most common usage in Britain. In the United States, following the publication of Webster's Dictionary in the early 19th century, American English became more standardized, exclusively using the -er spelling. In addition, spelling of some words have been changed from -re to -er in both varieties. These include September , October , November , December , amber, blister , cadaver , chamber , chapter , charter , cider , coffer , coriander , cover , cucumber , cylinder , diaper , disaster , enter , fever , filter , gender , leper , letter , lobster , master , member , meter (measuring instrument) , minister , monster , murder , number , offer , order , oyster , powder , proper , render , semester , sequester , sinister , sober , surrender , tender , and tiger . Words using
13572-546: Was suggesting and named many people as co-conspirators. In all likelihood, he was tortured, almost certainly beaten." His interrogators included Boris Rodos , who had a reputation as a particularly brutal torturer, even by the standards of the time, and Lev Schwartzmann , who tortured the renowned theatre director Vsevolod Meyerhold . Among those he accused of conspiring with him were his close friends Sergei Eisenstein , Solomon Mikhoels , and Ilya Ehrenburg . Despite months of pleading and letters sent directly to Beria, Babel
13689-437: Was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in the United States, but he did not originate them. Rather [...] he chose already existing options such as center, color and check for the simplicity, analogy or etymology". William Shakespeare 's first folios , for example, used spellings such as center and color as much as centre and colour . Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did
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